Introduction

Established in 1962, as Cement Research Institute of India and redesignated as National Council
for Cement and Building Materials in April 1985, NCB is an apex body dedicated to continuous
research, technology development and transfer, education and industrial services for the cement
and building material industries. The entire range of services of NCB is delivered by eight
Corporate Centers through its units in Ballabhgarh and Hyderabad. The main laboratories of the
Council are located at Ballabhgarh, about 35 kms south of New Delhi.
National Council for Cement and Building Materials (NCB) is the largest Industrial Support
Organization of its kind in India, with units in the various regions of the country and in the field
of Cement, Building Materials and Allied Areas and covers:

Research
Technology Development and Transfer
Education
Industrial Services

NCB has an over 300 strong team of highly qualified and experienced engineers, scientists and
other professionals.
Manpower Training and continued efforts to upgrade knowledge base is always given highest
priority in NCB.
NCBs Services at a glance:

Turnkey Consultancy for Greenfield

Projects
Basic and Detailed Engineering
Plant Construction Supervision
Geological Exploration
Computer Aided Deposit Evaluation
Mine Planning
EIA & EMP. ISO-14000/EMS
Raw Materials Investigation
Limestone Consumption Factor
Raw Mix Design
Establishing Causes of Coating and
Build-up
Product Development
Refractory Engineering and
Management
Wastes Utilisation
Industry Oriented Training

Productivity Enhancement
Energy Conservation
Kiln Shell Ovality Studies
Kiln Alignment
Environmental Management Plan
Maintenance Management
Securing Project Funds
TQM and Quality Systems
(ISO 9000)
Supply of SRMs
Testing Services
Calibration Services
Laboratory Certification
Training in Plant Operation
Concrete Mix Design
Diagnostic Studies for Distressed
Structures
Structural Design, Detailing &

Simulator based Training

Industrial Information Services
Organising Seminars & Workshops

Evaluation
Architectural Planning

What is cement?
In the most general sense of the word, a cement is a binder, a substance which sets and
hardens independently, and can bind other materials together. The word "cement" traces to
the Romans, who used the term "opus caementicium" to describe masonry which resembled
concrete and was made from crushed rock with burnt lime as binder. The volcanic ash and
pulverized brick additives which were added to the burnt lime to obtain a hydraulic binder
were later referred to as cementum, cimentum, cment and cement.
Cement used in construction is characterized as hydraulic or non-hydraulic. Hydraulic
cements (e.g. Portland cement) harden because of chemical reactions that occur
independently of the admixture's water content; they can harden even underwater or when
constantly exposed to wet weather. The chemical reaction that results when the dry cement
powder is mixed with water produces hydrates that are not water-soluble. Non-hydraulic
cements (e.g. lime and gypsum plaster) must be kept dry in order to gain strength.
The most important use of cement is the production of mortar and concretethe bonding of
natural or artificial aggregates to form a strong building material which is durable in the face
of normal environmental effects.
Concrete should not be confused with cement because the term cement refers only to the dry
powder substance used to bind the aggregate materials of concrete. Upon the addition of
water and/or additives the cement mixture is referred to as concrete, especially if aggregates
have been added.

Cement industry
In 2002 the world production of hydraulic cement was 1,800 million metric tons. The top three
producers were China with 704, India with 100, and the United States with 91 million metric
tons for a combined total of about half the world total by the world's three most populous
states.[21]

Varieties of Cement in India

There are some varieties in cement that always find good demand in the market. To know their
characteristics and in which area they are most required, it will be better to take a look at some of
the details given below.

Portland Blast Furnace slag cement (PBFSC): The rate of hydration heat is found
lower in this cement type in comparison to PPC. It is most useful in massive construction
projects, for example - dams.
Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement: This cement is beneficial in the areas where
concrete has an exposure to seacoast or sea water or soil or ground water. Under any such
instances, the concrete is vulnerable to sulphates attack in large amounts and can cause
damage to the structure. Hence, by using this cement one can reduce the impact of
damage to the structure. This cement has high demand in India.
Rapid Hardening Portland Cement: The texture of this cement type is quite similar to
that of OPC. But, it is bit more fine than OPC and possesses immense compressible
strength, which makes casting work easy.
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC): Also referred to as grey cement or OPC, it is of
much use in ordinary concrete construction. In the production of this type of cement in
India, Iron (Fe2O3), Magnesium (MgO), Silica (SiO2), Alumina (AL2O3), and Sulphur
trioxide (SO3) components are used.
Portland Pozolona Cement (PPC): As it prevents cracks, it is useful in the casting work
of huge volumes of concrete. The rate of hydration heat is lower in this cement type. Fly
ash, coal waste or burnt clay is used in the production of this category of cement. It can
be availed at low cost in comparison to OPC.

Oil Well Cement: Made of iron, coke, limestone and iron scrap, Oil Well Cement is used
in constructing or fixing oil wells. This is applied on both the off-shore and on-shore of
the wells.
Clinker Cement: Produced at the temperature of about 1400 to1450 degree Celsius,
clinker cement is needed in the construction work of complexes, houses and bridges. The
ingredients for this cement comprise iron, quartz, clay, limestone and bauxite.
White cement: It is a kind of Ordinary Portland Cement. The ingredients of this cement
are inclusive of clinker, fuel oil and iron oxide. The content of iron oxide is maintained
below 0.4% to secure whiteness. White cement is largely used to increase the aesthetic
value of a construction. It is preferred for tiles and flooring works. This cement costs
more than grey cement.

