)?

y ,/'

.nf'fu
"-... ,:t.

ASTRONOMISCHE
NACHRICHTEN.
Nr. 5079.

Band 212.
New Theory

of the Aether.

15.
tsy T. /. /. See.
:

(Third I'apcr.) (With 3 Plates.)

l. Two RenrarkableTheorems on the Physical

Constitution of the Aether.
In the year rgro Professor E. T' WtittaZrz published,
under the auspices of the Dtlblin University Press, a valuable
)History of the Theories of Aether and l)lectricity< from
'Ihe
the age of Dcsrurtcs to the close of the rgth century.
title of this useful treatise and the general usage of science
recognizes that there is some connection bet*'ecn aether
and electricity, yet in spite of the great learnins shos'n in
Whittahcr's work, the nature of that connection remains profoundly obscure, and the modern investigator thercfore labors
in vain to obtain any clear light rrpon the subject.
If we coulcl prove, for example, that an electric current
is nothing but a series o[ rvavesof a certain type propagated
in the aether along and fronr the wire which beais the current'
and also connect these rvaves with rnagnetism and light,
by an extension of the reasoning thtls laid down, it would
add so much to ottr understanding of the processes nnderlying the unseen operations of the physical rtniverse, as to
be worthy of aln-rostany effort. Indeed, it woulrl be rvorth
hazarding any chance offered by the conscientiotts contemplation of knorvn phenomena. And thus I ventrtre to adcl
some considerations, which, without exhausting the subject,
may open a new field to those rvho have the independence,
practical energy and firm resolution to ptlrstle pioneer paths
in science. l'hese untrodden paths alone offer the hope of
importarit discoveries in the physical universe.
And first rve Intlst confirnr a new and iurportant tlleorem on the velocity of rvave-progagationin monatotnic grrses,
announced in the first paper, and also make knotvn a new
and very remarkable rnethod for determining the clensitl' ol'
Gas

Z(Air:

It

:-_

Oqtg"" O
] ' o . n r r o \ n u t o n g )-:
N i t r o u s - O x i dNe O
, 2 | o . 7 8 6 5( D u l o n g )

the aether based on an extension of recognized' processeb

in the theory of sound. As the only method for attacking
the problem of the density of the aether heretofore known
is that invented by I-ord ,Kcluin in 1854, this nerv method
rvill prove extrernely useful as an independent check on the
numerical values attained in these recondite researches; and
be found the more valuable because it is absolutely decisive
against the doctrine of a large deirsitj' for the aether, which
has recentll' exerted in science an influence both baneful
and hervildering.
;
(i) 'l'he nerv theorem u -- rf zrt l/, connecting the mean
molecr.rlarvelocity of a monatomic gas with the velocity of wavep r o p a g a t i o n ,b y m e a n so f h a l f t h e A r c h i m e d e a nn u m b e r ,e x a c t l y
confirnred bl' observrtion in case of oxygen and nitrous oxide.
Since finishing the first paper on the New 1'heory of
the Aether,Jan. r4, r9zo, I have had occasion to discuss
the nerv theorem
(')
I - rf,rr It
c o n n e c t i n g t h e r r l e a n r n o l e c u l a rv e l o c i t v o f a r n o n a t o n r i cg a s
a n d t h e v e l o c i t y o f w a v e - p r o p a g a t i o n ,b 1 ' m e a n s o f h a l f t h e
Archinredean number ru, ivith the celcbrated English physicist Sir Oliuu F.odgt, on the occasion of a public address
at San lirancisco, April l r, rg2o. And as Sir Oliucr Lodgc
kinrlly shos'ed a great interest in this theorem, regarded it
as \/ery important, and urged me to extencl the u.'"cof the
theorem, I have searchedfor other gasesto rvhich it might
be accnrately applied.
'fhe
obscrvecl data givcn in the follorving supplement a r y t a b l e a r e t a k e n f r o m I I ' i i / / n r r ' sE x p e r i m e n t a l - P h y s i k ,
B a n d r , p . 8 o 4 , a n c l s ' e r e a c c i d e n t a l l yo v e r l o o k e d i n t h e p r e paration of nr1' earlier table.

z' observed

r)
1 1 6 . ,n t l
z8r.r
i

46r.on.r
393.0

The last column gives the observed rat'tof,lV as corrected for a monatomic constitution, or
:
(r)
', '.J5"g
"lf.V(hJhr)
.L-rr.L^ , -^'*-,'

rnolecular l't

|
|

,,.o
oo."

gJ ol rr. /(b1lk)
I z-/z(observe

, r.4o2 I
I r.295 I

r.+58
t.:lqs

t'Sss:
r.5858

all of which are of comparatively simple molecular constitution, rve may regard it as fully established by experiment
t h a t s u c h .a p h v s i c a l l a w g o v e r n s t h e . m o t i o n s o f w a v e s i n

m o n a t o m i cg a s e s ,a n d t h a i t h e v e l o c i t yo f w a v e m o t i o n i s
which verifiesrvith great accuracythe use of halt the Archi- I. :^;-,:
solely dependenttrpon the mean velocity of the molecules'
medeannumber z, in the theorem,
7t :

Lf
2n V .

But in acldition to the argument thus built up, for a

high wave velocity, where rve have a rare gas of enormous

r, r ,.
connectingthe mean molecular velocity with that of rvave-I ,oll".ulo. velocit];, we may use the obseived velocity of
gases'
in
monatomic
propagation
generallyio throw light upon the molecular
wave-propagation
As this theorem is now minutely verified for the six
best determined gases, namely:
r. Air
4. Carbon dioxide CO:

z. Hydrogen
3. CarbonmonoxideCO

5. Oxygen
6. Nitrous oxideNO2

*61g61sof all gases ivhatsoever. ln the relerence abo'e given

to ll,'iillntr's Experimental-Physik, Band r, p. 8o4, rve find
that the velocity of sound in hydrogen was found by Dulong

t i m e s t h a ti n - a i r , a n d b y . R e g n a u l t , 3 . 8 otri m e s
] to be 3.8123
that in air. The rnean of the two valuesis 3.8o665. Now
r6

235

236

5079

the velocity of sound in oxygen found by Dulong was o.9524

times that in air; and on multiplying this by 4, we get
3.8o96 for tbe theoretical velocity of sound in hydrogen.

in hydrogen has a velocity 3.8o665 tirues greater than in

a i r , t h i s i s e q u i v a l e n t t o 2 3 75 5 o t i m e s t h e v e l o c i t y o f s o u n d
in hydrogen. But hydrogen is a biatonric gas .with the ratio
r.4ot, while aether is monatouric, with the ratio
B u t s i n c e o x y g e n i s s u p p o s e dt o h a v e o n l y r 5 . 9 8 t i n r e s h 2 :
r . 6 6 6 ; a n d t h e r e f o r et o r e d u c e t h e m o t i o n i n h y d r o g e n
the molecular weight of hydrogen, we should use the square I r :
to
the
basis of a monatomic gas, we have to divide this
root of this number, or 3.9975, instead of 4, for the multiy'(ttllr):
r . o g o 4 77 , w h i c h l e a d s t o t h e n u m p l i e r , w h i c h g i v e s 3 . 8 o 7 a ; a n a l m o s t e x a c t a g r e e r n e n tw i t h n u m b e r b v
'fhis
b
e
r
z
r
is the ratio of the velocity of light in a
the mean of the velocities of sound in hydrogen foLrnd by
7839.
rnonatoniic aether to that of sound in a hypothetical monaDulong and Regnatll
t
omic hydrogen, yet with density o.oooo896.
It follorvs, lrom'these considerations, that the velocity
'fhis
result is based on the wave theory of sound as
of wave motion in sirnilar gases varies inversely as the square
'I'he
fourfold increase in the velocity given by Sir Isaac Netuton in the Principia, r686 (Lib. II,
roots of their densities.
of sound in hydrogen compared to that in oxygen gives l'rop. XL,VllI), which rvas corrected b5' Lallace in r 8 r 6
'
us a definite larv which rnay be appiied directly to all com- ( c f ' . t r f d c a n i q u eC i l e s t e , ' I . V . I - i v , X I I , p . 9 6 , a n d A n n . P h y s .
parable gases, and even to lnonatonic gases bv the use of e t C h i u r . , ' f . l l l , p . 2 8 8 ) , t o t a k e a c c o u n t o f t h e a u g n r e n t e t i o n
of speed due to the ratio of the specific heat of a gas under
tbe faktor t/(4lar). ,
c o n s t a n t p r e s s u r e t o t h a t u n d e r c o n s t a n tv o l u m e . A s a b o v e
(ii) New method for deternrining the density of the
used the formula for the propagation of sound is further
aether from the velocity of light and electric wavcs comcorrected to take account of the increase in velocity in a
pared to that of sound in terrestrial gases.
nronatornic gas, hrst inlerred theoretically by Clausius abour
U p t o t h e p r e s e n t t i m e o n l y o n e q e n e r a l r r e t l r o d h a s sixty years ago, but since verified experimentally for mercury
been availabie for calculating the density of the aether, vapor, argon, heliunr; neon, xenon, and krypton. 'l'he forrnula
namely, that devised by Lord licluin for deternrining the t h u s b e c o m e s f o r a e t h e r a n d h y d r o g c n , r s r e d u c e d t o a
mechanical value of a cubic rnile of sunlight, anci first l n o n a t o m i c e l a s t i c i t y :
published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of l.ldiny'(Eto2fE"or):zr7S.;e.
,
lrlI/r:
13/
b u r g h f o r M a y , r 8 5 a ( c f . l l a l t i n . r o r el - e c t u r e s ,r g o 4 , p . z 6 o ) .
This method was somervhat inrproved by the subsc-(luent Under identical physical conditions at the surlace of the
E.t, and thus
researches of Lord Kcluin, tlfarurll, and the present rvriter, eartb, Zi :
'l'ht'ory
as duly set forth. in the llrst paper on the Neiv
of
l/rltrr:
t/(o2lo):217839
the Aether (AN 5o44, 2tt.ag), ),et the principle underlying o r
it remains largely unchanged.
(ztZ8:S), :
Vr"lV"' : ,tzldt:
-\r1:
4745383oooo (4)
A s ' i t w o u l d b e v e r y c l e s i r a b l et o h a v e a s e c o n d i n - w h i c h i s t h e d e n s i t y
of .hydrogen in units of that of aether.
dependent method for determining the density of the aether,
1'o get the densitl' of water in units of that of aether,
I have held in rnind this great desideratum rvhile occupied
we take
with the researcheson the rvave-theorv,and finallf it occuired
(S)
to me to attack the problem from the point of vieu' of the
M :,4/r/o.oooo8g 6 :
5 z 9 6r g o o o o o o o o o .
gases.
velocity of sound in
For rr'e have norv shos,n that
Accordingll' the absolute density of the aether at the
t h e a e t h e r i s a g a s , w i t h p a r t i c l e st r a v e l i n g r . 5 7 t i n ) e s s * ' i f t e r e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e b e c o m e s :
than light; and this general theory is again confirnied by
r/i":
o:
r888.r5.ro.1s.
(O)
the discussion above given for waves of sound in oxygen
It should be noted that Lord l{cluitis nrcthod of r854,
and nitrous oxide.
rvhich rve used in the first paper on thc Nerv 'l'heory of the
Owing to its extreme rarity, the aether is the one abAether, is not strictly valid, becausealthough it gives the
solutely perfect gas of the universe; and tve lnay even use
density. at tbe earth's rnean distance, in units of the assumed
the velocity of light in the aether to calculate rhe density
densitl' at the sun, this latter value itself cannot be found
of this nredium. It will be shown, especiallyin the fourth
by .Keluitis rnethod, because of the decrease in the aether
paper, that there is much less difference bet|een the rvaves
density near the earth, not heretofore taken account of.
of sound and light than we have long belieyed. In his lumiLet oq be the density at the neutral distance, Qs, where
nous but neglected memoir of r83o, the celebrated lirench
geometer Poisson, showed and thrice repeated, in spite of the sun's gravitational intensity is just equal to thar of the
the earlier repeated objections of -Frcsncl,ttrat in elastic media earth. Then, since at the solar surface the mean gravity is
the motions of the molecules, at a great distance from the 2 7 . 8 6 5 5 5 t i m e s t e r r e s t r i a l g r a v i t y ( c f . A N 3 g 9 2 ) , r v e h a v e :
source of disturbance, are always normal to the wave front,
as in the theory of sound. And rve shall show later how
$ optical and magnetic phenomena are to be reconciled rvith
this incontestible result o{ Poisson's analysis.
. Iirorn the data given in the first paper on the New
Theory of the Aether it follows that the velocity of light
is 9o4z68 times swifter than that of sound in air. As sound

2 7 . 8 6 5 5 5 1rQ
s ) z:

r/(r!

