Resources, Conservation and Recycling 25 (1999) 195213

Physical properties of industrial wastes: laboratory

tests
M.C. Zanetti *, G. Genon
Dipartimento di Georisorse e Territorio, Politecnico di Torino, C.so Duca degli Abruzzi 24,
10129 Torino, Italy
Received 14 August 1998; accepted 24 August 1998

Abstract
This article describes some laboratory tests performed on each kind of sludge located in an
industrial wastes landfill. Measured physical properties are: field capacity, hydraulic permeability, saturation water content, effective porosity and particle-size distribution. The laboratory apparatus is described; the obtained results are analyzed to point out the possible
correlations among the examined parameters. The aim of this work is to provide a data bank
for industrial wastes landfills useful to perform some applications such as the evaluation of
the produced leachate quantity for landfills whose wastes are similar to the ones here
considered. 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Industrial wastes landfill; Field capacity; Permeability; Effective porosity; Saturation water content; Water budget; Leachate production

1. Introduction
The purpose of the work is to furnish a data bank of physical parameters
concerning industrial wastes since in literature there is a lack of data about this
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 11 5647696; fax: + 39 11 5647699.
0921-3449/99/$ - see front matter 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII S0921-3449(98)00048-2

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M.C. Zanetti, G. Genon / Resources, Conser6ation and Recycling 25 (1999) 195213

kind of refuse; these same data are instead widely documented for municipal solid
waste. The examined physical parameters are the following: particle-size distribution analysis (and the related average diameter and uniformity coefficient), permeability in saturation conditions, saturation water content, field capacity and
effective porosity. The knowledge of these physical characteristics would allow
some applications such as the evaluation of the total leachate quantity producible
from industrial wastes landfills, the solution of a model predicting the trend during
time of the leachate production.
The Barricalla landfill, situated in the North of Italy (Turin), is made of two cells
cultivated sequentially. The first one, which is the object of our investigation, was
started in July 1988 and filled up in January 1993 (Fig. 1). This cell is a slope
landfill whose total capacity is equal to 100000 m3. The bottom of the cell is
waterproofed by both two HDPE layers and a clay layer having an in situ
permeability less than or equal to 10 9 m/s. Two layers of draining materials are
located under the HDPE liners; the layers are equipped with monitoring systems in
order to single out leachate losses. Over the upper HDPE liner there is a draining
layer 0.25 m thick provided with nine almost horizontal pipes useful for the
leachate collection. The leachate is then carried to the surface by means of nine
tubes equipped with suction pumps and connected to a reinforced concrete tank.
The cell is made of three lots cultivated sequentially and hydraulically dependent
(Fig. 1). The cultivation was made starting from the first lot (July 1988February
1989) and the leachate collection was realized by means of the first three draining
pipes. As a result both waters leaching through wastes and waters running on the
surface of the landfill were collected by the draining system. Particularly the third
pipe collects most of the runoff from the sloped fill. In the same way the second lot
was cultivated starting from March 1989 till August 1990 and the total produced
leachate (leaching waters and runoff waters) was gathered by the first six draining
pipes. The last lot was ended in January 1993 and the leachate was collected by the
whole draining system (nine pipes). Particularly, the last three pipes gather most of
the waters running on the surface of the cell in addition to the waters leaching
through wastes.
The total quantity of industrial wastes placed in the landfill is equal to 1.6 108 kg
of which about 70% is made of sludges (maximum water content 70% b.w.) and the
remaining 30% are dusty wastes: absestos, dusts and ashes closed in

Fig. 1. The three lots of the Barricalla landfill.