Apart from these, some of the other types of cement that are available in India can be classified
as:

Low heat cement

High early strength cement
Hydrophobic cement
High aluminium cement
masonry cement

The setting of cement

Cement sets when mixed with water by way of a complex series of chemical reactions still only
partly understood. The different constituents slowly crystallise and the interlocking of their
crystals gives to cement its strength. Carbon dioxide is slowly absorbed to convert the portlandite
(Ca(OH)2) into insoluble calcium carbonate. After the initial setting, immersion in warm water
will speed up setting. In Portland cement, gypsum is added as a compound preventing cement
flash setting.

Environmental impacts
Cement manufacture causes environmental impacts at all stages of the process. These include
emissions of airborne pollution in the form of dust, gases, noise and vibration when operating
machinery and during blasting in quarries, and damage to countryside from quarrying.
Equipment to reduce dust emissions during quarrying and manufacture of cement is widely used,
and equipment to trap and separate exhaust gases are coming into increased use. Environmental
protection also includes the re-integration of quarries into the countryside after they have been
closed down by returning them to nature or re-cultivating them.

CO2 emissions

Cement manufacturing releases CO2 in the atmosphere both directly when calcium carbonate is
heated, producing lime and carbon dioxide,[14] and also indirectly through the use of energy,
particularly if the energy is sourced from fossil fuels. The cement industry produces about 5% of
global man-made CO2 emissions, of which 50% is from the chemical process, and 40% from
burning fuel.[15] The amount of CO2 emitted by the cement industry is nearly 900 kg of CO2 for
every 1000 kg of cement produced. [16]
In certain applications, lime mortar, reabsorbs the CO2 chemically released in its manufacture,
and has a lower energy requirement in production. Newly developed cement types from
Novacem[17] and Eco-cement can absorb carbon dioxide from ambient air during hardening.[18]

Heavy metal emissions in the air

In some circumstances, mainly depending on the origin and the composition of the raw materials
used, the high-temperature calcination process of limestone and clay minerals can release in the
atmosphere gases and dust rich in volatile heavy metals, a.o, thallium,[19] cadmium and mercury
are the most toxic. Heavy metals (Tl, Cd, Hg, ...) are often found as trace elements in common
metal sulfides (pyrite (FeS2), zinc blende (ZnS), galena (PbS), ...) present as secondary minerals
in most of the raw materials. Environmental regulations exist in many countries to limit these
emissions.

Heavy metals present in the clinker

The presence of heavy metals in the clinker arises both from the natural raw materials and from
the use of recycled by-products or alternative fuels. The high pH prevailing in the cement
porewater (12.5 < pH < 13.5) limits the mobility of many heavy metals by decreasing their
solubility and increasing their sorption onto the cement mineral phases. Nickel, zinc and lead are
commonly found in cement in non-negligible concentrations.

Use of alternative fuels and by-products materials

A cement plant consumes 3 to 6 GJ of fuel per tonne of clinker produced, depending on the raw
materials and the process used. Most cement kilns today use coal and petroleum coke as primary
fuels, and to a lesser extent natural gas and fuel oil. Selected waste and by-products with
recoverable calorific value can be used as fuels in a cement kiln, replacing a portion of
conventional fossil fuels, like coal, if they meet strict specifications. Selected waste and byproducts containing useful minerals such as calcium, silica, alumina, and iron can be used as raw
materials in the kiln, replacing raw materials such as clay, shale, and limestone. Because some
materials have both useful mineral content and recoverable calorific value, the distinction
between alternative fuels and raw materials is not always clear. For example, sewage sludge has
a low but significant calorific value, and burns to give ash containing minerals useful in the
clinker matrix.[20]

Different Types of Processes

Raw materials which already possess correct composition in their natural state are found in very
few places. Hence in the vast majority of cases, cement is made from an artificially proportioned
mixture of raw materials.
The manufacturing process over the years of development may be classified under the following
categories:
- Wet process
- Semi-wet / semi-dry process
- dry process

a) Wet Process
In the wet process raw mix is fed into the kiln in the form of slurry which may have water
content of 30 to 40%. The slurry which is easy to blend and homogenise is directly fed into the
kiln which in the case of wet process is a relatively long tube. The wet process becomes
indispensable in those cases where the naturally occurring raw materials have high moisture
content of more than 12% like chalk and marl. This is also essential where relatively poor grade
limestone have to be enriched through the process of beneficiation requiring use of water as a
process media. In fact, in the earlier times i.e. before 1950 most of the kilns were wet process
kilns due to the fact that in the form of slurry it is easy to blend and homogenise the various
components of the raw mix. In this process the fuel consumption is the highest (in the region of
1300 to 1600 K.cal/Kg of clinker) the power consumption is lower at 110-115 Kwh/tonne of
cement.