\7)

rvhere gs distance at which solar and terrestrial gravity

'l'his
will just balance.
gives b;' calculation Qs:
4r.4868
terrestrial radii, about 'lt of the nroons distance. The
following table gives the results of. sinrilar calcr.rlationsfor
the absolute density of the aether at the surfaces of the lun
and principal pianets of the solar system.

'Jt

5079

238

Table of the Absolute Density of the Aether near the Principal

Bodies of Solar Syste
m.
rl

tr{ean radius

Body

{I1

&

rif
I
:
;.

The Sun
Mercury
Venus
The Earth
Mars
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune

o
a

lnt""ng."'i,y]
I at surface I

Mean distance
of planet
in solar raclii

l c ' l _, _ri_
6 9 6 o 9 8 k m s z 73 . o r 6m
2 r 75 . 3 r
r . 8 7 9 4 + 8 q . 7t q 6
6o 9 o . 8 6
8 . ts s t
r58.4r25
6 3 7 o . 5 2 r 9 . 79 76 2 2 | g . o o o
3365.87
J . I I L +
333.687
6g++g
z6.zr7o4 1139.4r4

t:,u,:1

7
8

z r643

I r . 4 4 23
r 3.o4oo
t 4.646o

z o 8 g . o o6
4 zo z . 8 9 I
6585.a5o

Distonce at rvhich gravity

A b s o l u t e r l e n s i t yo f
I
9f eusotutertcnsity.
of
a e t h e ra t o r b i t o f p l a n e t i p l a n e t a n d s u n a r e e q u a l , "' I the aether
ar surface
mcan radii of the planet
I
Oi
o":6il

_l

3 0 3 2 z . 74 ' r o - r E
5 6 6 6 r' o 4 ' r o - 1 3
78333.34.ro-18
r r s 3 5 5 . 9 'r o - r 8
4o7553.r.ro-18
j4j209.S.ro-ls
r 5 o - 1 3 r 9 'l o - l s
2 3 S S S 2 j t' o - - r *

Accordingly for reasons already indicated we reach

,
the following conclusions.
r. Whatever be the density of the aether at +r.ag6g
terrestrial radii, u'here the sun's and earth's attractions are
equal, the aether density, from that point, must decrease
towards the earth, by the divisor ar.aSOg, and towards the
sun by the divisor zr9.
z. That is at the earth's surface
6 . t ":
osl4r.4868 .
(s)

ai=!t 4:tjtlsl
/.v.).1 /
o 9 ; A e

4r.4868
3 9 . 2r 9
r<r.o8<
427.664
7z 9 . 6 z o
t 5 z5 . 2 8 8

Qi

357.6865.ro-r3
4?rr.r.ro-18
r g g T. 5 6 . r o - r 8
r888.r5'ro-te
3o4J.3'ro*1s
rr54.z6.to-18
t 7 4 6 . r9 . r o - t s
r 6j 6 . 6 5' r o - 1 ' "
| 5 4 4 . 3 2 'r o - 1 s

Since it is an observed fact that hydrogen propasates

gggnd 3.9975 tinres fasrer than oxygen, and is ,!.9b ii-.,
lighter, we know that the rapidity of tne wave_propagation
in the aether can only point to n gas of extremeiy-small
de.nsity. No orber hypothesis is admissible. And aiopting
this experimental method, the result for the density
oi tlI
aether.:rt the earth's surface becomes

61;r: r888.rg.re-tfi
i n a p p r o x i m a t e a g r e e m e n tr v i t h t h e d e n , s i t t r. l e r i v e d f r o m
the
3 . O w i n g t o t h i s d e c r e a s eo f o n e a r t h e e a r t h , r v h e r e e n e r g ) ' o f t h e s u n ' s r a d i a t i o n , n a n r e l v :
observations are made, I{cluin's method of rg54 is not valid,
rr: 43S.ro-'l
even for the calculation of the density at the sun's surface,
which horveveris no longer valid, as already pointed
out.
b e c a u s ei t r e s t s o n t h e h y p o t h e s i so f h o m o g e n e i t y t h r o u g h o u t
1'he question ntay properl,v be raised as to how far
interplanetary and interstellar space.
this appro^xirnateagreement o[ the density of the aether,
4. At earth's surface the new method shou.s
4 3 8 . r o - l s , a n d 1 8 8 8 . r 5 . r o - 1 " , d e r i v e d f r o m t h e t h e o r vo f
r I 1 ':' r 8 8 8 ' r 5 ' r o - l E '
the sun's radiation, and the theory of sound respectivelf,
is
At' sun's snrfa<:etherefore
accidental or brought about by systematic tendencils involvinc
. r / 0 , : ( r 8 8 8 . r 5 . r o - t ' f z r 9 ) . 4 r . a 8 6 8 : 3 5 7 . 6 8 6 5 . r o - 1 " . ( q ) c o n s t a n t b i a s d u e t o u n k n o w n a n d u n s u s p e c t e dc a r r s c s .
'fhis
It alrvays is difficult to affirm the total absence of such
i s a b o u t r 7 8 . 8 4 t i m e s g r e a t e r t h a n r i , a so b t a i n e d
l t y I { t l u i t t ' s m e t h o d , l h i c h , a s a l , o v i s h o w n , i s n o t a p p l i c a b l e s 1 ' s t e m a t i ce r r o r s , o r c a u s e s s . h i c h b i a s j u d g e m e n t , b u t i n
rvithorrt modification. Ilut as the aether densitv alwavs is v i e r v o f t h e d i r e c t n e s sa n d s i n r p l i c i t yo f t h e a t o v e r e ^ s o n i n g ,
e x c e s s i v e l ys n t a l l , t h ' i s l a t t e r e x p e r i m e n t a l - t h e o r e t i c avla l t i e t b r I c a n n o t s e e a n y g r o u n d f o r d o u b t i n g t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e
the solar surface nrav be accepted rvithout question as the nerv rnethod, rvhich is based on l\icuton's formula of 16g6,
as corrected by Lallact, r8r6, and norv further corrected
true value of the absolute density o[ the acther.
to
t a k e a c c o u n t o f a g a s o f n t o n a t o m i cc o n s t i t u t i o n ,a s
A c c o r d i n g l y a t t h e s u n , r t o s:
e
x
p
e
ri-.
357.6865.re-rs
/-^\
\ r u ' / m e n t a l l y s h o w n t o e x i s t i n t h e c a s e so f m e r c u r y v a p o r , a r g o n ,
a t t h e c a r t h ,d 3 s : 1 3 3 3 . r g ' r o - r s
helium, neon, xenon, krtpton.
rvhich fulfills the larvs of lvave action:
For rvhen rve have trvo similar gases, such as oxygen
A r r r p l i t u d e.,t : l l r
and
hydrogen,
both biatomic, rvith the ratio of the speclfic
(")
F'orce,
jr-A2_pzf7z
heat under constant pressure to that under constant volume,
in accordance rvith tlre observed for.ce of eravitation.
/t2:
r.l,or, we nta)' connect their velocities at the sanre
For upon trial rve may verify the above calculations: temperature and pressure by the formula:
c 3 3t tf( r s : r 8 8 8 . r 5 1 3 5 7 . 6 5 6 5 : 5 . 2 7 7 8 8 :
t/(Sol1t) (rr)
I/f llz : t/(ZorlZro).
(r:)
o r ( o r ' / o o . ) t- g o / g r :
z 73 . o r 6 fg . 7 9 7 6 2 :
2 7 . 8 6 5 5 5.
And, since the physical condition of the two gases is
.
'Ihe
accompan,ving table for the absolute density of identical, we may put .6 :
82, and thus, in accirdance
the aether may be extended to any binary system among the w i t h e x p e r i m e n t ,
fixed stars in which the masses and dimensions are known,
IzfIr, :
/(ozlo) : r/3.8o665
(r4i
and thus the nerv theory of the aether has all the accuracy as
already pointed out.
of the theory of universal gravitation.
And rvhen the gases are dissimilar in molecular con(ii.i) The new method based on the velocity of wave- stitution, as in
the case of the aether and hydrogen, but the
propagation, as in the theory of sound, definitely excludes ratio of the specific
heat under constant pressure to that
a large value for the density of the aether.
tinder constant volume is known, we may stiil calculate their
r6.

239

5079

theoretical value of wave propagation from the use of the

,^rio y(nrf rt). And if the'r'elocity of the rvave-propagation
be observed in both cases, and we desire to determine the
relative density of one of the gases, we may effect this as
in the above case of the aether, which absolutely excludes
the possibility of a iarge density. As the aether is a gas of
excessively small density, it is therefore cornpressible, as
previously inferred, but only by powerful, cluick-acting forces.
The study of the aether as r grs, in accordance rvith
the views entertained by Neu,ton in r7z r, and approvedby
Marutcll in rE77, thus opens nerv possibilities, ancl introduces
criteria of the utmost vaiue to physical science.
2 . G e o m e t r i c a l a n d l ' } h y s i c a lO u t l i n e o f t h e
I{elationship betrveen Light, [Iagnetisnr atrd the
E l e c t r o d y n a n . r i cA c t i o n o f a C u r r e n t .
'freatise
on OpIn the 3'd edition of the celebrated
tics, r 7 z r, Query z 8, Sir lsaac '\-tw/otr treats of l{tq'ghens'
theory of double refraction in Iceland spar, on the hypothesis of two several vibrating mediums rvithin that crystal,
for relracting the ordinarl'and extraordinlry rays, but says
that Euyg/ttttJ was ilt a loss to explain thenr. t For ltressions
or motions, propagated from a shining lrody through an
n n i f o r m m e d i u m , t n u s t b e o n a l l s i d e s a l i k c ; r v l i e r e n sb y
tbese experimentsit rppears, that the ray's of light have rlifferent properties on their dill'erent sides.<

240

Let zz denote the displacement of the aether particle

fron its vertical position of equilibrium, as on the surface
of still water. Then we have for a flat wave in the plane
. r ' - r 't h e w e l l k n o w n e q u a t i o n
(ts)
u:
asin(zn.tlr-+p) - asin(2n-rl).-+ 1r)
rvhere zz represents the displacement at right angles to the
r-axis, a is the amplitude, ,1,the wave length, .and p the
plrirse angle, from which the revolving vector of radius a is
ruteasured. Such a flat wave represents motion like that propagated along the surlace of still n'ater, and the nrovements
git'en in tletail by figure r, Plate 4, rvhich is slightly
".c
rrrodifie<i from that used by Airy in his grcat treatise on
'l'ides
and \\raves, r845,
It rvill be noticed that each particle of water undergoes
a n o s r : i l l i r t i o na b o u t a r n e a n p o s i t i o n , s h o r v n b y t h e c e n t r e s
of the circies, in this very accurate figure, rvhile the rvave
form uroves on, in a direction correspondingto the axis oi
'I'hus
the particles undergo not only a
. u i n e r l u a t i o n( r S ) .
v e r t i c a l o s c i l l a t i o n ,a s t h e w a v e p a s s e s ,b u t a l s o a l o n g i t u d i n a l
'l'his
is typical of all rvaves in rvater.
oscillation.