M.C. Zanetti, G. Genon / Resources, Conser6ation and Recycling 25 (1999) 195213

197

Fig. 2. Cultivation scheme of the Barricalla landfill.

polyethylene bags with a capacity equal to 1 m3. The cultivation scheme is reported
in Fig. 2. Sludges were compacted and arranged in landfill layer by layer as far as
an average density of about 1.6 103 kg/m3 was reached; special mechanical means
were used for this aim. No cover soil was employed. The surface of the cell was
impermeabilized by both a HDPE layer and a clay layer in July 1993.
Industrial wastes of the Barricalla landfill can be divided in six categories:
1. paint sludges; they are yellow with aggregates;.
2. combustion ashes of municipal solid wastes; they are grey with particles;
3. electronic industry sludges; they are blue with aggregates;
4. biological, chemical, physical purging sludges; they are black with large
particles;
5. pharmaceutical industry sludges; they are brown with small aggregates;
6. metal ashes and powders; they are grey with particles.
Dusty wastes were not considered because as they are closed in bags therefore
their chemical and physical characteristics are not noticeable for any possible
application (the underlying hypothesis is that the bags of the cultivated cell are
intact). Each category of waste was characterized by chemical and physical parameters. The chemical parameters were provided by wastes suppliers; they are reported
in Tables 1 and 2.

2. Methodologies
The examined physical properties of industrial wastes are the following: particlesize distribution and the related mean diameter and uniformity coefficient, permeability in saturation conditions, saturation water content, field capacity and
effective porosity. Each kind of sludge was sampled gathering about 20 kg of the
considered waste. Then the sample was mixed and divided to obtain the quantity
required to perform laboratory tests. The adopted laboratory technologies are
described in the following paragraphs.


240
5400

1669

8.010.0
9.811.8
5.010.6
9.010.0
9.111.5
11.413.0

Paint sludges
Combustion ashes of municipal
solid waste
Electronic industry sludges
Biological, chemical, physical
purging sludges
Pharmaceutical industry sludges
Metal ashes and powders

Cr (mg/kg)

pH

Kind of waste

Table 1
Chemical characteristics of industrial sludges

131 542

26 107
30 840

Al (mg/kg)

229 075

B1
15
B0.5
141

21 946
9540

Fe (mg/kg)

186
186

Cd (mg/kg)

15 947

40 604
278

Mn (mg/kg)

B0.5
B0.5

2.3
7

Hg (mg/kg)

187

B1

591
130

Ni (mg/kg)

198
M.C. Zanetti, G. Genon / Resources, Conser6ation and Recycling 25 (1999) 195213

Paint sludges
Combustion ashes
of municipal
solid waste
Electronic industry
sludges
Biological, chemical, physical
purging sludges
Pharmaceutical industry sludges
Metal ashes and
powders

Kind of waste

1200

2800

55 639

3407

8.2

9150

22 580

B0.5

3510
780

Cu (mg/kg)

4387
5840

Pb (mg/kg)

Table 2
Chemical characteristics of industrial sludges

28 678

25

7993
5870

Zn (mg/kg)

B1

B1

150

B1

B0.5

8
B1

Cianides (mg/kg) Fluorides (mg/

kg)

B1

12.5

26

B1

22
B1

Phenols (mg/
kg)

B1

31

3820

B1

17 126
B1

Aromatic solvents (mg/kg)

148

350

760

4480

370
78

COD (mg/l)

M.C. Zanetti, G. Genon / Resources, Conser6ation and Recycling 25 (1999) 195213

199

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M.C. Zanetti, G. Genon / Resources, Conser6ation and Recycling 25 (1999) 195213

2.1. Particle-size distribution analysis

This analysis was performed because the particle-size distribution is strictly
related to the hydraulic and mechanical properties of wastes. Some diagrams exist
in the geo-hydrological literature for rocks and soils (i.e. the Eckis diagram) [1];
these diagrams correlate particle-size features to the different kinds of porosity:
total porosity, effective porosity and storage porosity. Another reason to perform
this kind of analysis is that mechanical characteristics of wastes in cultivation, such
as the maximum available slope, are strictly dependent from the particle-size
distribution.
Each kind of industrial waste was sampled and the obtained samples were at first
dried in an oven at a temperature equal to 105C and then put into a mechanically
shaken column of sieves: limits of particle-size classes were adopted in a geometric
progression. The cumulative distribution curves concerning each kind of industrial
waste are reported in Fig. 3. The obtained values of d50 and uniformity coefficient
are related in Table 3.

2.2. Determination of the permeability in saturation conditions and analysis of the

saturation water content
The permeability determination was done to single out the waste tendency to be
crossed by leaching waters as this analysis provides the effective leaching velocity in
saturated conditions. This physical property of each kind of waste depends on the
in situ density value. On the grounds of collected data the average density value of
industrial wastes in the Barricalla landfill is equal to 1.6 103 kg/m3. This density
value had to be achieved before performing laboratory tests. The determination of
the saturation water content allows to single out the maximum quantity of water
available in each kind of waste.