b) Semi-wet/Semi-dry Process

This process was evolved to counter the main drawback of the wet process which is high fuel
consumption. In this process powdered raw meal is either converted into nodules by adding
controlled quantity of water in a nodulising pan or by dewatering slurry in a filter press to form
filter cake of the raw material. These nodules or the cake thus formed are fed on to a moving
grate where the raw meal gets partially calcined. This partially calcined raw mix in the form of
nodules/cake is further charged into a rotary kiln for complete calcining and sintering in the form
of clinker. However, this process poses a number of operational problems and capacity problems.
The fuel consumption however, improves reasonably to about 900-1100 K.cal/Kg of clinker but
the power consumption increases to 115-120 Kwh/tonne of cement.
c) Dry Process
In the dry process, the raw materials are dried in a combined drying and grinding plant to reduce
the moisture content below 1%. The drying of materials is achieved by using kiln exhaust gases
which may be supplemented by auxiliary hot furnaces during rainy season. The ground raw mix
is homogenised in large silos. In fact, development of suitable homogenising and blending
systems are mainly responsible for making the dry process popular and practicable. The blended
and homogenised raw is fed into either a long dry kiln or a short kiln with air suspension
preheater in which partial calcination of the raw mix takes place. In fact, long dry kilns have now
practically gone out of use and the dry process is mainly confined to the use of air suspension
preheater. This process gives the maximum benefit as far as the heat consumption figures are
concerned. As a further refinement and development of the dry process, the air suspension
preheaters are now being fitted with Precalcinators which ensure complete calcining of the raw
mix before it enters the kiln. Fuel consumption is lowest in this process and is in the range of
750-950 Kcal/Kg of clinker. The power consumption is in the range of 120-125 Kwh/tonne of
cement. A flow process sheet of all the cement production processes including Pre-calcinator
system is indicated in Fig.

CEMENT PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

CT & PT

Current Transformers
A current transformer (CT) is a type of instrument transformer designed to provide a current in
its secondary winding proportional to the alternating current flowing in its primary. They are
commonly used in metering and protective relaying in the electrical power industry where they
facilitate the safe measurement of large currents, often in the presence of high voltages. The
current transformer safely isolates measurement and control circuitry from the high voltages
typically present on the circuit being measured.
Current transformers are used extensively for measuring current and monitoring the operation of
the power grid. The CT is typically described by its current ratio from primary to secondary.
Often, multiple CTs are installed as a "stack" for various uses (for example, protection devices
and revenue metering may use separate CTs). Similarly potential transformers are used for
measuring voltage and monitoring the operation of the power grid.
The accuracy of a CT is directly related to a number of factors including:

Burden
Burden Class /Saturation Class
Rating factor
Load
External electromagnetic fields temperature and
Physical configuration.

Potential Transformers
Protective Current Transformers are designed to measure the actual currents in power systems
and to produce proportional currents in their secondary windings that are isolated from the main
power circuit. These replica currents are used as inputs to protective relays which will
automatically isolate part of a power circuit In the event of an abnormal or fault condition
therein, yet permit other parts of the plant to continue in operation.
Satisfactory operation of protective relays can depend on accurate representation of currents
ranging from small leakage currents to very high over currents, requiring the protective current
transformer to be linear, and therefore below magnetic saturation at values up to perhaps 30
times full load current. This wide operating range means that protective current transformers
require to be constructed with larger cross-sections resulting in heavier cores than equivalent
current transformers used for measuring duties only. For space and economy reasons, equipment
designers should however avoid over specifying protective current transformers ITL technical
staff are always prepared to assist in specifying protective CT's but require some or all of the
following information:

Protected equipment and type of protection.

Maximum fault level for stability.
Sensitivity required.
Type of relay and likely setting.
Pilot wire resistance, or length of run and pilot wire used.
Primary conductor diameter or bus bar dimensions System voltage level.

Battery Charger

Battery Chargers are used to charge rechargeable batteries time and again. These batteries are
available at various current levels. Designed and fabricated with precision, our battery chargers
provide a constant voltage and current to charge batteries.
Features :1. Accurate float charge to eliminate the possibility of batteries getting overcharged.
2. A Change over contactor of emergency lighting and an under voltage alarm is provided in
the charger unit.
3. Step less control for charging is being provided to ensure quick charging of batteries if
discharged during emergency.
4. Indication lamp LED type for mains on charging on float/trickle/boost with Voltmeter
and Ammeter provided to indicate charging voltage and current.
5. Degree of Protection :-IP-52 to IP-65.
6. Painting: - Powder Coating, Spray Paint, Epoxy Paint.
7. Compartmentalized design eliminates risk to maintenance personal.
8. Rubber mat provided for protection against acid spillage.
9. The sealed construction, incorporation of the filter float plug ensures that the atmosphere
is absolutely acid free.

Types :1. Float cum boost battery charger.

2. Float cum boost with Trickle battery charger.
3. Manually operated battery charger with multiple voltage & current.

Applications :
1. To charging a battery, specially dry cell unit and to ensure accurate voltage of an
electrical system.
2. Uninterrupted working of machines & equipments.

Junction Box

Features :1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Available in Floor Mounting & Wall Mounting.

Degree of Protection :-IP-52 to IP-65.
Painting: - Powder Coating / Spray Paint / Epoxy Paint.
Junction Box shall have hinged door with lockable arrangement
Available with Aluninium / copper bus bar.
Fabricated with 2/2.5/3mm CRCA sheet steel.

Application :These are widely used for :1. Joining / Connection of various electrical wires coming from field and panel side.
2. Junction Box ensures connectivity of electrical & electronics of a system.

Power Distribution Board

power distribution boards that not only save installation costs but also cost of equipment storage,
handling and field testing. Following are the features & application of our product:
Features :1. Degree of Protection :-IP-52 to IP-65.
2. Painting: - Powder Coating / Spray Paint / Epoxy Paint.
3. Compartmentalized design eliminates risk to maintenance personal.
4. Sufficient space for incoming and outgoing cables.
5. Provided with buzzer & hooter during emergency.
6. Separate Bus bar and cable chambers.
7. Power Distribution Board shall have hinged door with lockable arrangement
8. Available with Aluninium / copper bus bar.
9. Fabricated with 2/2.5/3mm CRCA sheet steel.
10. Power Distribution Board is suitable for use on 415V, 3Phase, 4 wire, 50Hz, AC supply
system.
11. Available in Cubicle and Pedestal type.