Norv it is usual to take (r 5) es the equation of the

motion of the aether in light, and to call zz the light vector,
and to describe this light vector as revolving, when the wave
'fhe
motion u in (r5), hoivever,is simply a side
ac'lvances.
normal to the ,-axis, u'hich nray be produced
rlisyrJaccr-nent
lrv tire revolution of the radius rz in the circles, as in
I n p i o o f o f t h i s c o n f e s s i o no 1 - l a i l u r e , b . t ' / { t q 3 h t t s ,
r r t r r l r g r r r c n r o d i h c c l l - r o n t . l i r S ) s a n a l l ' s i s o f n a t er r v a v e Ncu,lott cites from the'-['raite de la Lurnicre, r69o, p. gr,
'l'he
r e a l r . u o t i o no f t h e a e t i r e r p a r t i c l e s s h o u l c i b e
rnotion.
t h e r v o r d s : > [ I a i s p o u r d i r e c o m n l e l t t c e ] a s e fr l i t , j ! ' n ' a y
s o n r e r i ' h a te l l i p t i c a l , b r . r tr n u c h l i k e t h o s e o f t h e w a t e r p a r j
u
s
q
u
'
i
c
i
q
u
i
n
r
e
s
a
t
i
s
f
a
s
s
e
.
(
rien trouve
t i r : l e s , a b o u t a n r e a n p o , . i t i o no f r a d i u s a . I i q u a t i o n ( r 5 ) t h e n
Arctalon then argues efl'ectiveiyagainst the explanation r v i l l c i v e o n l y t h e s i d e d i s p l a c e m e n t ,n o r m a l t o t h e . r - a x i s ;
o{ Eultghens, and points or.rtthe improbability of trvo aethereal and to get the rvhole rnotion of the particles we have to
m e d i a 6 l l i n g t h e c e l e s t i a ls p a c e s ,w h i c h b a s b e e n e m p h a s i z e d take the conlponents u and u normal to the
-/-axis and z-axis
in recent times by lfaru,cll, who declared it unphilosophical r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h e n t h e t h r e e c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e d i r e c t e d
to invent a new aether every time a new phenomenon was r r . r a g n i t u d ew
, hich represents the oscillation of the particle
to be explained.
about its mean position, will be
In the early days of the modern wave theory of light,
,
t/ : 0 cos(arr'tlr1-?)
the properties of polarized ra1's were carefully investigated
('6)
u - b cos(zz't,!'r-+q)
by ?'rcsncl and Arago, and subsequently verified by -qir Tohn
1 1 -, r c o s ( 2 n . t f r - + r )
Eerschel and ,1iqt, rvho fully confirmed Ntu,lott's conclusion
(ui a)'!-+-(uI t)2 -r (uf c)2 :
1
('z)
t h a t s u c h r a y s h a v e s i d e s w i t h d i s s i n i l a r p r o l ) e r t i e so n o p 'fhe
y'(uz-+uz-+w2)
progress
given
by
Fresnrl's
:
posite sides.
account of
('8)
s
.
Arago in his liloge Historique, July 26, r83o, is vcry inIt \\'ill l)e proved hereafter that there is a fundamental
structive, since Arago was associated rvith rnany of li'esncls e r r o r i n t h e r v a v e - t h e o r yo f l i g h t , a s h a n d e d d o r v n b y t r a discoveries. Resides the able anall,sis in the celebrated and dition lionr the days of Yo'ung and ,['-resttc/;and that in a
comprehensivearticle Light, Irncyclopedia Nletropolitana,r 849, ray of comrnon light the aether particle not only has transSir Johi E[crschcl's Familiar Lectures on Scientific Subjects, verse motion, but also a corresponding longitudinal motion,
r867, are valuable, in showing his rnature conclusions.
depending on the snrall ratio of the amplitude rl to the wave
It being thus recognized that a ray of polarized light length /,. After polarization these natural free rnotions of the
has sides, with dissimilar properties on opposite sides, it aether are restricted, by the resistance impressed upon natural
remains for us to form a clear image of such a ray of light, light, in. the surface action oI reflection, or transmission
and to examine the phenomena of magnetisrr.rand electricity, through transparent bodies, crystals,etc., and by unsynrmetrical
to ascertain if a relationship to light can be established.
transparency in different directions, as in tourmaline, which
The late Professor Paul Drude's coutprehensive Lehr- forces halfl the ligbt into one plane and destroys the other
buch der Optik, Leipzig, rgoo, may be consulted for a modern half. Originally the general path of the aetheron rvas elliptical,
analysis of purely optical problems; but, as our object is to and although now transforrned into oscillations near one plane
outline relationships not heretofore developed, we shall make the vibrations in most cases still are narrow ellipses, because
it is proved by the reflection of plane polarized iight front
the optical treatment very brief.

24r

242

5079

a silver surface that an almost circular polarization results, Faraday's discoveries. He found that, if heavy glass, bisulwhereas that reflected from galena has very narrow ellipses. phide of carbon, etc., are placed in a magnetic field, a ray
This could not rvell resnlt unless the polarized light before of polarized light, propagated along the lines of magnetic
'I'he
larvs o[ the phenomenon werb
reflection from these metals described narrorv ellipses, rvhich force, snffers rotation.
carefnlly
studied
by
l/crdet,
whose conclusions may be summed
are not exactly straight lines.
N o r v t h e e l l i p t i c a l p a t h s e s t a b l i s h e db y e q u a t i o n s( r 6 ) , up by saying that in a given meclinm the rotation of the
(r7), (r8), are similar to those analysed by l{er-rdtcl in y r l a n e f o r a r a y p r o c e e d i n g i n a n y d i r e c t i o n i s p r o p o r t i o n a l
S e c t i o n 6 r 8 o f h i s g r e a t a r t i c l e L i g h t , r 8 4 9 , S u p p o s e r v e to the difference of nragnetic potential at the initial and
consider the part of these waves rvhich in a polarized ray f i n a l p o i n t s . I n b i s u l p h i d e o f c a r b o n , a t r 8 o a n d f o r a
have only right-handed rotations. Then if such a selected difference of potential equal to unit C.G. S., the rotation of
beam traveling along the r-axis be looked at flat on, from t h e p l a n e o f p o l a r i z a t i o n o f a r a y o f s o c l a l i g h t i s o . o 4 o z
a point on the z-axis, the paths of the aetherons rvould n r i n t t t eo l ' a n g l e . <
)A vcr)' important distinction should be noted between
resemble the motions o.f the particles of rvater in Air1"s 11gv11s
given as fig. r, except that the aetherops rnay have paths more the magnetic rotation and that natural to quartz, s)'rup, etc.
'1'bis
is the simplest I n t h e l a t t e r t h e r o t a t i o n i s a l w a y s r i g h t h a n d e d o r a l w a y s
highly elliptical than are shown by Air1.
f o r m o f t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s i n t h e n e r v w a v e - t h e o r y o f l i g h t , left handed rvith respect to the direction of the ra1'. Hehce
rvhich will be developed in the fourth paper: and rve shall nou' x ' h e n t h e r a y i s r e v e r s e d t h e a b s o l u t e d i r e c t i o n o f r o t a t i o n
s e e i f i t i s p o s s i b l et o 6 n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g o s c i l l a t i o n s i n t h e is reversed also. A rlv rvhich tra\.erses a plate of quartz
i n o n e t l i r e c t i o n , a n d t h e n a f t e r r e f l e x i o n t r a v e r s e st h e s a m e
field of a magnet and of an electric clrrrcnt.
In the ycar rB45 fiarado-t, marle a cclcbratcd cxpcri- t h i c k n c s sa g a i n i n t h e o p p o s i t c c l i r c c t i o n , r e c o v e r si t q o r i g i n a l
m e n t i n w h i c h h e y r a s s e da b e a m o f p ) a n c y r o l a r i z e dl i g h t p l a n e o f p o l a r i z a t i o n . I t i s r l L r i t eo t h e r r v i s er v i t h t h e r o t a t i o n
a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f f o r c e ; a n d d i s c o v e r e dt h a t r l h e n t h e l i g h t u n d e r m a g n e t i c l o r c e . I n t h i s c a s e t h e r o t a t i o n i s i n t h e
t r a v e l si n a m a t e r i a l m e d i u m s u c h a s h e a v v l e a d g l a s s ,c a r b o n - s a m e a b s o l u t e d i r e c t i o n e v e n t h o u e h t h e r a y b e r e v e r s e d .
d i s u l p h i d e , e t c . , t h e p l a n e o f p o l a r i z a t i o n i s t r v i s t e d b y t h e Hence, if a ray be reflected backrvards and forrvards any
action of the masnetic field. Not only is the plane oi number of times along a line of magnetic force, the rotations
'I'he
polarization rotated, but the rotation increascs in direct pro- due to the severai l)assagesare all accumulated.
nonportion to the length of path traversed; and even u'hcn the r c v e r s i b i l i t l ' o f l i g h t i n a m a g n e t i z e d m e d i u m p r o v e s t h e
light is reflected bick and forth many times the trvistin.g of c a s c t o b e o f a v e r y e x c e f t i o n a l . c h a r a c t e r , a n d ( a s r u a s
t h e p l a n e o f p o l a r i z a t i o n i s a l r v a y s i n t h e s a u r e d i r e c t i o n argrred br Sir II;. T/tottsnn) indicated that the rnagnetized
like the helix of a circular winding stairs, as s'as lorig ago rneclium is itself in rotatory motion independently of the
propagation of light through it.<
noted by Sir Jotn.Errsrhel.
N o r v i f I u n d e r s t a n dt h i s s u b j e c t a r i g h t - a n d m y p e r In the article lVave-'fheory, Encl'clopedia 13ritannica,
9'h edition; Lord Ral,lcigh describes this rotation of thc plane sonal correspondence rvith the late Lord Ra1'leigh shows
that he concurred in the present writer's viervs - we must
o[ polarization by magnetism as follos's:
>>1'he possibility of inducing the rotatory property conccive a line of force, circling around between the poles
in bodies othenvise free from it rvas onc of the finest of o f a r r r a g n e t , t o b e t h e a x i s o f r o t a t i o n i n m a g n e t i c w a v e -

I
I
I
I
\
|
I
n\
///!/,.
\ l:.'!1,',1,
\ llt4i;t,:,!

n
-+/e1},+-e_| |
lh

fl
,^,U-,.-.'

motion, as shown by figure z, repeated

from the first paper on the New Theory
of .the Aether.
If this in'.erpretationbe adnrissible,
we see that just as plane polarized light
a
has sides,- with dissimilaipropertieson
n
oppositesides,as remarkedby Atcwton,
- --/+S**_the
Arago and Sir John llcrstfitl, Fresntl.
L/
there are plane waves receding
so
also
/J

from magnets with exactly the same sides,

rvith dissimilar properties on the opposite
sides. It is these sides rvith oppositely
directed rotations in the waves of the
aether which gives poles to n:agnets.l)
Magnetic polarity is. thus directly
connected by similarity of the rotations
in the plane rvaves with plane polarized
light. And just as the amplitude of light
waves decreaseinversely as r, the distancg
-;--"-l' t'"'
i 1 ,''. z . T h e w a v e - t h e om
r yaogf n e t i s smh, i c h g i v e s a r l i r e c t a n d s i m p l e
/
; _ . . - * -the
_
; , : : , _ _ - ^ centre
' ^ : . - _ ^ ' (cf
i ^ ;' Drudc,
radiating
from
of both attractionand rcnulsion.,,,a r,".-onir"r'fti
/
"*ot""rtion
|I
knorvn
l<n'orvn
phenomena
of magnetisrn,
opticsand electrodynamic
action. Lehrbuch der Optik, r 9oo, Teil II, Kap. II)
_
,
r) ,Ncr,lon clrne to the conclusionthat each of the nvo rays (of polarizedlight) had trvo sidesr;landifromthe analbgyof this two-

i-

T
I
I

s i d e d n e s sw i t b t h e i t r v o - e n d e d n e s so f a n r a g n e t t h e t e r m p o l a r i z a t i o n a r o s e ( -

Gagc's Principles of Physics, r897, p. 4o4.

