b.

v Karishma Ragoo

Charles Darwin, an English naturalist observed organisms that lived on the Calapagos lslands in
the Pacific Ocean. From his observations he concluded that within a population, many organisms
do not survive as they try to compete for limited resources such as food, or try to avoid predators or
drsease or try to adapt to changes in the environment.
Crganisms that survive in the constant struggle for existence are the individuals that are best adapted
:o ihe environment. These organisms tend to outcompete others in accessing resources such as food
and they are the ones that are more likely to produce offspring. These organisms have characteristics
t:at enhance their chance of survival. An example of this can be seen in insects such as
;rasshoppers that are able to camouflage themselves to blend with their surroundings and so escape
r-.redatori. The grasshoppers that have escaped being eaten by predators are able to reproduce
,., ;th each othe;. Their oifspring tend to inherit characteristics such as being able to camouflage
:-emselves, so they too are abie to survive. Crasshoppers without these characteristics are less likely
:: survive because they are easily preyed on.
3r.ganisms that inherit advantageous characteristics from their parents are usually better adapted to
:^Jenvironment. lmportant characteristics do not just appear fully developed in a single generation.
\atural selection provides the mechanisms for one species to change into another, but this change
. ,erv slow. The change of characteristics and the eventual development of a new species is called
of this can be seen in the long necks of giraffes. The long neck is thought
=, clution. An example
:: have evolved when food was in short supply and only the taller ones were able to stretch their
-ecks up and reach for food on trees. Only giraffes who were taller than others and able to do this
;-r rved. These'tallness'genes were passed on to the next generation so they were, on average/
:: ler than their parent generation. As selection for long necks continued, giraffes which were able
:- croduce most offspring were also the tallest individuals. After many years of selection, the longer-.cked giraffes have evolved to what we see today.
populations
-:ographical distribution, or isolation of one population from another, may cause
time an
Over
conditions.
environmental
different
: - :', olve differently because they experience
from
the
original
more
different
,:, ated population will keep evolving and become more and
:":l;lation in order to fill a new and different ecological niche. This was observed by Darwin in
: -erent species of finches on the different islands of the Calapagos. Each population had adapted
:, :re local conditions in order to survive. Natural selection is essentially about survival of the fittest.

!.,.le

organisms are able to survive by being resistant. ln bacteria, some are to able resist antibiotics

:-.: as penicillin. Overuse of antibiotics may kill almost all the bacteria in a population, leaving
: - , a few genetically resistant survivors. Only the survivors are then able to multiply, producing

:,,r:lations of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Some insects have also been able to build resistance
,.a'nst insecticides and have evolved in much the same way as the antibiotic resistant bacteria.
'r;iJrdl selection is clearly very important for species development and survival. Species are lost if

--:,

are not able to adapt to their habitat and produce offspring. ln some cases, natural selection
impact on the human population, as in the case of antibiotic resistant bacteria.
--:^
.'rave a negative

CHAPTER

THE sTUDY OF ECOLOcY

23

ile

$
$

* The environment
A climax community is a relatively stable'
io"g-l"t,ing community reached at the end of

successional series.
and
The differences between primary ecological
are:
secondary ecological succession
* primary ecological succession involves the
ior-",ion of soil from bare rock whereas
,L.ond"ry ecological succession begins with
pre-existing soil substrate'
S::Fi:=1
zt;:,i&
* primary ecological succession involves the

:
.1:;:: .ta::a.,::.-

I-ffi

introduction of species into an area that

was never previously colonized' whereas
the re,.lonaury ecologicai succession involves
was
establishment oi species into an area that
p.""io"tfy colonized but which was disturbed'
* the first species in primary ecological
t*..ttio" must b; able to survive in areas of
littie nutrients, eventually creating conditions
i;;;;*y producers' In secondary ecologicai
suciession, nutrients are available for
producers and consumers to exist'

sets

limits that prevent

organisms from reproducing indefinitely'

is ialled environmental resistance'
Environmental resistance reduces biotic

This

potential.
* As population size increases, environmental of
,"rirr"n.., which may manifest itself as lack
rate ot
adequate food resources, decreases the
growth of the PoPulation'
* As the population approaches the carrying
capaci{y, growth rates approach zero'