2.2.1. Laboratory apparatus and operati6e modalities

The permeability is measured employing a variable head permeameter represented in Fig. 4. The permeameter, plexiglass made, is mainly constituted by a
cylinder of internal diameter equal to 10 1 m provided with a spillway that assures
a constant hydrostatic seal and a threaded cap. The variable head is realized by
means of a high pipe filled by water linked to the cylinder through a flexible tube
supplied with a tap. Inside the cylinder and near the bottom there is a wire gauze,
placed on a metallic stand, which supports the sludge. The permeability test is
executed after the following operations:
the bottom of the permeameter (zone lying below the gauze) is filled by water;
a layer of draining material (about 3 10 2 m), saturated by water, is placed
on the wire gauze;
the examined sludge is progressively introduced in the permeameter layer by
layer; each layer is about 3 10 2 m thick; after the introduction of each layer
the sludge is compacted by means of a mechanical press (Comazzi) and a
piston of the same size as the internal diameter of the cylinder. As a result the

M.C. Zanetti, G. Genon / Resources, Conser6ation and Recycling 25 (1999) 195213

201

required density or a close value should be reached; the required density is

evaluated on the basis of sludge physical properties (the actually attained density
values, r, are reported in Table 4). The total resulting thickness is about 10 1 m;

Fig. 3. Cumulative distribution curves and the mean diameter of each kind of industrial waste.

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M.C. Zanetti, G. Genon / Resources, Conser6ation and Recycling 25 (1999) 195213

Table 3
Particle-size characteristics of industrial sludges
Kind of waste

d50 (mm)

Uniformity coefficient

Paint sludges
Combustion ashes of municipal solid waste
Electronic industry sludges
Biological, chemical, physical purging sludges
Pharmaceutical industry sludges
Metal ashes and powders

4.9
2.0
6.2
7.1
5.6
0.5

11.765
32.000
7.938
33.333
15.876
0.842

a layer of draining material (about 3 10 2 m thick) is placed on the top of the

sludge column and different quantities of distilled water are added in the
permeameter as far as the saturation condition of the waste is reached;
the plexiglass pipe is filled with water till a fixed level (h0) the tap being turned
off.
Then the permeability test is performed turning on the tap of the flexible tube
and measuring the time Dt employed by the water of the pipe to reach the final level
h, that is the spillway level. The hydraulic permeability of each sludge (Ks) was
valued employing the following formula (Eq. (1)):
Ks =



d2 L
h
ln 0
h
D 2 Dt

(1)

where d is the internal diameter of the pipe, D is the internal diameter of the
cylinder and L is the sludge thickness.
The analysis of the saturation water content of each kind of sludge (hs) was
performed at the end of the permeability test by sampling the waste in the
permeameter by means of a piston corer. The deriving core, characterized by a well
known volume, was then weighted and dried in an oven at a temperature equal to
105C. The obtained results are the permeability and the water content by weight
and by volume; they are reported in Table 4.

2.3. Field capacity and effecti6e porosity determination

The field capacity (hc) is the maximum amount of moisture which can be held by
the waste in spite of the pull of gravity. Moisture stored in this way does not appear
as leachate [2]. Also this property depends on the in situ density value of industrial
wastes (1.6 103 kg/m3) therefore this condition had to be attained before performing laboratory tests.
The effective porosity (heff) is the amount of moisture which can be drained from
the waste because of the pull of gravity. This parameter can be valued for each kind
of sludge by the mathematical difference between the saturation water content
(Section 2.2.1) and the field capacity.

42.9
28.9

69.2
30.4

61.0
7.8

1420
1550

1600
1670

w (% b.w.)

1600
1600

(Quantity) r (kg/m3)
(103 kg)

Paint sludges
8723
Combustion ashes of
5669
municipal solid
waste
Electronic
8589
industry sludges
Biological, chemical, 67 866
physical purging
sludges
4933
Pharmaceutical
industry sludges
Metal ashes and
21 523
powders

Kind of waste

Table 4
Physical characteristics of industrial sludges
hs(w.) (% b.w.)