2+3

5079

so also in magnetisnr, the rvave anrplitudes follow the law:

A : /tlr, giving the force if - k2fr2, as observed in the
actions of magnetism and universal gravitation (cf. Electrod.
Wave-Theory of Phys. Forc., Vol. t, tgrT). Accordingly,
the connection between magnetism and light is obvious, the
moment we do not restrict our conceptions of light to the
s i d e d i s p l a c e m e n ti n ( r 5 )

u :

a sin(zrr'/1-t-p)

(rs)

but regard light as a disturbance involving a circular or

elliptical displacement of the particles about a mean position,
as the vector 4 representing this displaceurent in th case
of a circle, revolves in a plane, which may be tilted at an1'
angle relative to the coordinate axes.
In his celebrated article Light, r849, Sir John -[fu'scle/
shorvs,by carefully considered leasoning, that in the elliptical
pat{rs of the aethereal vibrations constituting light, the niotion
o f t h e a e t h e r o n i s a b o u t t h e c e n t r e o f t h e e l l i p s e s ,j u s t a s
is the path of a vibrating conical pendulunr,rvhich may a)so
change the path of its rlotion under the steadvapplication
of small impulses.
Suppose the undisturbed position of an aetheron bc
taken as origin, and let trvo radii vectores, drawn frorn the
centre of the elliptical path to the disturbed aetheron,be g
and g'; then rve have the rvellknorvn e(luations
.

Q,

.r:1j,?

_+_5'.1

gg'cos0:

:
3,) 1_1J2 _1_3t2
,r,.1
r r ' - Y 1 , - 1 , t . r -5 ' t

c o s d . : c o s a c o s r r ' - F c o s p c o s p ' - + r : o s ; ,c o s ; , '

c o s 2 a - l -c o s ? p - f c o s 9 1' : c o s z { r ' - + c o s : p ' - + - c o s 9 7: ' 1

/ - , \
\2ol

(' ')

1 ' h e a n g l e 0 n r e a s u r e st h e r n o t i o n o l ' t h e l i g h t v e c t o r
in the plane of the ellipse, rvhile the angles c(, P, f, tt', F', /'
are fixed by the direction cosines of the revolving radius
vector at any time,
It now remains to examine the disturbancestakinq
place about a wire bearing an electric current florving fronr
s o u t h t o n o r t h , a s i n O e r s t c d ' se x p e r i n e n t o f r 8 r 9 . H e r e
we notice that if the needle be suspended beneath the rvire,
the north pole is deflected to the west by the actior.r of the
current. If the needle be suspended above the rvire, under
like conditions, the north pole is deflectedto the east.
It thus appears that just as magnets have plane waves
- l i k e t h o s eo f p l a n e p o l a r i z e d l i g h t r o t a t i n g i n o n e d i r e c t i o n ,
and thus having dissimilar properties on opposite sides so also an electric current has plane n'aves lvith sides, and
with dissimilar properties on opposite sides, as shorvn by
'L-his
the study o( Ocrsted's experiment of r 8 r 9.
follorvs
also from the production of rnagnets from common steel
under the electrodynamic action of a solenoid, as in Any'lrr's
experiment of 18zz,
'I'he
correct theory of an electric current is that it is
made up of plane waves, flat in the plane through the axis
of the 'rvire, as shown in figure r z, section VI, and more fully
in figure rA (el. 6), section IX, below.
In his celebrated address on the relations between
light and electricity, Sept. zo, 189o, I{crtz tried to illuminate the connection previously recognized by lLfotuttll, and
distinctly referred both light and eiectricity to the aether.
rI am here<, he says, )to support the assertion that light of
every kind is itself an electrical phenomenon - the light

24+

of the sun, the light of a candle, the light of a glorv-lvorm.

Take arvay from the rvorld electricity, and light disappears;
remove from the world the luminiferous ether, and electric
and nragnetic actions can no longer traverse space( (cl. I{rtz,
I i i s c e l l l n e o u s p a p e r s ,p . 3 r 3 ) .
-fferlz was not able to rnake out the details of the
r e l a t i o n s h i ps o u g h t , b u t t h e e x p e r i m e n t sw h i c h h e d e v i s e d t o
shorv that clectric waves are refracted, reflected and interfere,
like light waves, marked an epoch in the development of
r a d i o t e l e g r a p h y ,a n d h a v e l o n g s i n c e b e c o m e c l a s s i c . Y e t
rviren others took up the work, after -Ffur'lr'spremature death,
rvhilst they verified and used his results, they did not add
to the theor)' of the aether, which IIertz considered essential
to scientific progless. Ffence the r-reecistill remained to trar , e r s e t h e l o l i y s u n . r n i i t sn o t ) ' e t e x p l o r c d ( I f c r t z , l . c . , p . 3 2 7 ) ,
antl to ruake out geometrically the nature of tbe displacenrents involved in these rvaves.
Accordingly rie have gone into tl)e nature of light nnci
e l c c t r i c r v a v e si n s u c h a w a y a s t o i l l u m i n a t e t h i s r e l a t i o n shrp. IItrlz renrarks that to rrlany persons ,lfaxue/l's electronuqnetic theory is a book sealed tr'ith seven seals. Thus
the breaking of'the seals,that *'e mar.read the details otthc illunrinated pages, rvould alone give us a direct view oI
D a t u r e ' ss e c r e t s ,a n d j u s t i f y a n y t r e a t m e n t r v h i c h w o u l d t h r o w
light on this obscure subject and con6rnr the doctrine of
( o n t i n l l i t v i n r ) r l t l l r a l1 ' h i l o s o p h y .
J . I i t r l t r ' sl ) e f e c t i v e ' l ' h e o r y o f I i a g n e t i s m h a s .
'I'hought
in \Iodern Science: Sinrple
rlisdirectecl
I.)xplanation of Indut:tion, ancl of the Dynamo on
the \\'ave-'l'heorl'.
\i) Euler's theory of aetherial circulation, and its pers i s t c n c es i n c e r 7 4 4 .
N o t h i n g c o u l c l L r e t t e ri l l u s t r a t e t h e u n s a t i s f a c t o r ys t a t e .
o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c l o c t r i n e so f e l e c t r i c i t y a n d m a g n e t i s m , t h a n
t h e o l d c o n c e l ) t i o r 1o f . r m a g n e t , f i r s t o u t l i n e d b y E u k r a t
I 3 c r l i n , r 74 . + , a n d s i n c e h a n d e d d o n ' n , w i t h v e r y s l i g h t
changes,and tlrus copied, rrith the original defects of symnretry, into hundredsof rvorks on physics used by the prin-.
cipal nations of the rvorld.
It is authenticated, that in his university career ar
l}asel, .ltuler had studicd both anatorny and physiology. .\s.
an outcome of this anatomical research he tlas lhmiliar with
'l'hus
the circulation of the blood in the human body.
he
u n d e r s t o o dt h e v a l v u l a r s t r u c t u r ei n t h e a r t e r i e s ,w h i c h s e c u r e s .
the liow of the blood in one direction only, as the heart
beats to expel the blood through the arterial systenr.
Accordingly when Euler attempted, t\\'enty years later,.
t o d e v e l o p a t h e o r y o f n r a g n e t i s n r ,w h i c h s h o u l d r e c o n c i l e
all the.knorvn facts, including the attraction of unlike and
the repulsion of like poles, he assumed a flux o[ the aether,
along the axis of the n'ragnet, inward at the south pole and
outrvard at the north pole, as shown in figure 3 Plate 4
lron Eule/s rvork (Dissertatio de Magnete, r744, published
in Lule/s Opuscula, vol. lll, Berlin, r75r, Plate I).
'l'his
remarkable figure has been handed down by tradition for r76 years, and its validity apparently seldom or
never questioned, though it probably is less used of Iate
years than formerly. lt appears in the pbysical treatises o[.

245

5079

all countries,and has vitiated even the mathematical

theory
of Martaell (Treatise on Electricity and tr{agnetisr.n,vol.
II.,
p. 28, $ ao4).

246

To be sure that no injustice was done to

Eulcr, I took
a small magnetic needle, suspended by a thread
accurately
fastened to its centre, and iound by actual
trial how this
small magnet behaved when substituted for the
soft iron wire
described above.
\\'e find by trial that the suspended
needle also is
drawn from th equator-of the magnet towards
either pole,
'The
exactly as in the case of the soft iron nire above
used.
deflection of the supporting thread from the vertic.al
direction
of gravitl', shown by the glass marble suspended
in the
centre of the field, under actual trial, shows ihis
clearly and
unmistakably.
It seems therefore absolutely certain that
Eulcr,s defecti'e theory of magnetism,with fatal iack
o f e s s e n t i a sr v n r metr)', yet copied in all. the works on physics
for the past
r76 years, was an o'ersight due to the partial
brindnessof
t h a t g r e a t m a t h e r n a t i c i a n ,a n d t h u s e x c u s a i r e .
But what shail
$'e say of the careless reasoning of phvsicists,
rvhich has
e n a b l e d t h i s u n s l ' m m e t r i c a la n d u n n a r u r ; l h g u r e
to be handed
d o r v n u n c h a n g e d t h r o u g h n e a r l y , t r r . oc e n t u r i J s ,o r
e l s en r e n d e d
b1' strained reasoning Iike that used by i[a:xutctt
above?
I t m a y p e r h a p sb e a l l o w e d t h a t t h e a b o v e e x p e r i m e n t a l
result definitely establishes the electrod.
w a v e _t h e o r y o f
magnetism, set forth in the Electrod. \Vave-Th"o*
of ilnu..
Iiorc., r'ol, I, r g r 7. Accordingly, since rve ha'e
attained a
l t a t u r a l p o i n t o f l i e u , , b a s e d o n r e c o g n i z e csl v n t m e t r r , ,
for the
t h e o r i e s o f - e l e c t r i c i t va n d m a g n e t i . , r . ,o,. " s h a l l
s e eh o s . f u l l y
the nel' theorf is con6rmed br. de6nite
lrhenomenarvhich
a r e s i r n p ) ea n d e a s i l v u n d e r s t o o d .