NATU RAt SEIECTION, EVOLUTION

AND ADAPTATION

come

in primary ecological succession' species

from distant locations while in secondary

by
ecological succession, colonizati-on occurs
areas'
species from nearby or surrounding

Figure 1.26 Charles Danw

Charles Darwin believed that humans and

a
other species developed and changed through
that
p.o."r, ofnatural sllection' He observed
individuals of a species vary in their physical
characteristics and, from this point of view'

Figure L25 Woodland

Note:

allow
Species may have reproductive rates that
them to produce large numbers

ve-iY

quickly'

given uniimited resources and no limiting

factors.
biotic
This maximum reproductive rate is the

potential.
t6

those that are best adapted to their environment

Since
are most likely to survive and reproduce'
from
derived
oifrptlng,"ni to have characteristics
inheritance'
genetic
thoie oitheir parents, due to

th" .h"r".t.ristics of a species

can change as the

fittest survive.
the
Generally, u'hen organisms reproduce,
the best
with
females choose to mate with males

il

:!

::.-.'sical characteristic, such as height, muscles

intense colours or patterns or tusk size'

'::ength),
l--.:se morphologically desirable features aiso
::lv rhat males are healthy and free from defects
be
-.: Ciseases. The next generation willthetherefore
weaker
; -:erior to the previous one because
.::;r-iduals either die or get fewer chances to mate,
,:.-:s reducing the chance of passing on inferior
---:-^
a.5,

l\]lat

makes natural selection a success?

\a;ural selection acts on pre-existing genetic
::i,'ersity and the selective pressures favour
1:',-antageous genes. Those individuals with
..'.'ourable genetic traits will survive and have
::ore offspring surviving into the next generation'

Evolution is usually defined as the adaptation of

environments, over
=:ecies to their surrounding
that life on Earth
a
theory
it
is
:,:-re. Alternatively,
cells to more
simple
from
;:adually developed
:cmplex organisms.
The theory ofevolution proposes that all species
:-ave descended from other species and share
:Jmmon ancestors.
Jver time, living organisms have adapted
:o physical and chemical processes in their
.:rvironment to increase their potential for survival
:rd reproduction.
-rs certain traits are passed on from parent to
:tfspring, some organisms prove to be ill-adapted
:c the environment and die out, while others
::rcrease in numbers.
Species that face harsh environmental conditions
rr sudden changes that hinder their survival tend
:o counteract these changes by developing features
:hat will allow them a chance of survival. Those
organisms that fail to change or adapt to the new
;hanges generally die. Therefore, evolution takes
:lace when a new or sudden change of the normal
:nvironmental conditions occurs.
The role of natural selection in adaptation and in
rhe evolution of species:
+ Natural selection acts through pre-existing
genetic diversity in organisms.
These selective pressures favour advantageous
genes.

The group of 'fittest' organisms survive to

reproduce successfully. There must be enough
,,rrrvivors to fornt a bro,:rling population.

*
*
*

Individuals with the favourable genetic traits

(the fittest) have more offspring surviving into
the next generation.
Over the long term, populations of survivors
gradually adapt through natural selection to
their new conditions.
Seiective pressures eliminate all individuals that
cannot tolerate the new conditions.

Over time a new sPecies evolves.

Thus, to use a simple example, giraffes have
gradually evolved long necks because members of
the species with longer necks had better access
to food supplies in the upper levels oftrees than
their shorter-necked counterparts did. As longernecked giraffes and their offspring survived more
frequently, a long neck became encoded in the
genetic make-uP of the sPecies.
Evolution is a slow, continuous process as the
environment and the climatic conditions on Earth
are constantly changing. Animals and plants will
have to adapt to these changes in order to survive'
In general, evolution is a two-part process. It
begins with random genetic mutation in offspring.