27.4
42.9

60.3
34.4

38.7
20.2

Ks (m/s)

757.117 108
19.071 108

0.378 108
1.003 108

5.079 108
2195.447 108

35.0

61.9

49.9

85.9

44.4
70.5

hs (% b.v.)

14.7

37.3

26.9

44.7

11.1
25.1

hc(w.) (% b.w.)

26.6

43.8

39.7

35.3

11.43
38.1

hc (% b.v.)

8.4

18.1

10.2

50.6

32.97
32.4

heff (% b.v)

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203

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M.C. Zanetti, G. Genon / Resources, Conser6ation and Recycling 25 (1999) 195213

2.3.1. Laboratory tests apparatus and operati6e modalities

The field capacity was determined employing six leaching columns made of
plexiglass [3]. Each column (Fig. 5) is constituted by an open cylinder of internal
diameter equal to 1.5 10 1 m which is equipped with an extractable bottom
provided with a metallic tap. The extractable bottom is connected to the main
column by means of a rubber hydraulic packing. Inside the cylinder and near the
bottom there is a wire gauze, placed on a steel stand, whose function is to support
the sludge.
The column assembled with the extractable bottom is filled with water to reach
the level of the gauze, then a draining layer and sludges are added with the same

Fig. 4. Variable load permeameter.

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205

Fig. 5. Leaching column.

modalities of the permeability test. A layer of draining material (about 3 10 2 m

thick) is placed on the top of the sludge column and some distilled water is added
as far as the saturation condition of waste is attained. Afterwards the water present
in the bottom of the column is eliminated by means of the extractable bottom in
order to expedite the test. When the experiment starts a wet cloth is placed on the
top of the leaching column to inhibit evaporation phenomena. During the test the
tap is turned on and the produced leachate is collected in a graduated tube. The
leachate represents the water amount which can be drained from waste by means of
the pull of gravity. At the end of the experiment the leachate production stops and
the field capacity condition is obtained.

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M.C. Zanetti, G. Genon / Resources, Conser6ation and Recycling 25 (1999) 195213

The analysis of the water content in field capacity conditions was performed
extracting a core from the sludge situated in the column and drying it in an oven
at a temperature equal to 105C. The obtained results are reported in Table 4.

3. Results
The physical properties of the industrial wastes located in the Barricalla landfill
are reported in Table 4. Since the considered refuses are physically homogeneous,
the laboratory tests can be judged reliable even if they were obtained from reduced
samples of waste. This consideration is not valid for paint sludges. In fact this kind
of waste is made of both paint sludges and paint dregs and the relative percentages
vary with time determining different physical properties of waste.
The performed laboratory tests were aimed to reproduce physical conditions
happening in landfills: water leaching through wastes. Nevertheless the apparatus
here employed cannot simulate faithfully the real situation because of the small
scale of the model that determines a different distribution of physical phenomena
such as the existence of leaching channels.
The density value here employed for each kind of waste (Table 4) depends on
both the waste type and the cultivation operative modalities of the cell. However
results coming from different studies [2], indicate that, varying the refuse density,
the field capacity is about constant if it is expressed as the moisture content by
weight, but if the same results are expressed as the moisture content by volume then
the field capacity values changed remarkably (higher density values correspond to
higher field capacities). These observations, performed on municipal solid wastes,
still need to be confirmed for industrial wastes.
The obtained permeability values are low in most cases (paint sludges, combustion ashes of municipal solid waste, electronic industry sludges, biological chemical
physical purging sludges) and they are of the same order as the permeability of thin
sands, silts, clays mixed with sands and silts. Therefore these laboratory tests, even
if reproducible, require long times to be performed. On the contrary metal ashes
and powders have a good permeability value similarly to the permeability value of
sands and gravels with sands.
Nevertheless the obtained average diameters of wastes are larger than those ones
of natural soils having the same permeability values [1], metal ashes and powders
excepted. This result can be explained by means of the high values of the uniformity
coefficients (Table 3) that correspond to a wide range of the particle-size distribution. In fact industrial sludges because of their chemico-physical characteristics are
often agglomerated with a resulting increase of the average diameter.
In Fig. 6 some measured parameters (field capacity, saturation water content and
effective porosity) of industrial sludges were reported together with the same values
of natural soils. The saturation water contents of industrial sludges are higher than
those ones of natural soil (metal ashes and powders excepted) because of the strong
sorption capacity of industrial wastes due to their chemico-physical characteristics.
The effective porosity is highly variable (540%) and has an increasing trend