Maxu.'clls reasoning js as follows:

rThe nragnetic force and the
magnetic induction are
.
identical outsidethe magnet, but within fhe substance
of the
magnet ther. must be carefully distinguished.<
,lln a straight uniformll,-maguetized
bar the magnetic
_
force drre to the magnet itself is fronr the end
rvhich ioints
north, rvhich lve call the positive pole, towards
the south
e n d o r n e g a t i v e p o l e , b o t h w i t h i n i b e n . r a g n e ta n d
in the
space u'ithorrt.<
The Iack of symmetry and of appropriate phy.sicai
basis to tliis reasoning is so truly remarkatle-as to
occasion
genuine surprise that it should have been used
bv ,4{arur//.
He continues:
.rThe magnetic induction, on the other hand, is
from
.
the positive pole to the negative outside the
magnet, and
from the. negarile pole to ihe positive rvithjn thJ
..gn"l
so that the lines and tubes of induction are reenrenng
or
cvclic figures.<
This artificial and unnatural theorl. is outlinecl in
the
a c c o n r p a n fi n g s k e t c h , s e e F i g . q p l . q ' . F i g .
pl.
illu_
a
5
strates.the usage of Euhr's Circulation ;lt .o.y
of a Magnet
in various modern u'orks. The 6gure above, on
the left is
from tVilli/ran and Gah,s First Course in I,h1,sics,r
9o6 ; that
to the right is {ront Gaztbroal's Electricitl, ancl
l\lagnctisrn,
t g o 3 ; t h e s p h e r eb e l o n ' i s f r o m c t - r s l a / r ' sa r t i c r e o n
trIa!netisnr,
E n c y c l .B r i t . , 9 E d . , r 8 7 5 ; w h i l e i h . f i g u . " t o t h e r i g h i
beiou.,
js from Dnrdt's Physik
des Aethers, rg94.
It appears that lfaturtll adhered to Eulcr's conceptions
\ii) )fa.ru,cl/'s difficulties overconle by the wave_theory.
so far as induction is concerned, but added to
But,
first of all, n,e call attention to the fact that
it to explain
in his
magnetic force.
p a p e r . O n P h 1 - s i c aLl i n e s o f F o r c e ( S c i e n t i f i c p a p e r s ,
vol. I,
T h e a n o m a l y o f i m a g i n i n g t h e m a g n e t i cf o r c e t o
o p p o s e p . 4 6 8 ) l f a r u , c / l s e a r c h e dd i l i g e n t l y b u t i n ' a i n f o i t h e
the induction u'ithin the body of the niagnet,
"nr*".
but not rvith_ to the question: )\'hat, is an electric currenti(
,r:]t, i..striking, and probably due to ttrJ naU;t
> I h a v e f o u n d g r e a t d i f 6 c u l t y , < h e s a 1 , s ,r i n
of referring ,
conceiving
all actions to that of a unit north Dole.
of the existenceof \.ortices in a nrediunt side
b
y
side, rel
On the other hand the rnuch simpler conceptions
o f v o l v i n g i n t h e s a n t e d i r e c t i o n a b o u t p a r a ) l e la x e s . T h e c o n t h e \ 1 ' a v e - t h e o r ) r. ,9 r 7 , n e e d n o e m p h a s i s . \ 1 : e
r h e r e i m a g i n e t l q u o u s p o r t i o n s o f c o n s e c u t i r . ev o r t i c e s m u s t b e n r o v i n g
in
the stress in the aether to be dui to waves fronr
all the opposite directions; and it is dif6cult to understand ho*rthe
atoms, so that the lines of force _ rvhich are
the axes of rnotion of one part of the medium can coexistwith, and
even
r o t a t i o n o f t h e r e c e d i n g \ 1 , a v e s- t e n d t o s h o r t e n
themselves, ltroduce, an opposite lnotiou of a part in contact rvith
it.<
as Faradot' had obserr.ed, and as rve have explained
>The only conception xhich has at
me_
a
l
l
a
i
d
e
d
.
t
h
e
me in
chanically in the second paper on
New Theory of the concei'ing of this kind of
motion is that of the 'ortices
Aether.
b e i n g s e p a r a t e d b y a l a 1 . e ro f p a r t i c l e s , r e v o l v i n g
each on
It is verl'difficult to account for the defective
theorr. its orvn a.xis in the opposite direction to
that of th'e vortices,
of t.744 excepr by remembering that Erkr
hrd i"j;r;;
s o t h a t t h e c o n t i g u o u s s u r f a c e so f t h e p a r t i c l e s
and of the
e y e s i g h t ,w h i c h d i d n o t e n a b l e h l m t o d e t e c t t n e
true sym_ vortices have the sante lnotion.<
m e t r i c a l n a t u r e o f m a g n e t i s n , b y e x p e r i r n e n t sw i t h
soft iion,
. r I n m e c h a n i s n r ,w h e n t w o t v h e e l s a r e i n t e n d e d
to reor with smailer magnetic needles, as shown in the
a c c o n r l volve in the sanre direction, a wheel is placed
between them
panying photograph, see Fig. 6 pI.
4 , o f a n e x p e n m e n t s.o--as
be in gear rvith both, and this wh&l is called
an
.to
made by the presentwriter, lg14.
wheel'. 1'he hypothesis about the 'ortices which
,idle
I have
.
Sgft iron paper lasteners lreely suspended by threads
to suggest is that a layer of particles, acting as
idle wheels,
are used to indicate the pulling from the equator
_
towards is interposed between each
vortex and the nlxt, so that each
eitber pole of the magnet. ThJ lines of force thus visiblv
vortex has a tendenc)' to make the neighbouring ,r,ortices
tighten and shorten themselves by the aetherial suction
into revolve in the same direction with itself.<
either pole; and Euler's defective theory of an inward
florv
The dif6culty heredescribe
d by Marutell is immediately
.
at the south pole and an outrvard flow at the north
pole is solved by the wave-theory,for when a
continuousseries of
disproved by observationswhich any.one can make for hirnself.
waves are florving,the rotatory motions

of ail the particles

247

5079

of the medium are in the same direction, as we see frotn

the above Fig, r, Pl. 4, frorn Airy', znd no such antagonism
mentions can arise. Surely this removai of
as tlfaruell
Marucll's dif6culty, 'along with the complicated structure of
ridle wheels<, which he devised for the stationary aether
vortices, in default of wave-motion, must be considered a very
remarkable triumph of the wave-theory.
In r9r4 I found by caref-ulexperinrent that a suspended
magnetic needle is bodily attracted to a wire bearing a current,
owing to the interactions of the waves from the wire and the
needle. But it appears from Maxwel/'s address on Action
a t a D i s t a n c e , ( S c i e n t i f i cP a p e r s ,v o l . I I , p . . i r ? ) t h a t h e d i d
r) a
not look upon an electric current as bodily attracting
suspended magnetic neeclle.
>\Ve have now arrived at the great discovery by Oersted
of the connection between electricity and magnetism. Oersttd
found that an electric current acts on a magnetic pole, but
'attracts
it nor repels it, but cattsesit to move
that it neither
round the current. He expressed this by saying that ,the
electric conflict acts in a revolving manner',>The most obviotts deduction from this new lact rvas
that the action of the current on thd n)agnet is not a pushand-pull force, but a rotatory force, and accordingly many
minds were set a-speculating on vortices and streams of aether
whirling round the current.(
And I have not been able to find any clear staterlrent
o f t h e p r o v e d a t t r a c t i o no f n e e d l e t o a w i r e b e a r i n g e c t l r r e r r t ,
i n l a t e r w r i t e r s ; t h e y a l t e v a d e i t , b y a r g u n t e n t sa s t o t l i c
behavior of a unit north pole, rvhen no such single pole
exists. In the theory of magnetisrn it is no tnore pert.inent
to discuss the actions of hall of a magnet than it rvould be
in human physiology to treat of one side of our bodies only,
rvhen the whole body is perfectly sylnmetrical, and not to
be split up into halves, and cannot act as such. One leg,
one arm, one side of the brain and spinal colun-rnperfortrts
no functions alone and all such discussion is unscientific and
a very imperfect rnakeshift.

248

magnetic metal is at relative rest, but the moment any relative

rlotion takes place, th6 rvave-fieldpenetrating the non-magnetic
metal undergoes change, and this change of the wave-field
disturbs the equilibrium of the aether in the non-magnetic
metal, and the result is induction, or the generation of electric
waves in the metal, which becomes temporarily magnetic.
'I'he
nietal therefore enrits waves rvith rvhirls or rotations
opposite to that of the inducing magnet.
'ottr
demonstration of the cause of n-ragnetism,
Now in
r g r 7 , i t i s s h o w n t h a t t h e r e a s o n w h y o p p o s i t ep o l e s a t t r a c t ,
is that the opposite rotations in the rvaves frorn such poles
cause an undoing of the stress of the mediunr, so that it
collapses, and this tendency to contriict is rvhat we call
attraction. In the same way the relatiie motion o[ a cottrpass needle over a metal plate induces in it opltosite polarity,
with opposite rotations iu the rvaves enritted tlierefrorn; and
then the tenlporary magnetism induced in tbe plate by tire
relative motion of the needle, calls lbrth attraction betrveen
the needle and the metal. Accordingly, this induction acts
as a drag on the vibrations of the necdle, and brings it to'
rest sooller than rvould be the case if the vibrations were
over rvood, rvhich is almost devoid of inductive effect, because
it is non-rnetallic.

(iv) Arago's rotations and the tlvnanro explained.

S o o n a f t e r G a n b e ; , ) so b s e r v a t i o t ti n r 8 2 . 1 , t h e s u b j e c t
rvas ini'estigated by .lrago, \'ho found that a col)l)er plate'
u n c l c r t h c n c c d l e w a s m o s t e f l ' e c t i v ei n d a n r p i n g i t s v i b r a t i o n s .
On rotating the copper disc in its oln piane beneath the
needle, he found that the needle rvas dragged around b1'
an invisible frict.ion; and rvhen the magnet was rotated near
the colrperdisc, the disc was dragged by the rotating magnet.
'l'his
action rvas spoken of for a tinre, as a sort of magnetisrn of rotation, but in r83 t, Faradal'discovered induction,.
and shoned that zlra,qo'srotations depend on this cause.
Accorriing to Faraday a tnagnet moved near a solid.
llrass or plare of metal, induces in it disturbanceswhich
result in currents rvhen they are properly directed, as from
(iii) Induction due to rnotion of a.trtagnet explained a dy'narno. If they are not directed through a circuit, they
florv fron'r one point to another, ancl the energy is lrittered
by the wave-theory.
In the year r8z4 it rvas observed by Ganltel' 111a121 dorvn into heat, but meanwhile the electroriragnetic forces.
compass needle oscillating in its box came to rest sooller act as a drag on the rotations taking place.
if the bottom were made of metal than if of rvood. What
] ' i g . Z , P I . 5 , i l l u s t r a t e st h e e d d y c u r r e n t s l o n g r e i s t h e r e a s o n ' o f t h i s d r a g g i n g a c t i o n o f t h e n r e t a l i I n t h e cognized in such experiments. But from our electrodynamic
Electrod. \Vave-Theory of Phys. Forc., rve have explained rvave-theory'of nragnetism, we recognize these rvhirls as the
induction by rvave-action,and shown that when waves having, elements of rotations in rvaves receding from the nragnet.
say, positive rotation suddenly penetrate a metallic substance,
If rve spin the disc of copper as shown in hg. 7, and
the effect of these positive rvhirls is to generate negative lead off the disturbances by a circuit of wire connecting the
nretallic whirls, in virtue o[ the disturbances of the aethcr' points rz and / rve get the current generated by a dynamo,
'fhat
which rvas also invented by ?brada1,.
is to say, no such permanent disturbances will
'fhe
above explanation of the generatiorr of a current
occur when bgth the magnet emitting rvaves and the nont) LI4eue//, fiistory of the Inductive Sciences,
,On attempting
. 3 r de d . r 8 5 7 , v o l . I I I , p . 7 3 , e x p r c s s e sh i r n s e l f i n a b o u t t h e s a t n er v a y :
to analyse the electro-nlagnetic phenonrena observed by Otrsled and others into their sinrplest fornrs, they appeared, at least at first sight, to be
t l i f f e r e n t f r o m a r r y r n e c h a n i c a la c t i o n s w h i c h h a d y e t b e e n o b s e r v e d . l t s e e m e d a s i f t h e c o n d u c t i n g w i r e e x e r t e d o n t h e p o l e o f t h e r n a g n e t
on nearer, or to push it further off, in
a f o r c e r v h i c h v a s n o t a t t r a c t i v e o r r e p u l s i v e , b u t t r a n s v e r s e ; - n o t t e n d i n g t o d r a u ' t h e p o i n t a c t 'el 'dh e
forces appcared to be such as l{cflcr
the Iine rvhich reached frorn the acting point, but urging it to. rnove at right anglcs to this line.
had dreamt of in the infancy of mechanical conceptions; rather than such as those of which Neuton had established the existencein the
s o l a r s y s t e m , a n d s u c h a s h e , a n d a l l h i s s u c c e s s o r s h, a d s u p p o s e d t o b e t h e o n l y k i n d s o f f o r c e w h i c h e x i s t i n n a t u r e . T h e n o r t h p o l e o f t h e
needle moved as if it rvere impelled by a vortex revolving round the wire in one direction, while the south Pole seemedto be driven by an.
opposite vortex. The case seerned novel, and almost paradoxical,r