As proposed by Charles Darwin in his book, On the

Origin of Species, evolution is the process of natural
selection in which unfit organisms are eliminated
as a result of selective pressures in that organism's
environment.

The capacity of an organism to withstand

the extremes of physical conditions is called

adaptation.
Many smaller, simpler organisms show structural
or physiological adaptations that help them to
overcome specific environmental hazards. For
example, in times of water shortage:
* many terrestrial insects and birds conserve the
water in their bodies by excreting nitrogenous
waste such as uric acid, in a Paste
* the West Indian cascadura (also known in
some parts of the world as the armoured
catfish) builds a chamber beneath the mud and
hibernates when rivers and waterways are dry,
then becomes active again whenever the water
levels rise.
See student's essay on natural selection on page 23 at

the end of this chapter.

CHAPTER

THE STUDYOF

E'OLO6Y

17

SPECIES DIVER'ITY AND

CO,V\MUNITY STABIIITY

In a stable climax community, several different

species are typically present, many in quite large
numbers. The variety of wildlife habitat features
and types in a specific area are referred to as the
diveisity of the community. Thus the diversity of
species p."t"ttt in a habitat is a possible indicator
of the siabiiity of a community' Species diversity
of a plant community may be measured by
applying the formula:
diversitY 1o1 =

J(N:1L
)n(n

- l)

the number of each different species in the study

communitY.

Example
This is a list of fishes found in a large aquarium
fish tank.
Number in tank
Species of fish
n

ae

.7

quif ac ci atus

(green discus)
20

Xiphophor us helleri (sw or d

tail)
Po e

sailfin molly)
r eticulate

40

(guPPY)

BO

Total

N:
Zn(n

1) green discus

- 1) swordtail
- 1) Mexican sailfin moilY
+ n(n - 1) gUPPY
= 7(7 - 1) + 20(20 - 1) + 13(13 + 40(40 - 1)
+ n(n

2L38

a:e interconnected by feeding

::-a:.::..:,-:s rcod chains and food webs)'

1)

42 + 380 +156 +1560

= 2138

2138

which is in equilibrium with its environment and

which undergoes little further change' This is the
ciirnax communitv.
Generally, complex ecos)/stems with high
species diversiti' tend to be more stable because
alternative links benveen different species exist'

+ i:::'. s::::s

n_80(80-1) -6320

complex. Eventuallv- a stable ecosystem develops'

:_^----

4- n(n

IJ--

Ecosytem stability relates to the ability of an

ecosystem to withstand significant changes, over
time, and to repair any damage after any sudden
changes. Biotic and abiotic factors of a habitat
influlnce the species that live there and also the
process of ecological succession'
As succession continues, species diversity
increases and feeding relationships become more

over ani :e:l:lli lhe function. Therefore, the

srabl,:r',' :: e: e::s', srem increases with diversity'
ECC.-, -:e:.= S:.::.::. inCreaSes aS SpeCieS diVerSity

80

- I) = n(n -

As the diversity within an ecosystem lncreases'

its stability tends to increase because alternative
Iinks are formed between different species' Thus'
several species may be abie to carry out the same

Several species mav also be able to carry out

the sameiunction. A change in the density of
one species is iess like1y to affect the density of
others. Fo: inslance, if a disease severely changes
the densiti'c: one species, then another can take

l3

cilia uelifer a (Mexican

Po ecilia

atiotic and biotic aspect of the community in the

environment, in which theY occur'

function.

where N is the total number of plants and n

is the number of individuals per species' Data
is obtained by analysing samples of plant
communities, counting all the plants present and

S ymplry s o do

process of change by the progressive replacement

tf on" community by another until a stable
climax is established.
This type of study of a group of organism:
associaied together as a community is called
synecology. It also involves analysis of the

=2.96

It can be useful to monitor the diversity of an

ecosystem or community as it passes through

+ ::.: :r::= :--::-:iex and interconnected a

:::.:: -:.:-, -s. :he more stable and resilient it
',,,:

::

:..