Application :These are widely used for :1. Protection against electrical Short Circuit, overload and earth fault of the system.
2. Control & monitoring of the entire electrical system of an industry / plant.
3. Systematic power catering to various load of an electrical system.

4. Normally used in Hospitals, Multi-storied buildings, steel industries, cement industry,

open cast mines, shopping mall etc.

Motor Control Centers

The motor control center offered to customers is capable to feed larger loads as it comes with
multiple power stabs that support high capacity industrial motor. Followign are the features &
applications of our product:
Features :1. Simplex & Duplex pattern.
2. Degree of Protection :-IP-52 to IP-65.
3. Painting: - Powder Coating / Spray Paint / Epoxy Paint.
4. Compartmentalized design eliminates risk to maintenance personal.
5. Sufficient space for incoming and outgoing cables.
6. Provided with buzzer & hooter during emergency.
7. Separate Bus bar and cable chambers.
8. Motor Control Center shall have hinged door with lockable arrangement
9. Motor Control Center shall have detachable gland plates of 2-3mm thick
10. Motor Control Center Available with Aluninium / copper bus bar.
11. Fabricated with 2/2.5/3mm CRCA sheet steel.
12. Motor Control Center is suitable for use on 415V, 3Phase, 4 wire, 50H.z

Application :These are widely used for :-

1.
2.
3.
4.

Protection against electrical Short Circuit, overload and earth fault of the system.
Control & monitoring of the entire electrical system of an industry / plant.
Systematic power catering to various load of an electrical system.
Normally used in Hospitals, Multi-storied buildings, steel industries, cement industry,
open cast mines, shopping mall etc.

Control & Relay Panel

Our range of control & relay panel improves power factor to increase energy efficiency. All the
specifications and requirements of the clients are taken into account and well complimented.
Features :1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Siplex & Duplex pattern.

Degree of Protection :-IP-52 to IP-65.
Electromechanical Relay / Numerical Relay.
Painting: - Powder Coating, Spray Paint, Epoxy Paint.
Compartmentalized design eliminates risk to maintenance personal.
Sufficient space for incoming and outgoing cables.
Separate Busbar and Cable chambers.
Servicing & maintenance of Relay available.
Fabricated with 2/2.5/3mm CRCA sheet steel.

Application :These are widely used for:

1. Protection and Control for Transformers.

2. Protection and Control for Transmission and distribution lines

3. Protection and Control for Bus Section and Bus Coupler

Drum Controller & Master Controller

Air break drum controllers are manufactured in accordance with customer specification. They
are suitable for controlling A.C & D.C motors used in E.O.T cranes, haulages in mines, winches,
steel works. Mainly three sizes are manufactured, 40 Amps, 60 Amps, 150 Amps. Provided with
stator reversing contacts.
A star wheel and roller arm give definite step location. The crank type-operating handle is
provided with off position trigger to prevent accidental starting or unwanted reversing. Operating
handle is provided with deadman handle if required by the client Auxiliary contacts are provided
for Electrical inter locking.
Arc Shields:
Arc shields are provided on both D.C and A.C. type controllers.
Cable Entry:
Standard cable entry is through a base plate, other type of fittings, can also be provided as per
clients desire.
Construction:
Robust construction, top & bottom made of M.S. Plate. The fingertips are made of Hard drawn
copper, grinding finish. Removable front cover made of sheet steel.
Drum:
The contact segments are of Hard drawn Electrolytic copper, turned after assembly to maintain
concentricity. The contact assembly of controllers fixed on to insulated M.S. Shaft.

Concepts in switching technology with miniaturization & sophistication for used in automatic
control circuit like master control switch where mechanical positions is translated into electrical
signals for controlling remote starters, contactors and work in highly contaminated atmosphere
and extremely high shock and vibrating condition. Every Limit Switch goes under rigorous

testing before it is supplied. A wide variety to afford a high degree of versatility is available. The
range includes:

Grab differential limit switch.

Spindle type rotary geared limit switch.
Heavy duty lever type limit switch.
Roller lever.
Counter weight.
Forked lever.
V-shaped lever.
Double Roller lever
Foot Pedal
Heavy duty cam operated Rotary Geared Limit Switch.
Push rod limit switch.
Heavy duty pull cord switch.
Explosion proof limit switch for Hazardous atmosphere.
Heavy duty snap action limit switch.

Technical Specification & Features

Utilisation category: AC 11 & DC 11 as per IEC IS 6875.

Thermal current 10 amp to 40 amps.
Insulation voltage 600 V AC & 240 DC.
Operating temperature 20C to 110C.
Mechanical life 20 million cycle.
Contact life: 10 million cycles.
Terminal capacity: 2.5 mm2.
Operating Torques: 6.804 to 14.968 KLS depending on switch size and cam selected.
Enclosure: IP 67
Characteristics
Oil tight, Water tight & Dust proof.
Time tested, extremely reliable design

Resistance Boxes

Resistance boxes & starting resistors are used for both AC and DC applications. It is widely used
for controlling and developing higher torque and have extensively applicable in: Cement Plants.
The grids of starting resistors are made from stainless steel and punched steel sheet and are
suitable for maximum temperature rise of 375 degree C as per BSS standards.