25r

5079

'into the history' of the subject

But we should look
,
since the earliest experiments, eighty years ago, in order
to get a connected view of the whole subject of electric
oscillations'
---' -i.
It r842, Profes sor Josclh Eenry was occupied with
jar, and reached the
the study of the discharge of a Leyden
eye as a single
naked
the
to
upp"..t
what
that
conclusion
transfer of
single
the
by
soark, >is not correctly iepresented
jar
the
other'(
to
the
of
side
one
from
fluid
.an impo.rderable
rThe phenomena,( he adds, >require us .to admit the ex' istence of a principle discharge in one direction and then
feeble
several reflex actions backward and forward, each more
>I{enry's
than the preceeding until equilibrium is obtained'
conclusions *"re dr^*r, from observations of the irregular
jar discharges
magetizations of steel needles rvhen Leyden
experiments'
Sauarl's
in
as
coil,
a
through
are-directed
'
were mathematically confirmed
5. I{cnry's conclusions
for the
in ,rSj3 by Lord Kclain, who reached the formula
time of these oscillations:

252

jar' If oniy
is released, as in the discharge of. a Leyden
present'
were
capacity,
or
inductance
one of these factors,
but not both, the disturbance would rise and fall according
to some exponential function of the time, yet without regular

oscillations.
When both inductance and capacity are present, as in
all metallic systems, the disturbance calls forth both elasticity
and inertia, because the electric disturbance is physically
impeded and the aether is set into wave motion of the kind
nbove described.
g. So long as difference of potential is maintained at
the trvo ends of a circuit this electric wave oscillation is
maintained along the wire. As in the case of the Leyden
jar, so also for a battery; the oscillatory discharge begins
ihe moment the circuit is-complete, and continues to flow
as a steady current. Since there is finite but small loss of
\\'ave energy through the body of the rvhire, owing to its
physical ...i.ton." to the free movements of the aether, the
wave disturbance erlvelopes the rvire cylindrically, traveling
nrore rapidly in the free aether outside; but the wave front
\ " J /
T: znlt/0lKL-/t2laL2)
just
is continualiy bent inward ton'ards the metailic cylinder,
exgreater
the
by
globe,
the
around
where ,( is the capacity of the condenser, now usually
as the *'ireless wave is bent
globe
oressed in Farads; Z the inductance, now usuaily expressed
resistance to the n)otion of the radio wave in the solid
o'ot
i . , H " n r y s ; a n d , ? t h e r e s i s t a n c e ,i n O h m s ' I f ' (
t
h
e
e
a
r
t
h
.
o
f
- o, ihe time of
Henry, and i?
'l'he
Microfarad, ,f :6.ees6r
above bxpianation of the waves propagated from
or the freI
:
be
5o3ooo''l'hey
an oscillation will be found to
gives a very satisfactory account of the pheniey be a conductor
quency of the oscillations 5o3ooo per second'
a physicai standpoint. Ilut it is hdvisable to
liom
h i g h e r nornena
made'as rapid as rooooooo per second, or even of
into the matter also from the historical point of view,
look
rvaves
frequency; yet we cannot make them as rapid as the
in orcler to perceive the driti of research during the past
atonric
not
of
is
apparatus
physical
our
becruse
of iight,sixty years.
'freatise
dimensions.
on lilectricity and ltlagner o. ln the celebrated
6. When R'l+Lt is so small as to be negligible com'4[axu'ell tirst irrought out the fundase(l',
r
et
r87S,
tism,
S
lZ
of
pared to tf I{L, tie time of oscillation becomes like that
mental differen.e betrveen electromagnetic and electrostatic
motion:
harmonic
simPle
undamped
u,a
u n i t s , a n d s h o w e d t h a t t h e r a t i o i s a l ' v a y se q u a l t o L f T :
\z+)
f :2ryI/KL.
velocity. flpon this basis Martacl/ erected the foundation of
But if R2f+L2 is snrall, yet not wholly insensible, the discharge the electromagnetic theory of light, rvhich has come into
the
is oscillaiory, for undei the danrping due to resistance,
general use, titough the mystery of the connection between
electricity was not fully cleared up' For example,
period is aitered, and the tinre of oscillation becomes of the iight
".rd
telegraPhY:
iorm us"d in radio
Lorcl .Kttuiu never could see how it helped the rvave-theory
o
f light (Baltimore Lectures, r904, p' 9)'
zy'(nzt-12)'1/I{L
T
'
As already pointed out, it witl be seen from the table
where / is the logarithmic decrenrent'
given belorv, that the dimensions of resistance, in electroconfirmed Lord
7. In r858 Feddcr:scnexperimentally
which represents.a velocity' This
jar iragnetic units, is LT-',
theory 6f tbe oscillatory character of the'Le1'den
having profound physical signifi' Kcluinis
fact,
remarkable
uery
is
i
a
discharge, by photographing the image of the spark 'in
cance, which may well claim our attention' ls it possibie
.rotating" mi.iot, and found that the image of light rvas drawn
and obeying Ohnls
each that the resistance felt in all conductors,
out inio a series of images, due to sparks following
motion of electromagnetic wavesthe
of
'Ihe
indication
an
is
law,
iilustration of this oscillatory.
other in rapid succession.
the resistance is generated? lf
in r9o4 by Ztnntch' along the wires, by which
was
obtained
Plate
8,
in
fig.
discharge
5,
units should be z2 times
in
electromagnetic
.o, ,ff. dimensions
who usid a Braun tube as an oscillograph'
electrostatic units, as actually observed'
in
that
8. Now in the case of a steady electric current, the
r r. ln his celebrated discussion of the elecfric medium
conductor connects points having difference of potential:
showed how re,< could be determined.experimenMasu,ell
this difference tends to adjust itself, by the electric contact,
fact, Vf/ebcr and l{ohlrausch as early as 1856, r7
In
tally.
in
set
resulting from the conductor, and thus the aether is
years before Maruell's treatise appeared, had already carried
oscillati,on and the waves travel along the wire, iust as water
tut a numerical determination, and obtained the approximate
runs dorvn hill from higher to lower gravitational potential'
value er: 3 r o7 4oooo nretres per second (Poggendorffs Ann',
and in this transfer some dissipation ol energy results'
r 856, Aug., PP. I o-z 5).
'
Inductance is Present in the wire, and as it has also
'l'his
constant has since been determined by many
. capacity, the contact yields electric oscillations, when energy

( ,s )

i i.l
; i.',
i"

254
investigators, rvorking albng lines indicated
by Masutcll, witl,t ments. It suffices
to confine our attention,to a
very.accordant resurts, the latest and
physical
no doubt the l".t felng
explanation of the results obtaine.d,
that by Professor E. B. Rosa and zV.
Uut
not yet
'
n iorrryoftV"stingion]
clearly
"ppnr.ntly
understood by natural pt itosophe.rl
tgo7, Bulletin of the Bureau
of Standards, vol.
3, ,;.. ;
comparing the dimensions of the
and 4, p. 6or, namely:
electromagnetic
9".
units with those o[ the.electrostatic
units, we find that there
.u: z.gg7.toro.
is always a uniform diffe^rence
t.?. Ar these publications are universally
d"p;l;;g
on the common
,
accessible, factor Lf ?:u,
or L2f Tz:rr,
we shall not go into the details
-":
'
in the f;ll;;l;;
"
"
of these electrical exoeri- tables.
,.
"'r-rn-o*"n
1 3 . T a b l e o f t h e equivalent dimensions
in the'trvo theoretical systems of units.
Electrostatic
E lect ro_magne t ic
r. Charge of electricity
e
- 17,tlz
Mtlr aEh 7-r
ath. n
o M./, L't,
z. Density
114'ba-th T-7
Q
i14,1tt
ytlr a*6lt
a-stz.,
3. Electromotive force
.
E
* 11th
i1('h a'h 7-1
jll'|,
L,h
T-2.
r
LEt' ?-2
lu
4. Electric intensity
R-(X,y Z) i17"tt
a-'n T-r : ,17t"1,n7-, il, 1y'h 1,th 7-2
5. Porential
p'rlr ltlz 7-l
,'
:
1lltlt art, 7-2. ,'1)
17'h a'h 7-2
6. Eleictric polarization
11'h 11-'tz T-r - 71,tt 1,-,i.,
x, l,)
llf,
iY'tlt a-Elt
7. Capacity
C
* L-1 ?-2.
L
'8.
uz
L-r 72
Current
.'
;.
- 74.1h
,ytth aEh 7-2
a,b 7*t .,
lyth 1,'h 7-r
g. Current per unit area
(u, u,'tt,)
j[,,,|-*ri
-r.,
l{'/, L-tl' T-2 :
,
M'/t L-Eh 7--r
r o. Resistance
R
-L?-r.rluz
L-rT
L 7-r
r r. Specific resistance
,r
_ f.2 7__r .'t
T
"r ii
lu2
L2 T-l
r z. Strength of magnetic pole t4
'h.
lf
L'h
: 1l.1thLEl, Z--r. rf t,
t
l
'
l
t
l
t
r
t
h
r
t
r 3. .\'Iagnetic lorce
- L
t
H (o,
/l[t./. L\h I'-2
t r f r l r | - r l .' - ^ - r
,.11'1,
a-'i T-,6.u
.8, ,f)
1tr
r4. l\,lagnetic induction'
L
,l
B (o, b, c)
1tt
J1'l,L-"1,
:
'': r'
71ttz1,
T-r. r lu 7 1 t l t L - t h 7 - r
r5. Inductive.capacity
,
I{
r
:L-!Z-.:.ur
r,.'t'
L-t 72
r6. tr,Iagnetic permeability
L-2 T2
lt'
:
1 . 1 f7 , 2
'l'able
I
of practical units in the two s y s t e ms .
Forsimplicity,
q
Quantity

r\ame ol unll

Chargeof electricity Coulomb

Electronrotiveforce I
Electricintensity I Volt
Potential
I

Capacity
Capacity
Current
Resistance

Farad
Xlicrofarad
Ampdre

'
li \l e
r eaassutrler e Ii n
I\Ieasure in
.
.
r
r
^
m
,
_
,
,
^
.
,
^
e l e c t r o m a.g- . u n t s e l ceccttrroosst taat lt ci uc n li tt :s
(/,:3. ro,,,C(iS)

ro '

ro8
r o-9
r o- 15
-1
ro

3'ro3

r ff t . r o r )
g'ro11
g'r05
3'rol'
r/(9.ro1t)

Obm
ro9
It will be seen from the element, resistance,
no. ro,
in the above table, that to establish
equiualence,the electrostatic unit must be divided by (f a-'t|z
i, t1, ,r, which is
t h e s q u a r eo f t h e d i m e n s i o n si n ' . t . . t . # o f n e t i c
units. l.his
indicatesthat eiectronragnetic
wavesresist& by a conductor
depending on ihe squareof the ueiocttyrvith
rvhich
.1o^
_*:rU
they
travel, which conforms to general experience
in
all
physical

problerns where energy ii expended.