:::

' - t- . ' "

:.'':nt of disturbance.

species occupy each trophic

:a:. i.l rn ifothers are stressed or

-:e::

,, .:'.::::al fOrCeS.
::.: ',', :.:.e communitY resistant to
:.- ::a:=es and so it can recover

le

:--:r iisruptions.

ecological succession. This is the gradual

t8

n,
POPULATION GROWTH
l - : ;.:e of a population of a particular

This applies to all populations, whether the species

consists of microorganisms, mammals or birds. In
exponential growth, a population increases by a
fixed proportion in each generation, for example,
the population may double, one individual giving
rise to two, four, eight, sixteen and so on. This
type of increase in a population is quick but
it is not maintained, simply because there are
insuffi cient resources.

species

r -. - iiv expressed as the number of individuals

:r* -::: area. This may be related to population
:e:sin- or to the number of samples found in a
- =., -:ed area of a region in which the species
L:: .i, s This number may be called the frequency
:: ::= sample species.

-::.r.:,'or

frequency may be affected by:

- ::rh rate (natality)

* ieath rate (fatality)
- ::gration - a mobile organism may move away
::::.

cne population to another, in a new habitat

i:pletion - the effects of other species (biotic)

.:

::.e iorm of competition, predators and

,::, -ing and parasitism may cause the population
:: :'11, or become depleted.

- ,=': iactors will increase with increasing

:,-: ;-a:ion densities and are therefore referred to

i ; aensity-dependent factors.

Figure 1.27 Exponential groMh can be observed in

microorganisms e,g,

E.

co'i

As a population increases, it begins to experience

environmental resistance, because space and
resources per individual are reduced and

competition for them increases.

=:.::allv, a population tends to stabilise at a level

on a sustainable
= :.a:itat can tolerate or support
:.;.. :rr an indefinite period. This is called the
:.a:ning capacity of the habitat.
--=:
:he carrying capacity is reached, the
:,:: --.tion size reaches an equilibrium, the
: ::: :are is balanced by the death rate and the
:':: *-a:ion becomes stable. If the population size
-:::a-(es, environmental factors such as food,
. :,i:
resources will become scarce and
= -d other
r: -.: :rrnbers of the population will starve and
:. = l.::s rvill cause the death rate to increase as
-::--r and the population will decrease until a
"
-,.:-:able level is reached.
-

-** ::-denr's report on the ecology of a school farm

:,r ge ia at the end of this chapter.

on

ExpoN ENTIAT POPU LATION

6ROWTH

phas3.*F

Stationary

z
C

P
6

=oE

,l
I
,/
tr/
F

i
/
,/

t'

lExponential growth Phase

| ^-

pfdsc
Ldx ^L^^^

t,a"r"

Figure 28

A typical popu ation groMh curve

Lag phase

* period of little growth

* few of the individuals are mature
* rate of reproduction is low
* organisms become famiiiar with the conditions
Exponential growth phase

:"-,,:onential growth is defined as growth in which

-- : :a:e of increase is a constant percentage of the
:-::::: size. Such growth occurs at a constant rate

:{

:-.*., period.

conditions are ideal; organisms are well adapted

to environmental conditions
maximum reproduction rate is realised

population grows at an ever-increasing

(accelerating) rate
CHAPTER

THE STUDY OF

ECOLO6Y I9

Stationary phase
* environmental resistance steps in as the
carrying capacity is reached.
* food supplies become limited
* the number of individuals entering the
population equals the number leaving by death
or migration
* waste products and toxins accumulate so death
rate increases

the growth rate of the population levels out as

birth rate (natality) and death rate (mortality)
approach equilibrium.

NVI RONME NTAT REs I'TANCE

This is the total effect of all the limiting factors,

both biotic and abiotic, that act together to
prevent the maximum reproductive potential
from being achieved. It includes external factors
such as predation, food supply, heat, light and
space, and internal regulatory mechanisms such
as intraspecific competition and behavioural
adaptations.