AC / DC Tachogenerators
The AC Tacho generators provide the AC voltage output proportional to the speed of its mover.
Their main application areas include indication & display purposes. On basis of simple
calculations, the frequency of 2 pole, 8 pole and 48 pole will produce 16.66 Hz, 66.66 Hz and
400 Hz, respectively.
Some of the salient attributes of our AC/DC Tacho generators include:

Compact
Light weight
High linearity
High stability and extreme reliability in hostile industrial environments

Its technical specifications are tabulated below:

Current

Up to 50 mA

Speeds

Up to 4000 rpm

Voltages

4V to 40 V / 1000 rpm

Pole Design 2, 8 and 48

Stepper Motors with Controller

stepper motor with controller or controlled stepper motor having high torque density, rugged
design and long life bearings. Available in different models to meet diversified requirements of
our customers, these durable steeper motors possess following attributes:

Thermal protection
Short circuit and wrong polarity protection
Optoisolated signal input
Low vibration, high speed and high torque
Potentiometer LEC for adjustable current reduction
Potentiometer SA for adjustable precision of microstep
High Torque to inertia for quicker start and stops
Higher Power, rare earth magnets

These steeper motors have following technical specifications:

Supply voltage

20 .. 80 V DC

Output Current

1.9 .. 4.0 A

Step Modes

1.8

Current Adjustments via DIP switches

Clock Frequency

0.. 400 kHz max.

Pulse Width (Clock)

Min 1.25 high / low

Amblent Temperature 0oC .. 100oC

Connection Type

Screw Type Terminals

Holding Torque

Up to 30Nm

Frame Size

42 mm square to 110mm square

Static Eliminators & Electrodes

That is mainly used to achieve full output in the synthetic material processing. The importance of these

products is evident from the fact that during the aforesaid process, when material is dry and
speed is high, then at those operating speeds the voltage of charges increases so much that the
entire process is completely disturbed. This results in prevention of full output and often
sparking becomes troublesome, causing extreme dangers to the machine operators.

Some of its salient attributes include:

Design: -High Voltage transformer with 3 Piano Switches achieve Low, Medium and
High stage i.e. 5KV, 7.5 KV and 10KV / 12 KV respectively.
Three OR Four Connectors to ionators OR Electrodes
Consumption 230/25 VA
Ionator / Electrode: - As per the width of Fabric / Cloth

Encoders

Encoders measure the transduction angle speed and distance. Popular for their low
resolution, these have mechanical precision component & assembly. The output of these
efficient shaft encoders is available in the form of pulses, incremental step by step in counter
or processor. The direction is sorted out with the assistance of 2 trains of pulses. In
quadrature one index position pulse is available. As per the special demands of our
customers, we can also offer our encoders in the heavy duty versions.

Technical Specifications:
Type of Output

RS 422 (TTL) or Pulse-Pull or HTL or PNP or NPN

Resolution

10-500 PPR

Precision Range

250-10000 PPR

Shaft Size

6-10 or 6-19 or 11-30 mm

Number of Channel 3 or 6
Type of mounting Servo with clamp or face mounting
Protection class

IP 66/IP 55

Relays

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the relay creates
a magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts. The coil current can be
on or off so relays have two switch positions and most have double throw (changeover) switch
contacts as shown in the diagram.
Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely separate from the
first. For example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay to switch a 230V AC mains
circuit. There is no electrical connection inside the relay between the two circuits, the link is
magnetic and mechanical.
The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA for a 12V relay, but it can be
as much as 100mA for relays designed to operate from lower voltages. Most ICs (chips) cannot
provide this current and a transistor is usually used to amplify the small IC current to the larger
value required for the relay coil. The maximum output current for the popular 555 timer IC is
200mA so these devices can supply relay coils directly without amplification

Relay showing coil and switch contacts

Relays are usually SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets of switch contacts,

Most relays are designed for PCB mounting but you can solder wires directly to the pins
providing you take care to avoid melting the plastic case of the relay.
The supplier's catalogue should show you the relay's connections. The coil will be obvious and it
may be connected either way round. Relay coils produce brief high voltage 'spikes' when they
are switched off and this can destroy transistors and ICs in the circuit. To prevent damage you
must connect a protection diode across the relay coil.
The animated picture shows a working relay with its coil and switch contacts. You can see a
lever on the left being attracted by magnetism when the coil is switched on. This lever moves the
switch contacts. There is one set of contacts (SPDT) in the foreground and another behind them,
making the relay DPDT.

The relay's switch connections are usually labeled COM, NC and NO:

COM = Common, always connect to this, it is the moving part of the switch.
NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off.
NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.
Connect to COM and NO if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay coil is
on.
Connect to COM and NC if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay coil is
off.

Choosing a relay
You need to consider several features when choosing a relay:
1. Physical size and pin arrangement
If you are choosing a relay for an existing PCB you will need to ensure that its
dimensions and pin arrangement are suitable. You should find this information in the
supplier's catalogue.