r4..It thus. appears that the ratio
betrveen the trvo
sets of units is uiriformly Lf T:
z, in the first or second
power, and thus z undo_ubtedly
represents
-;; a velocity, as 6rst
clearlylset forth by Marueil, T.;";i*
Electricity and
Magnetisni, s 7zr et seq. Fortunatery
it ioppen, that this
ratio can also be determlned experimentalty,
f.om a current
of electricity in motion, and from an
identical electrostatic
charge, at rest: thus a, admits of electric
measurement, independently of any theory of light. But
as the value ofz is the
same.as
velocity of light, Maru,ell naturally
_the
concluded
that the electric medium is identical *itt
ttre tuminiferous aether.
The following is an outrine of the method
of ln.u.u.",n.nt.

s u p p o s e c o n d e n s ei rs c h a r g e d* i r f r i f i " .
i ,tricity,
- , ^ , . _ .and let
its quaniity, p, u" .neusu..a i" erectrostatic
unlts,
dete-rminingro, i".tni.e .h; ,;;ij;rr
which a given
fy
proportion
of thc total chargeproducesin a torsion
balance
of known dimensions.
'Let
t h e c o n d e n s e r , baeg a i nc t r a r g e dt o t h e
s a m ee x t e n t ,
and let it be discliarsed.th.oug-tgotuuio_.ier.
By
measuring
"
the deflectionprodriced,the const?nts
;a;;;

\n:*n,-" ;i;";;;ine

the.
qo"n,i,y
;;T:llilil,tffi:f,

deflectedthe galvanonreter.This gir".'Uf

ai.ect observation
:.
Q G . ^ . ) l e ( e . s .: ) C . 3 . o . r o r C
o f: 3 . o . 1 6 1 0

;;*":il#i,
.r6.r.heprocess

i,,u.,.^,.a

in ,hu
foltorving*ay. 1-hee. rn. f. or, pu";.iir;i
;", be measured
by such an instrumentas I_ordI{eluin,s
electrometer,
and foLrndto give in electrostatic
units "L.ofu,"
say o.oo36.
'l'he
foi""ti"f
"f me"su.ed
same differen-ce
of potential
in electronragneticunits rvill be found io haue
the value
,i

r . o 8 8 ' 1 6 $:
,
o . o r o 8 8 . r o 1 0 . 3 / 3:
o . o o 3 6 . ( 3 . o .r o r o ;.
Hence the ratio of the. electromagnetic
to"the-el".t.ort"ti"
'"
units is 3.o.ro10 : velocity of li;;;.
'fhe
electrostatic quantit p"G. s.) is
f
the quantity of
.
electricity which attracts
or repels another equal quantity
at
a distance of r cm, with a force
of
dil.
The electrop (e.m.) is the qu"niiry
"

'.

. r.

or .r..tri.iiy
::g?.,]"
luantily
whlch traverses
the wire of the galvanometerin
aa"ond

when the current set up by the air"f,".g.

i"s unit "intensitv.
r 7. The ratio between the units
is always of the
dimensionsof a velocity, and ,. i, f,ofj.
under the con_
dition that ttre centimetre is the unit
oi- length, and .the
second the unit of time, we see by
experim?; ,il
;;
.:.- .1,t,
r 7r
,;. ,"{'.-:
a

'. '' 'i::iiil

: ^.-:.":,:"i_:.il
'.r.:i.,

:
5079

,,;?55,

256

i,retio.is the actualvelocityof light, 3.o.ro10, which establishes the rvave spreads outward, and onli zdat varies, the cylin'
with that of the lurnini- drical sector thus increases,like the circumference of a circle,
. ,_Ti,tiI .ii,thi,identity of the electric.medium
perpendicular to the axis of the wire. The expansion
:iffi*ii,

zm,
of the radius of the circie thus determines the increase in
the area of ds, the elementary area of the cylindrical surface, in rvhich the electrical waves'must expand.
4. Norv the area of the circular cylindrical sector varies
as zdar or as the radius, dro being constant in a fixed element
of the sector. And as the waves thus become less crowded,
in the direct ratio.of the distance, r, it follows that the intensity of the wave action decreases, varying inversely as r.
'I'his
is a direct and simple view of the geometrical. basis
of ,Biot and Sauart's law, heretofore apparently little studied
b1' natural philosophers.
has
5. This remarkable law of Biot and Sauort thus
, the elementary cylint h e s i m p l e s t o f e x p l a n a t i o n s : n a m e l y'as
r, and the resulting
drical surface ds increases directly
'lhe
larv
electrical action therefore decreases inversely as r'.
thus follorvs at once from the restritted freedom of the waves
propagated from the rvire: and as it rvas confirmed by experi'
phenomena,
electrical
known
all
harmonizes
inents of Biot and Sattart, r8zo, the iaw in turn establishes
and
in the units,
and is an especially satisfactory terrnination of a half century the dependence of current action on electrodynarnic waves'
'taves could prodtrce this result, beof scientific discussion of tne relation betleen electrornag- No other agenc)' tlian
z
only
that
chance
by
e
x
p
a n s i o n ,a n d t h e a g i t a t i o n h a s t o f o l l o r v
not
i
t
r
v
o
l
v
e
It
is
w
a
v
e
s
c
a
u
s
e
, rietics and electrostatics'
the gcometricai inverse larv of the increase of space.
I'' and z2 appear in the above table'
'
besides
- --"
-something
-___--___--o
of the medium involved
actions
4
Lrrv.ro
the
ltIE
lIf
l
,ir"
,
6 . R y e x t e n d i n g t h e a b o v e r e a s o t t i t l g ,r v e s e e t h a t i f
- ;'- say'induction, where u aPPears,or resistance'where zz apl)e:lrs' the l,a'r,es from a body can spread in all directions, thel'
: :"..'.
l . .should
-L^,.11
l,a
ovnontol
t n .find
6nd
in
nerharrs
the
third
or
or
third
the
perhaps
z, , in
to
expected
be
i.,:l ,;; ij,
r v i l l f i l l a s p h e , r es u r f a c e , s : . 4 7 t r ! , a n d h e n c e t h e I a r v o f
qrc
t l . i - t,.ili
il. i.:..*r.
lbut
lrt
n
n such n
nwerc
e
stehlished
h v obserohserby
established
powers.are
no
"
fOurth.powers;
"
r
r
n
h
decrease of the intensity for the action varies inversely as r',
*
ir' wtion, which confirms the alrove interpretation.
namely i -f : nf r2, which holds for universal gravitation,
'
'
I
h
e
rrragnetisrr],and other'physical forces of nature'
Geometrical and l'hysical Signi[icance
,l'." i
.q.
, o ' , - - . ^ ' . - - . of
" :
o
f
C
1
r
t
.
h
e
f
o
r
L-a.w
. 7. As the coincidence betrveen the requirements
1-*i'gt Biot and Sauart's
Jn^tSnsity
.a
- o to
rvaves and the space expansion is rigorous, fronr r
F,
the chances against such a mere accidental conr:
'i"'
infinity to one. Accorr. The law of .Biot and Sauart for an electric current forrnity, rvithout physical cause, are
Si 'i
'-^J-r-t.
( tl;^r at
direct proof of the
law
furnishes
lti :
. 1'-" --.:-^
L^+L^
-i*.^l^
eform
^.^
\
n
t
t
n
r
t
A
n
n
Sauart's
tnd
Biot
dingly,
(Biot
Ann'
etsauart,
' l:i'
i;;,
action, as
electrodynalnic
u'aves
underlie
if
."i,i1g_n,
Y:*-.ni.^^tn.-"1Tf]'
that
rigor
utmost
bhim. Phys:,15 p. 2 zz,
' r v e l l i r s g r a v i t a t i o r r , n r a g n e t i s m ,e t c .
_r9zo)-:
\26)
, .f:.KIflr
'fhere
"'i
has been such a bervildering confusion of thought
th.^,"]*::
intensity
ol
1;ttre
and
colltant,
a
,(.i1
W,hpfg
with the whole subject of physical action across
connected.
:'
which varies inverselyas the distancer from the wire,
space that it is necessary to bear in mind clearly the fun'
"itiott
as the current strength l/.
directly
and
.:' ': '
damental principles of natural philosophy. To this end t'e
z. We shall give a simple geometricalbasis for Biot need obvious proofs of the causesunderlf ing physical action,
'laws.
: and ,sauart'.slaw of the inverse,distance. ln the Electrod'
The sintple laws exclude
under the sinrplest of nature's
action
the
that
,Physic'.'tr'orc.,
shown
have
we
Wave-Theory,of
the larger nunrber of complicating circunrstances,and enable
of an elqctriccurrent,is due to flat waves,with'their planes the bause involved to stand out in such a way that we may
.

o f ' r o t a t i o n c o n t i r i t t i n gt h e . a x i s o f . t h e s t r a i g h tw i r e , t h e r o - r e c o g n i z e i t .
".
. taiion of the wave'elementsbeing'aroundthe lines of force,
. Very diflerent indeed is the confusion'of thought carried
which are circles about that axis. All points of the wire on in certain scientific circles. At a discussion of the Theory

'

I
.

of Relativity, .as reported in the tr[onthly Ndtices for De'

cernber, r 9 r g, Sir Oliucr Lodgc justly coniplains that Professor
Eddiu,glon thinks he understands it all. >To dispense with
a straight line as the shortest distance betrveen two points,
(
" . \ and to be satisfied with a crazy geodesic that is the longest
rThe
where.zdar' is an element of the circles of expansion, in- distance between two points, is very puzzlirig.< . . .
rvhole relativity trouble arises from giving up the ether' as
creasing as the radius r, and d/ is constant, along the length
- ignoring absolute motion through
the standard of reference
of:.the cylinder.
-,
the
ether as our standard of reference,
rejecting
, .r New,since,the:el.enlent,'qflength d/ is constant,as the ether

in the form of a cylindrical surface,thus spreading as a

circular cylinder aroundthe wire, but not in the directionof
the wire. The element of cylindrical surfacebecomes:

orl
EI
.!'l

T.J.J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

$ t A s t r o n o r n N. a c h r i c h t c nl l d . 2 I 2 .
ft

Tafel

s' 1l
I

t^.

,l,rj

1
r

I'i

l{{

rl
rl

:,1l

Fig. t.

d/*,'t.tr {

tr\

$l

)*
\'

<-a

/1

i,

\'

<

t-

/ir1,'s illustration of the rnotion of the particles in a wave of u'ater. Each particle moves
about a rrrean position, rvhich is shorvn by the centre of the circles; and the radius vector
drau'n frorn the centrc, slrols the \\'ater vector at various phases ofthe oscillation,

I'ig 3'
1 ' )t t l t t ' s ' l ' h c o r y o f l l a g n c t i s r n , I 7 - 1 4 ,. r v h i c h c o n c e i vcrl a rrragnct as having
ralres in thc,1\rteries(
along its axis, pcrrrritting
the aetircr to llorv in one
tlirectiorr onll', frorn the
S()utlr t0 thr' \ortlr l)ole,
. , 1 , 1 , ' . ' l ' h insr i s l c a , l i n s l r r i n ,
c i l r l ch a s l r c c nu s c r li n n c r r r ,
l l a l l s o r k s < r nr r a g l r . t i s r n
lor thc pa:t I 76 r'cars,
t)rough it sonrctirncsis arlllrtcrl to rnorlern thorrght
irt tlrc rotrnrl alrorrt arrrl
c o r r l r l i c r t c r l 1 r r < l c t ' s s c os f

Fig. 5. Illustrations of the usage of Euler's Circulation Theory of a llagnet, t714, 1n

vrrious nrirrlern rvrrtlta,

\ ^ l - + - - - - -- -- ---<- -->f,----+-

r-- -tr_igq_l yolt- - -

Irig..1. I)irgrarn shou.ing the adaptation of Etlcr's the<

()f l7+-1 rnade by ^llosurcl/, -freatise on Elect
citv anrl )Iagnetism, 1873, vol. lI, S +o+.

