Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Hydraulic Transients
Page 1 of 7
2/22/2008
Page 2 of 7
The following equations can be found in Chaudhry (1987), Fox (1989), Hwang and Houghtalen (1996), and Wylie
and Streeter (1978).
Mass Conservation and Momentum Conservation (|V| is absolute value since velocity changes direction during
the transient). Courant stability condition for method of characteristics solution.
where Y(t) = 100 [K/K(t)]1/2. Our calculation allows you to enter the valve curve as two piecewise linear curves.
See Discussion for further explanation.
VARIABLES:
Top of Page
Dimensions: F=Force, L=Length, M=Mass, T=Time
A = Pipe cross-sectional area [L2]. Up to three pipes can be used, each with its own length and area. An = Area of
the pipe furthest from the reservoir. Computed.
c = speed of pressure wave (celerity) [L/T]. Different for each pipe. Computed.
D = Diameter of each pipe [L]. Dn = Diameter of pipe furthest from reservoir. Entered.
E = Composite elastic modulus [F/L2]. Computed.
Ef = Elastic modulus of fluid [F/L2]. Computed.
Ep = Elastic modulus of pipe material [F/L2]. Computed.
f = Darcy-Weisbach friction factor (obtained from Moody diagram) for each pipe. Computed automatically using
same method as in Design of Circular Liquid or Gas Pipes.
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.8066 m/s2.
h = Piezometric head in pipe (elevation + static head) [L] as a function of time and distance relative to the valve
http://www.lmnoeng.com/WaterHammer/WaterHammer.htm
2/22/2008
Page 3 of 7
DISCUSSION:
Top of Page
Reservoir Elevation, H
Physically, the reservoir should have a large enough area such that H does not change significantly during the
transient. H is considered to be constant.
Composite Elastic Modulus, E
The equation shown above for E assumes that the pipe undergoes no longitudinal stress (Hwang and Houghtalen,
1996, p. 121). Though this may not seem realistic due to the liquid pulling on the pipe walls, very little difference
in the value for E occurs in our equation compared to more complicated equations (see References) which account
for expansion joints, fixed pipe ends, etc.
Pipes - Number and Orientation
You may enter up to 3 pipes in series. They do not have to be telescoping (e.g. pipe 2 can have a larger diameter
than pipe 1), and they don't have to be horizontal. The calculation is valid for horizontal and non-horizontal pipes.
All pipes must be made of the same material.
User can enter location to compute maximum and minimum pressure
Our calculation is set up to compute the overall Pmax and Pmin for each pipe. However, say in the case of an
actual pipe rupture, you may need to know Pmax or Pmin at a specific location which may not necessarily be where
the overall Pmax or Pmin occurs. You can do this by entering two pipes with the same diameter, with one of them
being very short. The two pipe lengths must add up to the actual pipe's length. Have the short pipe located in the
vicinity of the rupture.
Piezometric Head and Piezometric Pressure
Our calculation uses and computes piezometric heads and piezometric pressures. Even though the calculation says
"Min. Pressure in Pipe" and "Max. Pressure in Pipe", these are piezometric pressures - not static pressures. (Due to
space considerations, the word "piezometric" was omitted from the headers.) Head (h) has units of elevation
http://www.lmnoeng.com/WaterHammer/WaterHammer.htm
2/22/2008
Page 4 of 7
(meters, feet). Pressure (P) has units such as Pascal (N/m2), psi (lb/in2), or bars. We also allow pressure to be
output as meters of fluid or feet of fluid - which is actually a head rather than a pressure. Pressure and head are
related to each other by: P=pgh (p is the greek letter "rho" representing fluid density). Piezometric head = elevation
head + static pressure head. Piezometric pressure = elevation pressure + static pressure. Static pressure is what
people are usually referring to when they ask, "What's the pressure in the pipe?" In our water hammer calculation,
the valve discharges to atmospheric pressure at an elevation of 0.0 m. Since the valve discharges to atmospheric
pressure, the static pressure at the discharge is 0.0 Pa (we use pressures relative to atmospheric - also known as
"gage pressure").
If your pipe is horizontal, then the elevation pressure and elevation head are 0.0 everywhere in all pipes, and the
pressures computed by the calculation are the static pressures in the pipes. However, if the pipes are sloping, you
need to subtract off the elevation pressure from the computed piezometric pressure in order to obtain static pressure.