2. Coil voltage
The relay's coil voltage rating and resistance must suit the circuit powering the relay coil.
Many relays have a coil rated for a 12V supply but 5V and 24V relays are also readily
available. Some relays operate perfectly well with a supply voltage which is a little lower
than their rated value.
3. Coil resistance
The circuit must be able to supply the current required by the relay coil. You can use
Ohm's law to calculate the current:
supply voltage
Relay coil current =
coil resistance

4. For example: A 12V supply relay with a coil resistance of 400 passes a current of
30mA. This is OK for a 555 timer IC (maximum output current 200mA), but it is too
much for most ICs and they will require a transistor to amplify the current.
5. Switch ratings (voltage and current)
The relay's switch contacts must be suitable for the circuit they are to control. You will
need to check the voltage and current ratings. Note that the voltage rating is usually
higher for AC, for example: "5A at 24V DC or 125V AC".
6. Switch contact arrangement (SPDT, DPDT etc)
most relays are SPDT or DPDT which are often described as "single pole changeover"
(SPCO) or "double pole changeover" (DPCO). For further information please see the
page on switches.

Protection diodes for relays

Transistors and ICs must be protected from the brief high voltage produced when a relay coil is
switched off. The diagram shows how a signal diode (eg 1N4148) is connected 'backwards'
across the relay coil to provide this protection
Current flowing through a relay coil creates a magnetic field which collapses suddenly when the
current is switched off. The sudden collapse of the magnetic field induces a brief high voltage
across the relay coil which is very likely to damage transistors and ICs. The protection diode
allows the induced voltage to drive a brief current through the coil (and diode) so the magnetic
field dies away quickly rather than instantly. This prevents the induced voltage becoming high
enough to cause damage to transistors and ICs.

Reed relays

Reed relays consist of a coil surrounding a reed switch. Reed switches are normally operated
with a magnet, but in a reed relay current flows through the coil to create a magnetic field and
close the reed switch.
Reed relays generally have higher coil resistances than standard relays (1000 for example) and
a wide range of supply voltages (9-20V for example). They are capable of switching much more
rapidly than standard relays, up to several hundred times per second; but they can only switch
low currents (500mA maximum for example).
The reed relay shown in the photograph will plug into a standard 14-pin DIL socket ('IC holder').
For further information about reed switches please see the page on switches.

Relays and transistors compared

Like relays, transistors can be used as an electrically operated switch. For switching small DC
currents (< 1A) at low voltage they are usually a better choice than a relay. However, transistors
cannot switch AC (such as mains electricity) and in simple circuits they are not usually a good
choice for switching large currents (> 5A). In these cases a relay will be needed, but note that a
low power transistor may still be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil! The main
advantages and disadvantages of relays are listed below:

Advantages of relays:

Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.
Relays can switch higher voltages than standard transistors.
Relays are often a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A).

Relays can switch many contacts at once.

Disadvantages of relays:

Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.

Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can switch many times per
second.
Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil.
Relays require more current than many ICs can provide, so a low power transistor
may be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.

Switchgear

The term switchgear, used in association with the electric power system, or grid, refers to the
combination of electrical disconnects, fuses and/or circuit breakers used to isolate electrical
equipment. Switchgear is used both to de-energize equipment to allow work to be done and to
clear faults downstream. Switchgear is already a plural, much like the software term code/codes,
and is never used as switchgears.
The very earliest central power stations used simple open knife switches, mounted on insulating
panels of marble or asbestos. Power levels and voltages rapidly escalated, making open
manually-operated switches too dangerous to use for anything other than isolation of a deenergized circuit. Oil-filled equipment allowed arc energy to be contained and safely controlled.
By the early 20th century, a switchgear line-up would be a metal-enclosed structure with
electrically-operated switching elements, using oil circuit breakers. Today, oil-filled equipment
has largely been replaced by air-blast, vacuum, or SF6 equipment, allowing large currents and
power levels to be safely controlled by automatic equipment incorporating digital controls,
protection, metering and communications.

Types
Switch Gear
Sheet Metal Deep Drawn Boxes
Switch gears are for the use of single phase and three phase power supply as well as for
disconnection through fuse. Switch is fitted in elegant deep drawn box.

16 x 240 DP
32 x 240 DP
16 x 415 Triple Pole
32 x 415 Triple Pole
63 x 415 Triple Pole
100 x 415 Triple Pole
200 x 415 Triple Pole

Fuse Units With Silverised Heavy Copper Contacts

16 AMP
32 AMP
63 AMP
100 AMP
200 AMP

A piece of switchgear may be a simple open air isolator switch or it may be insulated by some
other substance. An effective although more costly form of switchgear is gas insulated
switchgear (GIS), where the conductors and contacts are insulated by pressurized sulfur
hexafluoride gas (SF6). Other common types are oil [or vacuum] insulated switchgear.
The combination of equipment within the switchgear enclosure allows them to interrupt fault
currents of many hundreds or thousands of amps. A circuit breaker (within a switchgear
enclosure) is the primary component that interrupts fault currents. The quenching of the arc when
the ciruit breaker pulls apart the contacts open (disconnects the circuit) requires careful design.
Circuit breakers fall into these four types:

Oil circuit breakers rely upon vaporization of some of the oil to blast a jet of oil through
the arc.
Gas (SF6) circuit breakers sometimes stretch the arc using a magnetic field, and then rely
upon the dielectric strength of the SF6 to quench the stretched arc.
Vacuum circuit breakers have minimal arcing (as there is nothing to ionize other than the
contact material), so the arc quenches when it is stretched a very small amount (<2

3 mm). Vacuum circuit breakers are frequently used in modern medium-voltage

switchgear to 35,000 volts.
Air circuit breakers may use compressed air (puff) to blow out the arc, or alternatively,
the contacts are rapidly swung into a small sealed chamber, the escaping of the displaced
air thus blowing out the arc.