M.C. Zanetti, G. Genon / Resources, Conser6ation and Recycling 25 (1999) 195213

207

according to the permeability values (metal ashes and powders excepted). The
measured field capacity values, expressed as percentages by volume (hc), result to be
included in the range of 30 40% b.v. for all kinds of wastes but paint sludges.

4. Total leachate production: employment of measured values

On the basis of the obtained physical parameters reported in Table 4, it is
possible to perform some applications such as the total leachate quantity producible
from the Barricalla landfill (or an industrial landfill filled with wastes having the
same properties of those ones of Table 4) after the end of the cell cultivation.
The leachate production in landfilling is one of the most noticeable problems
which concern industrial wastes landfills. In fact industrial wastes generally produce
leachates with a high pollutant content [4], due to their composition; therefore the
adoption of a wastewater treatment plant is necessary. On the basis of these
considerations a careful prediction of the leachate quantity can be useful for a
correct landfill management and it is very useful because of the high costs involved
in leachate treatment.
The principal factors affecting the leachate production are connected to the water
budget of the site. The leachate production during the cultivation of the cell
depends on several operational parameters that are difficult to quantify: as a result
existing models seldom provide satisfactory results [5].
The Barricalla landfill was started in July 1988 and entirely waterproofed by July
1993 (Section 1). The leachate quantity still producible after that date can be valued
executing a water budget of the site. The main parameters affecting this budget are:
Precipitations (P): this term indicates total precipitations entering the surface
of the landfill starting from July 1988 till July 1993;
Leachate (Q): this term indicates the total leachate production of the cell
starting from July 1988 till July 1993; because of the configuration of the
leachate collection system, the runoff waters of the sloped fill were included in
the calculation of the leachate quantity (Section 1);

Fig. 6. Results of laboratory tests.

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M.C. Zanetti, G. Genon / Resources, Conser6ation and Recycling 25 (1999) 195213

Fig. 7. Average monthly temperature values and average monthly solar radiation values of the town of
Turin.

Initial water content of wastes (Wi);

Evaporation, Transpiration (ET); these terms indicate water quantities evaporated and transpired from the surface of the landfill starting from July 1988 till
July 1993;
Field capacity of wastes (Wci): this is the maximum amount of moisture which
can be held by the waste against the pull of gravity.
On these basis it is possible to write the following water budget of the landfill
(Eqs. (2a), (2b) and (2c)):
n

Qr =Qin Qout % Wci

(2a)

i=1
n

Qin =P + % Wi
i=1

(2b)

M.C. Zanetti, G. Genon / Resources, Conser6ation and Recycling 25 (1999) 195213

209

Fig. 8. Monthly quantities of evapo-transpired water, precipitations and leachate.

Qout =ET +Q

(2c)

where Qin is the total water quantity that came into the cell starting from July 1988
till July 1993; after this date, because of the end of waste disposal and the existence
of the superficial waterproofing, it is possible to hypothesize that there is no water
flow into the landfill. Qout is the total water quantity that came out of the landfill
in the same period of time. After July 1993 there is no more evapo-transpiration
because of the superficial waterproofed layer. Therefore Qr is the residual amount
of water still able to leach starting from August 1993. P, Q, Wi are data gathered

Fig. 9. Monthly leachate values occurring after the total waterproofing of the cell.

210

M.C. Zanetti, G. Genon / Resources, Conser6ation and Recycling 25 (1999) 195213

thanks to the Barricalla staff and ET was valued employing one of the existing
formula. The field capacity of wastes (Wci) was valued by means of laboratory
experiments (Table 4, Section 2.3).