For example, let's say you run the calculation and the maximum piezometric pressure in Pipe 1 is computed to be
166.3247 m at x=500 m. From your pipe drawings, you know that this location is at an elevation of 50 m above the
valve. The static pressure head at x=500 m is thus: 166.3247 - 50 = 116.3247 m. You can convert this to static
pressure by (998.2 kg/m3)(9.8066 m/s2)(116.3247 m)(1 N-s2/kg-m)=1,138,696.5 N/m2 (assuming the fluid is water
at 20oC with a density of 998.2 kg/m3). Alternatively, instead of selecting "Compute pressures in m of fluid", you
could select "Compute pressures in N/m2 or Pa". Then, the output maximum piezometric pressure in Pipe 1 is
1,628,144.2 Pa at x=500 m. Then the static pressure is computed as 1,628,144.2 N/m2 - (998.2 kg/m3)(9.8066 m/s2)
(50 m) = 1,138,696.8 N/m2, which is the same (barring round-off error).
Pmax and Pmin at multiple locations along the same pipe
Pmax or Pmin may occur at multiple locations along a pipe even though the calculation only indicates one location.
Usually this happens only when the computed Pmax or Pmin has the same value as H (can be detected if reservoir
elevation and pressures have the same units). Splitting one pipe into two pipes can provide additional values of
Pmax and Pmin and their locations for verification.
Discharge and Friction Factor
The valve is located at the end of the last pipe and discharges to the atmosphere. The "steady Q at Y=100%" field
that you enter is used to compute the initial loss across the valve if the valve is initially open (i.e. if the valve is
being closed) and to compute the friction factor (f) for both the valve opening and closing scenarios. Chaudhry
(1987, p. 37) indicates that accuracy is sufficient if the maximum steady state flowrate is used to compute f, rather
than re-computing f every distance and time increment as flowrate changes.
Valve
The valve minor loss coefficient (K) only needs to be entered if the valve is being opened. If the valve is being
closed, then the reservoir elevation (H), atmospheric pressure boundary beyond the valve, and Qmax provide
sufficient information to compute pressures.
If the valve is only going to be opened half-way, enter K for a half-open valve. If the valve will be opened
completely, enter K for a fully open valve.
To determine the valve curve: mathematically the valve curve is Y(t) = 100 [K/K(t)]1/2. However, physically it
may be very difficult to determine how K changes with time as the valve is opened or closed. A method for
computing K(t) is to run several steady state flow tests through the piping system with different valve openings:
measure pressure (P) just upstream of the valve and flowrate (Q) for each valve setting. Then,
where A is the pipe area (not the flow area inside the valve).
If it is more convenient, using Y(t)=Av(t)/Av is an adequate approximation for the valve curve - where Av is the
valve area through which water flows (not the pipe area). If finding Av(t) or K(t) is too difficult, you can enter
various valve curves and see if there is much difference in the computed pressures.
Courant Stability Criterion
The Courant stability criterion shown in equations is a necessary criterion for numerical solutions that vary in space
and time, like the water hammer calculation. Our program automatically satisfies this criterion. However,
satisfying the criterion can result in reducing the number of distance intervals (sections) into which each each pipe is
http://www.lmnoeng.com/WaterHammer/WaterHammer.htm
2/22/2008
Page 5 of 7
split. This can decrease accuracy. There is a trade-off between time intervals and distance intervals with the
product being 100,000, which we set to maximize accuracy while keeping the calculation fast. For 2 or 3 digit
accuracy, try to have at least five pipe sections in each pipe (the number of pipe sections is output next to the pipe
number when the calculation is run). 50 sections gives about 6 digit accuracy. The calculation will run if there are
at least 2 sections in each pipe. Reducing Tmax will increase the number of pipe sections.
FLUID PROPERTIES, PIPE PROPERTIES, MINOR LOSS COEFFICIENTS, and PIPE WALL
THICKNESS
Top of Page
Fluid Properties
Fluid density, viscosity, and elastic modulus provided by the drop-down menus in the calculation, have been
compiled from the closed conduit pipe flow references shown on our literature web page.
Pipe Properties
Pipe material roughness, provided by the drop-down menus in the calculation, have been compiled from the closed
conduit pipe flow references shown on our literature web page. Pipe elastic moduli have been compiled from the
references shown below.
Minor Loss Coefficients
Valve
Globe, 100% open
Gate, 100% open
Gate, 75% open
Gate, 50% open
Gate, 25% open
Valve
Angle, 100% open
Ball, 100% open
Ball, 67% open
Ball, 33% open
Nominal size
(inch)
0.5
2
8
16
24
Actual inside
diameter (inch)
0.622
2.067
7.981
15.000
22.626
http://www.lmnoeng.com/WaterHammer/WaterHammer.htm
Actual inside
diameter (inch)
1.049
4.026
11.938
19.250
28.500
Wall thickness
(inch)
0.133
0.237
0.406
0.375
0.750
2/22/2008
34.500
0.750
42
Page 6 of 7
40.5
0.750
2/22/2008
Page 7 of 7
http://www.lmnoeng.com/WaterHammer/WaterHammer.htm
2/22/2008