Circuit breakers are usually able to terminate all current flow very quickly: typically between
30 ms and 150 ms depending upon the age and construction of the device.
Several different classifications of switchgear can be made[1]:

By the current rating.

By interrupting rating (maximum short circuit current that the device can safely interrupt)
o Circuit breakers can open and close on fault currents
o Load-break/Load-make switches can switch normal system load currents
o Isolators may only be operated while the circuit is dead, or the load current is very
small.
By voltage class:
o Low voltage (less than 1,000 volts AC)
o Medium voltage (1,00035,000 volts AC)
o High voltage (more than 35,000 volts AC)
By insulating medium:
o Air
o Gas (SF6 or mixtures)
o Oil
o Vacuum
By construction type:
o Indoor (further classified by IP (Ingress Protection) class or NEMA enclosure
type)
o Outdoor
o Industrial
o Utility
o Marine
o Draw-out elements (removable without many tools)
o Fixed elements (bolted fasteners)
o Live-front
o Dead-front
o Open
o Metal-enclosed
o Metal-clad
o Metal enclose & Metal clad
o Arc-resistant
[2]
o By IEC degree of internal separation
No Separation (Form 1)
Busbars separated from functional units (Form 2a, 2b, 3a, 3b, 4a, 4b)

Terminals for external conductors separated from busbars (Form 2b, 3b,
4a, 4b)
Terminals for external conductors separated from functional units but not
from each other (Form 3a, 3b)
Functional units separated from each other (Form 3a, 3b, 4a, 4b)
Terminals for external conductors separated from each other (Form 4a, 4b)
Terminals for external conductors separate from their associated
functional unit (Form 4b)
By interrupting device:
o Fuses
o Air Blast Circuit Breaker
o Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker
o Oil Circuit Breaker
o Vacuum Circuit Breaker
o Gas (SF6) Circuit breaker
By operating method:
o Manually-operated
o Motor-operated
o Solenoid/stored energy operated
By type of current:
o Alternating current
o Direct current
By application:
o Transmission system
o Distribution.

A single line-up may incorporate several different types of devices, for example, air-insulated
bus, vacuum circuit breakers, and manually-operated switches may all exist in the same row of
cubicles.
Ratings, design, specifications and details of switchgear are set by a multitude of standards. In
North America mostly IEEE and ANSI standards are used, much of the rest of the world uses
IEC standards, sometimes with local national derivatives or variations.
Functions
One of the basic functions of switchgear is protection, which is interruption of short-circuit and
overload fault currents while maintaining service to unaffected circuits. Switchgear also provides
isolation of circuits from power supplies. Switchgear is also used to enhance system availability
by allowing more than one source to feed a load.
Safety
To help ensure safe operation sequences of switchgear, trapped key interlocking provides
predefined scenarios of operation. James Harry Castell ([1])invented this technique in 1922. For
example, if only one of two sources of supply are permitted to be connected at a given time, the

interlock scheme may require that the first switch must be opened to release a key that will allow
closing the second switch. Complex schemes are possible.
Indoor switchgear can also be type tested for internal arc containment. This test is important for
user safety as modern switchgear is capable of switching large currents. ([2])

PORTABLE INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASUREMENTS

ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS (AMPS, VOLTS, POWER, POWER FACTOR)
GAS ANALYSERS (OXYGEN, CO, CO2)
TEMPERATURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS (CONTACT & NONCONTACT)
AIR FLOW MEASURING INSTRUMENTS (PITOT TUBE,
MICROMANOMETER, VANE ANEMOMETER)

PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS (MICROMANOMETER, DIAL

GAUGE)
FLUE GAS ANALYSER

INFRA-RED RADIATION PYROMETER

CLAMP-ON POWER METER

Ultrasonic leak detectors

Light measurements

MOTORS
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS - RUNNING, STARTING, SPEED
CONTROL, BRAKING
MECHANICAL FEATURES - ENCLOSURE, BEARINGS, TYPE OF
COUPLING/TRANSMISSION, NOISE
SIZE (RATING AND SERVICE CAPACITY) - CONTINUOUS,
INTERMITTENT OR VARIABLE LOAD
COST - CAPITAL COST, RUNNING COST (LOSSES, P.F.,
MAINTENANCE, DEPRECIATION)
TEMP RISE AND INSULATION STRENGTH

Proper Sizing of Motors

It is important to remember that it is the load that determines how much power the motor
draws. The size of the motor does not necessarily relate to the power being drawn. For
example, a fan requiring 15 kW could be driven by a 15 kW motor; in which case, it is
well matched. It could also be driven by a 30 kW motor, and although it would work, it
would not be very efficient.
Motors are often oversized because of:
1. Uncertainty about load;
2. Allowance for load growth,
3. Rounding up to the next size;
4. Availability;
Because motor efficiency curves vary substantially from motor to motor, it is difficult to
make a blanket statement as to which motors should be downsized. In general, if the
motor operates at 40% of its rated load or less, it is a strong candidate for downsizing.
This is especially true in cases where the motor load does not vary much.
It often makes sense to replace oversized motors even if the existing motor has not failed.
Remember, energy costs for a motor over the course of a year can be up to five times the
cost of a new motor. This is especially true in cases where the motor is operating at a
lower efficiency level due to oversizing.
Of course, there are benefits to oversizing motors in certain cases that should not be
overlooked when determining what the proper motor is for a given application. In
addition to providing capacity for future expansion, oversized motors can accommodate
unanticipated high loads and are likely to start and operate more readily in under voltage
conditions. These advantages can normally be achieved, however, with a modest
oversizing margin.
The efficiency of motors operating at loads below 40% is likely to be poor and energy
savings are possible by replacing these with properly sized motors.
Oversized Motors lead to the following problems :
Higher investment cost due to larger size
Higher running cost due to decrease in efficiency
Higher maximum demand due to poor power factor