There are strong feedback links between all these

factors; for example, intraspecific competition
arises in response to a change in a resource, such
as decrease in the amount of space available,
so there is a limited supply. Environmental
resistance also controls the population growth
of organisms, to maintain an ecological balance
among different species within the habitat.
Environmental resistance factors include
temperature, climate, predators, disease
organisms, space, parasites, food and suitable
habitat.
Environmental resistance may result in a decrease
in the rate of a population in several ways.
* Some species have high reproductive rates
that will allow them to reach large numbers
very quickly, given unlimited resources and
no limiting factors. Environmental resistance
factors will decrease the reproductive rates and
survival of offspring.
* The maximum reproductive rate is the biotic
potential. Environmentai resistance reduces
biotic potential.
* As populations reach the maximum carrying
capacity of a habitat or ecosystem, the
environmental resistance increases and this will
cause a decrease in the growth rate. Eventually
the reproductive success rate is reduced to a
levei that the ecosystem can sustain.
20

POPUTATION SAMPTING
METHODS FOR /V{OVING AND
NON.MOVING OR6ANI5/vt5
A total count of all members of a population is
called a census.

Capture, m6rb, {eleese and recaptwre

technique
This is a method of estimating population size,
and is used for mobile animals. A random sample
is captured and each is marked with a ring, tag or
dab of paint. This method is satisfactory, provided
no significant immigration or mortality of the
target animal occurs during the investigation.
If the result is to be significant, the number of
individuals in the sample needs to be large.
Calculation of population:

N:

n3
"lnt

where N is population, n, is the number of

individuals captured, marked and released, n, is
the total number captured on the second occasion
andnris the number of marked individuals
recapiured. This method of finding the population
is known as the Lincoln population estimator.

Estimating a plant Poqulctian

The populations of terrestrial plants in the field
or region can be estimated by a method using
quadrats. A quadrat is a square frame, made
of metal, plastic or wood. Several quadrats are
placed randomly in the study region and the
numbers of different species present within each
frame are noted and recorded on a grid.

Estinzating density
The mean number of individuals per unit area
is called the density. In theory, this should
be easy to calculate but the fact that so many
plants reproduce vegetatively means it is often
difficuit to determine just what an 'individual' is.
Establishing the density is useful for comparing
the occurrences of a given species in different
habitats.

ent'rge ir e quency
The percentage frequency is the number
of quadrats in which a species occurs, as a
percentage of the total number of quadrats
sampled. It can be calculated quickly and is a
useful means of comparing two similar plant
communities, provided the same quadrat size is
used in each case.

Estimating

p er

U^^AN I NTERACTIONS WITH

NATU RAL ECOSYSTEMS
H

-:lan interference in ecosystems can cause them

r - :e susceptible to various forms of stress.
:.

-::a:ls can cause an imbalance in ecosystems

: i::ring abiotic and biotic factors, which
:j-: :f:npromise the stability of an ecosystem.
: :.,::ion disrupts abiotic conditions by altering
- ::emical balance in an ecosYstem.
=
- , -.: iet'elopment and pollution disrupt abiotic
-,

The environmental impact associated with the

introduction of non-native species includes:

* Displacement of native species as the

competition for resources such as food and
space increases.

by changing physical conditions.

: : .-::on can directly affect or influence biotic

:::-:ions

:-

-:

-:::'inities.
-:.1:s can also damage habitats by introducing

]" =-.:::nating predators and pathogens, which

.

:- :.1-.'e devastating

effects on the ecosystem.

- .i :::r occur because these organisms generally

. - .::. population growth of other organisms in
-

Some non-native species may be predators

ofnative species. This new predator-prey
relationship may cause native food webs to
collapse.
Introduced species outcompete native species

for resources (food, mates and habitat

components or requirements) and this can lead
to the death ofnative species.
Reduction of species diversity due to death
or migration of native species can ultimately
impact on ecosystem stabilitY.
Increasing species diversity in the ecosystem
and increasing food options for some predator
species.