4.1. E6apo-transpiration calculation

The water quantities evaporated and transpired from the cell starting from July
1988 till July 1993 were calculated employing the Turc formula, [6] (Eq. (3)):

'

p +a

(3)
p +a
1+
Le
where et is the water quantity evaporated and transpired in 10 days, p is the rain
fallen in the same period of time, a is a coefficient keeping into account the
evapo-transpiration occurring without any rain and Le the helium-thermic factor.
Daily precipitations values were kindly provided by the Barricalla staff.
The a coefficient varies in the following range:
et =

1 5a 5 10
where a =1 is the minimum evaporation value and a= 10 is the maximum
evaporation value.
The influence of the a parameter on the global quantity of evaporated and
transpired water was evaluated by a sensitivity analysis. The results showed that a
variation of the a value has a not significant influence on the results, [7]. However
the a =1 hypothesis was assumed conservatively (maximum producible leachate
quantity Qr (Section 4.1, Eq. (2c) and Eq. (2a))).
The helium-thermic factor was calculated employing the following formula (Eq.
(4)):
Le =

1
(T + 2
Ig)
16

(4)

where T is the average monthly temperature and Ig the average monthly solar
radiation [8,9] (Fig. 7). Monthly quantities of evapo-transpired water calculated
according to the aforementioned hypotheses, are reported in Fig. 8 together with
monthly precipitations and leachate.

5. Conclusions
On the basis of the collected data (Section 2, Table 4 and Fig. 8), concerning the
water budget of the cell (Eq. (2a)), the water quantity still producible from the
Barricalla landfill starting from August 1993, Qr, results equal to 5488 m3 (as
P= 42632 m3, Q =26238 m3, ni= 1 = 37195 m3, ET= 21846 m3 and ni= 1 = 26255
m3).

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211

The leachate production data of the cell, collected after the total waterproofing
(July 1993) not considering any water infiltration, are reported in Fig. 9. On the
grounds of the registered trend it is possible to hypothesize that the leachate
production will last at least 8 years after the end of the cell cultivation in order
to reach a total leachate production equal to about 5488 m3.

Acknowledgements
Authors thank the staff of the Barricalla landfill for the kind cooperation in
furnishing data and sludges useful to perform laboratory tests.

Appendix A
B, empirical constant;
D, internal diameter of the permeameter cylinder (m);
D(u), diffusivity coefficient (m2/s);
ET, water quantities evaporated and transpired from the surface of the landfill
starting from July 1988 till July 1993 (m3);
Ig, average monthly solar radiation (cal/day/cm2);
Ks, hydraulic permeability in saturation conditions (m/s);
K(u), hydraulic permeability (m/s);
L, sludge thickness (m);
Le, helium thermic factor (mm);
P, total precipitations interesting the surface of the landfill starting from July
1988 till July 1993 (m3);
Q, total leachate production of the cell starting from July 1988 till July 1993
(m3);
Qin, total water quantity come into the cell starting from July 1988 till July 1993
(m3);
Qout, total water quantity come out of the cell starting from July 1988 till July
1993 (m3);

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M.C. Zanetti, G. Genon / Resources, Conser6ation and Recycling 25 (1999) 195213

Qin, total water quantity come into the cell starting from July 1988 till July 1993
(m3);
Qout, total water quantity come out of the cell starting from July 1988 till July 1993
(m3);
Qr, amount of water still able to leach from the cell starting from August 1993 (m3);
Qs, source or sink term (s 1);
T, average monthly temperature (C);
W, initial water content of wastes (m3);
Wc, field capacity of wastes (m3);
a, evapo-transpiration occurring without any rain (mm);
d, internal diameter of the pipe (m);
et, water quantities evaporated and transpired during 10 days (mm);
h, final level of water in the pipe (m);
h0, starting level of water in the pipe (m);
p, rain fallen during 10 days (mm);
t, time coordinate (s);
w, initial water content of wastes (% by weight);
z, space coordinate (m);
Dt, time employed by the water in the pipe to reach the h level starting from the h0
level (s);
hc, field capacity (% by volume);
hc(w.), field capacity (% by weight);
heff, effective porosity (% by volume);
hs, saturation water content (% by volume);
hs(w.), saturation water content (% by weight);

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213

u, volumetric moisture content (m3/m3);

us, saturation moisture content (m3/m3);
r, density (kg/m3).
Subscripts
i, positive integer indice.

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