 Higher cable losses and demand charges

Higher switchgear cost
Higher installation cost

Higher rewinding cost (in case of motor burnout)

There are two methods to optimise loading of a running motor :
Connecting motors in STAR
Use of Soft starter with energy saving features

The following suggestions are made:

If a motor is oversized and continuously loaded below 30% of its rated shaft load, the
motor can be permanently connected in Star.
If the motor is normally loaded below 30% but has a high starting torque requirement,
then the motor can be started with a suitable starter and, after overcoming the starting
inertia, be automatically switched from Delta to Star, using timer control or current
sensing.
If the load is below 30% most of the time, but if the load exceeds 50% some times,
automatic Star-Delta changeover Switches (based on current or load sensing) can be
used. However, if the changeover is very frequent the contactors would get worn out and
the savings achieved may get neutralised by the cost of frequent contactor replacements.
If the motor is nearly always operating above 30% of the rated load and sometimes runs
below 30% load, star-delta changeover will not be economical.

UNDERLOADING OF MOTORS

DECREASES OPERATING POWER FACTOR

DECREASES OPERATING EFFICIENCY

SELECTION OF MOTOR SHOULD BE SUCH THAT IT IS NOT OVERSIZED
MOREOVER, EXISTING MOTOR SHOULD BE OPERATED NEAR ITS RATED
CAPACITY

PLANT CAPACITY
RAW MILL FAN:MOTOR RATING
MAX. LOAD
% LOADING
ADDITIONAL ENERGY
BILL
(US$ 0.02 LAKH/YR)
(@ RS 4/50 PER KWH)
( 1 US $ = RS 45)

2500 TPD (DRY)

:
:
:

850 kW
450 KW
53

Rs 1.00 LAKH/YR

COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS FOR REPLACEMENT OF MOTOR

NAME OF MOTOR : COOLER COMPARTMENT NO 1 FAN

(3 SQUIRREL CAGE INDUCTION MOTOR)
EXISTING MOTOR PROPOSED MOTOR
RATED HP :

150

100

CURRENT AMPERES : 188

130

FULL LOAD

CURRENT LOADING
AMPERES :

106(56%)

87(67%)(ESTIMATED

EXPECTED POWER SAVING : 3.19 Kw

REDUCTION IN MAXIMUM DEMAND : 13.5KVA
ANNUAL SAVING : Rs 1.40 LAKH (US $ 0.03LAKH)
@ RS4/50 PER KWH , RS 150/KVA M.D CHARGES
1 US $ = RS 45,330 DAYS OPERATION/YR

ENERGY EFFICIENT MOTORS

 DESIGNED SO THAT EFFICIENCY REACHES A PEAK AT ABOUT TWO THIRD

OF FULL LOAD AND REMAINS AS HIGH AS FULL LOAD EFFICIENCY EVEN
AT HALF LOAD
POWER FACTOR IS EQUAL TO OR SLIGHTLY HIGHER THAN STANDARD
MOTORS
CONTAIN HIGHER ACTIVE MATERIAL, HENCE COSTLIER BY UPTO 30% AS
COMPARED TO STANDARD MOTORS
RECOMMENDED IN PROJECT STAGE AND FOR REPLACEMENT OF
STANDARD MOTORS WHICH HAVE BEEN REWOUND MORE THAN TWICE
PAYBACK PERIOD OF 2-3 YEARS

ENERGY EFFICIENT TRANSFORMERS

TRANSFORMERS
DESIGNED FOR HIGH EFFICIENCIES (98% OR MORE)
IRON LOSSES REMAIN CONSTANT AND Cu LOSSES VARY AS SQUARE OF
THE LOAD
EFFICIENCY MAXIMUM AT 60-70% LOAD (UNLIKE MOTORS AND FANS)
LOAD LOSSES REDUCE WITH IMPROVEMENT IN LOAD POWER FACTOR FOR
SAME KVA LOAD
LOCATION OF TRANSFORMER IS IMPORTANT TO MINIMISE CU LOSSES (I2R
LOSSES) THROUGH OPTIMISED CABLE LENGTHS

Most energy loss in dry-type transformers occurs through heat or vibration from the core.
The new high-efficiency transformers minimise these losses. The conventional
transformer is made up of a silicon alloyed iron (grain oriented) core. The iron loss of any
transformer depends on the type of core used in the transformer. However the latest
technology is to use amorphous material a metallic glass alloy for the core. The
expected reduction in energy loss over conventional (Si Fe core) transformers is roughly
around 70%, which is quite significant. By using an amorphous core with unique
physical and magnetic properties- these new type of transformers have increased
efficiencies even at low loads - 98.5% efficiency at 35% load.
Electrical distribution transformers made with amorphous metal cores provide excellent
opportunity to conserve energy right from the installation. Though these transformers are
a little costlier than conventional iron core transformers, the overall benefit towards
energy savings will compensate for the higher initial investment. At present amorphous
metal core transformers are available up to 1600 kVA.