: ::rsvsrem. They also eliminate the weaker

'.:--..s:1s, thus preventing their traits from being

.,i:: :n ro the next generation.

-::, :umans hunt wildlife and destroy habitats,

:rj-rr and abundance of species are affected.

r ::: :s Siversity can be reduced and ecosystems

, : = srnplified.

habitats by introducing nonnon-native species that have

Three
s:ecies.
Caribbean are tilapia,
to
the
:.::oduced
::=e and water hyacinth.
s can affect

.::r'e species can be successful in new

- " -.:ients because:

:ative species can have high production

aid short generation times; therefore
=s
.: rumbers may increase rapidly if their
: : iucrion is successful.
: -::: piants introduce growth inhibiting
: -: i:ances into the environment that prevent or
"=;::l:r growth of other sPecies.
are often generalists and can survive better
--:her specialised species
'.' :ave high genetic variability which makes
: -,"erv adaptable to different environments
:::erefore they can survive under different
'

::

:inental conditions.

I -.=. :an have high dispersal rates and use

r . ::::iv of dispersal mechanisms to allow
-::. :c spread over wide areas with varied
: -. , r:

t"'1

.i

.,

It is important to maintain the integrity of

ecosystems and prevent the introduction of nonnative species and diseases. This helps to:

limit competition for scarce resources

and

maintain habitat diversity and stability

allow for continous and efficient rycling of
matter and the flow of energy, which will
ultimately maintain and sustain biological and
ecosystem productivity

* avoid sudden and drastic changes in abiotic

factors that can alter biotic communities.
Changes in abiotic factors do occur naturally but
they happen slowly, allowing biotic factors to
adapt to the changes gradually.

Complexity in ecosystems should be maintained

in natural systems to prevent simplification, which
can eventually lead to instability and collapse of
the ecosystem.
In very compiex ecosystems, organisms have many
different feeding relationships. Whenever one food
source is in short supply, higher organisms can
feed on other sources. This ensures their survival
and will also give the food source that is in short
supply time to replenish itself.

r:mental conditions.

CHAPTER

THE STUDY OF ECOLOCY 2I

SuusrloN*
Define the following terms. For each term, give an
example from within the Caribbean region.

a
b
c
d

biome
endangered species
niche

ecotone

Explain the difference between a community and a

population.

The photograph shows a freshwater channel at

Nariva Swamp, in Trinidad. lt is approximately half
a kilometre away from the sea. Salt water does not
mix with the fresh water, but the level of water in
the swamp is affected by the tide.

List two biotic factors and two abiotic factors that

changes in the tide.

will be affected by

Figure I .30 A tropical rainforest

This food web illustrates feeding relations in

river.
Birds

,g

.*,"..'-'**.*--.*. Man

b.&

Dragonfly larvae

Large fish

T
1

Frogs

--.-*---.--&

T
i
i'/

"--'

--'"

./'

Smallfish
q

Microaquatic organisms

Water beetles
?.

,';f
,u''

Algae, water lily,

Figure 1.29 A freshwater channel

other aquatic plants

4 Make an annotated diagram to show how an

increase in nitrogen from fertilisers affects the
nitrogen cycle.

5a

Figure 1.3 I The fbod web in a river

Explain the term carbon sink and give an

example.

6 Figure 1.30 illustrates a tropical rainforest.The

spot labelled X is where a teak seed is about to
geminate.

a
b

What

State fwo natural and two unnatural events that

can reduce any of the limiting factors you have
listed above, in order to favour the growth of

is

the meaning of the term limiting

Give a term that can be used

to describe the final

stage of an ecological succession and explain what

the term means.

Work out the carbon cycle within your school

compound and draw a diagram to illustrate it.

Describe the stages or events of development

that can lead to the final stage of an ecological
succession.

l0

Discuss the importance of natural selection in the

survival of a named species in your country.

foaor?.

List four limiting factors that the seedling will

have to overcome in order to survive.

the seedling.

22
iL.-