F i g . 6 . F l x p e r i m e n t a lc o n f i n n a t i o n o f t h e E l e c t r o d y n a m i cT h e o r y
t h c n t t r t t : r i o n o f s o f t i r o n t o r n a g n c t i ' cp o l e s .

Astronom. Nnchrichtcn lld, ztz.

Tafel 5.

T.J.J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

F i g . 8 . I ' h o t o g r a p h o f t h e o s c i l l a t o r yc h a r a c r e r o f t h e d i s charge of a Leydenjar, taken in t9o4 by Ztnntck,

who used a Braan tube as an oscillograph.

Iiie. 7. I)iagraur of the Edtly Crrrrents in<lrrced in a <lisc oI

metal by motion rclative to a nragnet, anrl thenct: the
gcneration of a crrrrcnt, as in a <lynarno.

I,'ig. g. Illustration of the rcstrictcd arrrplirrules of thc u.avcs

rcce<ling trorrr a strright rvirc, rrrtrlt'r ljto/ and .\otta/.1,s
,
a
l a r v , r v h i c h l . e r r n i t s s l , a c e e x p r n s i o r r , a n c l t h r r sr l c c r c a s e
of arnpliturle, varyirrg irrr.crselyas the sqrrrrc root of
the distancc 2..

I ' ' i g . r o . I l l r r s t r a t i o n o l . / i i t t / a n L I . S a t , a tI ' s l a r v , r 8 z o , w h e r e

\ v e r ) t c a s l t r et h c i n t e n s i t v , / a s t h e d i s t a n c e z - v a r i e s ;
and of ()Luis lar', tEz6, in rrhich at a constant
r i i s t a n c e a n r l r v i t h r r n i f o r r ne l c c t r o l D o t i v e f o r c e r v e
lltcasrlre tlte rcsistance,/r,,or current strength,L

------

1:

.{,1,

Fig. Ir. Illustration of a magnetic l'hirl about a s'ire, rvith Wave-theoryof this whirl,
on the right. Each Iittle piece of iron. filing becomesa small magnet, and
they nrr rJrd$'illo[reth6f l , l , l h a F l t i ' n r , l i . , n S r f t h e i i . j i . l i ! ! r l * r i , i i l d ( ,

A s t r o n o m .N a c h r i c h t e n l l d . z t z

Ta{el 6.

T.J.J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

-'a-=-,
| -l?
.-:
i , . \ r r '

.!

I
i .

"

r' \

---. ,i
i-i

r -] |. i

=l
1:\:W-tzt
,------ti

1'l

-l\

'-\

ffi

r--6q--=r\.-l
_
\
,

/
-//'
-,-i.--.--

.|'-

,/

iitl";,'
M.6n.rt,

l " i g t . 1 . I l l t t s t r : r l i , r no f t l t c \ \ ' r l c - t ] t c o r y o f t l r c l , r r r t l r ' s u r i r g r r c t i . r u ,s l r o u i n g t h t : n r a g r r c t i c f l r c e s r l i r c c t r - , r l

'l'lrc
towartls citltcr polc.
a n n c x c r l r l i l g n r r r r o r r l l r c r i g l r t s l r r r v s t l r c r ( ) t i r t i o n st ; r l i i n q
lrlacc in thc
ficlrl as tilc rrrlgttctic uavcs rcct'rlr', ulrrlq' :rlrorc it is lirc lrgrrrc ot ir snurll lrrr{rrctic lccrllc
'
l
pointitrg alotrq the linc ol tirrce,llriclr i. llrc rotltion axis oi rlrc u,rres.
l r c r l r r g l c t i c i i c ) , 1i s
f o t r t t < l r 1 ' ( ; r f l / . r .tf( ) r l c p c t t r l o r r r l r o t r L I : t . l S o r l r 1 r ; r r to l t h c i r t o r u r , u l r i l l l l r r c r n r i r i r q r . l 7 ( l : I i f i o t h s
o l ' t l l c i l t ( ) l l s . L r r t r l c rI r r l , l r ; r z i r r or lr i t . r r t l t i , ' r rq, i v c t l r r , c c n l r j r l i r c l i ( ) n ( ) l ! r , r \ l t i r t l l r t r .

,//^
"

4
/

/,
I--

/*3*;;'.

it | r
t

i')
\'

'fhe
I"ig. t8. Illustration of the \\'arrc-field aborrt a lire
bearing a stcacly currcnt.
oscillatory discharge tliagrams on tbe left are
'l'elcpiron1,,
from l"ltnin,g's I)rirtciplcs of Ii]cctric \\'ale'l'clcgmphy
anrl
r9r6.
As the vire
has both inductance and
capacity, the <lisclrarge along it is osciliatorv, and thc s'ale-llcld rlevelolrs as dran.n. It is illustrate(1 in Orrrlc'rr''s
experi.
t t i o t l l . , f t S t q , a n ' l i n . J r ; a 3 " ' e F \ t r r i f l n * , n r t j i l r r i , i , t ; r r t r . 1 . . , ,j l i r a ) .

Astronom. Nachrichten Bd. ztz.

Tafel 7

T.J. J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

Iti tt t

lllustrrtiotr ol'tlre elfcct ol orthogonal pro,lcction, lrl slriclr rnolccular rrrotions, irr 1i,r.,rr'r's
elongated ellipses nortnal to thc save I-ront, at rliifi'rent parts of a spherc surllcc, lrcc6rle
tnrinly transl'crse to the direction of thc ra1', at r grert tlistancc Irorrr ihe sorrrcc. 'l'hc orrter
circle is rnagni6ed to distinct visibility', so as to rendcr the carrse of rhe trans\.erse r.ibrations
in light more obvious to the imagination, as shorvn also by the darkened areas of the enlarged
ray at the centre of the figure.

F i g ' 3 . G r a p h _ i c aill l u s t r a t i o n , b y m e a n s o f t h e s h a d e d p o r t i o n , o f t h e e n o r r n o u sc o n c e n t r a t i o no f l i g h t
vibrations in the periphery of a beam, under orthogonal projection of the sphere, with I'oissit,s
elliptical paths for the -molecular oscillations along the iadii from the centre, and, by means
of the small factor '1,'1, thus making nearly all the vibrations transverse to the direction oi
tne ray.

C. Schaidt,InhaberGeorg
Ohcim,Kiel.

A s t r o n ( ) r n .N r c h r i c h t c n l i i r l .z r z .
Tafel E.

T..l.J. Scc. New Theory of the Aether.

I

$\r,
t,l

,;t:
;';t'r[.,
.
'
,1"

\'-:'

./'

":',"r"

+ - -I

Irig -5'(icncral vicw of tlrc ntrgltctic

l l c l r l a l r . r r r t l r c c a r t l r , * , i t l r . s 1 x : c i r n c r r. l t 5 c \ r . i ' c s
t() *,hiclr t6e
ficlrl is <luc, sh.rvn ort.tlrc right. 'l'hc
r r r a g r r c t i cr r r : c < l l el i t ' s i n t l r c l r . l l o r v p f t l r c r v a r . t , s , r n r l
tittts r!c sec rt'lll it
(
;
1
/
z
.
f
.
f
'
'
l
'
l
l
c
(
)
r
)
'
o
l
t
o
t
l
t
c
t
t
o
r
t
l
r
.
lxlirrts
tlrc I,larth's nragnctlsnr c6rrcs,.nrls ttr
thc rvavc'thcory for tlrc
l)rrt ()l'tlrc irtoms rrlrich
line,l rrp in parallcl, to pro4uce thc c.rth,s
' l ' l r e" r c
ttragttctic licltl, alr.trt I I.llioth .l-thc
*'l.rlc.
rcst .l-thJ at.rirs, rrz,tr'ra'so,r,.-.,t-ii;;.ri;.;i":
give thc ccrttral actio' ciil)c,l gra'irrrti.rr,
lrLrt thc gra'itati.nal rvatc iitii,l is t.' c6rrr'lt,x to lrc
shorvn in thc rlilgrarrr.

I'ig. 6.
l l l t r s t r a t i o r ro l - t l r c r c s r i c t i o n o l ' l l . c ey i l r r r tions *lrt'n thc rvavc rnotiorr is srrtlrlctrlv
t c s i : t r ' , 1r r t t l r e l , o r r r r r l r r l o l r r . , r l i , i b r , , l r ' .
L)rril! lo lll(' re-istanc(. t<, r,le .i,le i,t
t l r t ' r r r y t l r r ' l , c a 1 r o f I i 1 . 1 l r it . t l , r t r e r r r . , l
I t l i c l 1 q ' 1 1 6 ' q . 1s1t r tl , l r r r r( ) l \ \ i r t ( . r , I l t r l
tlrr:rrcclbrtlr bccorncs polrrizcrl, r.ilrraring
\\'ltll grcttcst frccrlorn anrl largcst arnpli_
t u r l c i n t h c l t l l r r c p c r l r c r r , i i c r r l a rt o t l r c
lrlanc ofliolarization, as heil by. J)tstrt/.

C.Schaidt, lohaber Georg Ohcrm, Kiel

A s t r o n o m .N a c h r i c h t e n B d . z t z , ,

T.J. J. See. New Thiory

of the Aether.

Tafel 9.

F-igz'

Illustration of light polari.

zcd by reflection frorn the
blue sky. 'I'he vilrrations
are norrnal to thc planc
,lf polrrization passing
tlrrorrglr the sun anrl thc
z c n i t l t , a n r lt l r c
lrolarizrtiorr
attalns a ll)a\itnuln irt a
c
r
l
r
r
a
l
l
y
r
l i s t : r D tf r o n t
Pornt
the zcnirh.

l.'ig. 8.
trndulatory explanation of the interference
of polarized light, when tbe paths of the
aetherons are circles. It .uill hold for
ellipscs, and. even for straight Iines, brrt
SuCn restnctlons are not necessarv. In
tlre rrJrper part of thc figrrre thc rvnvc
phases rliffcr lry t/rI; in ihc lower parr
the plrascs concur, and give doublc in.
tensity. The light and dark bantls above
correspond to the present position of the
s'ave, indicated by the heavy linc, whilc
the arro$'s shorv the advanced position
of the s'avc rrhcn it has moved to the
right after an interval d/.

C.Schaidt,

Iohabcr

Georg

Ohcirr,

Kiel.

.
Fis. ro.
I l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e t l i f f r a c t i o nf r i n g e s t l r r c
t o a r e c t a n g u l a ra l ) c r t u r e ,r v i t h t h e c o r r e _
s p o n d . i n gv i s i b i l i t y c u r v e a b o v e i t , o n
sli gh tly d i fferent scale (.1ft . /t./.tot i;.' l. he
c e n t r a lb a n d o f i i g h t i s n i n e r r r r r e rsn o r t ,
r n t e n s e t h a n t h e f i r s t s c c o n r l a r yr n a x i w.!;le the higher ordersoi Lands,
1,um,
a|l paralte[ to the sides of tlre rectan.
gular slit, are still fainter.

lr
i ;l

257

'a58

5079

and replacing it by the observer. By putting the observer

in the forefront and taking him as the standard of reference
you get cornplexity. If you describe a landscape in terms
of a man in a train looking out of the window, the description is necessarily complicated. The surprising thing is that
t h i s t h e o r y h a s a r r i v e d a t v e r i 6 a b l e r e s n l t s . <. . . . > T h e t h e o r y
is not dynamical.'There is no apparent aim at real truth..
It is regarded as a convenient mode of expression. Relativists
seem just as ready.to say you are rising up and hitting the
apple as that the apple is falling on you. It is not comrnon
sense, but equations can be worked that way.c
8. It is quite rernarkable that heretofore the lau, of
tsidt and Sauart should have been so little studied bv int e s t i g a t o r s . A l a r v o f s u c h s i m p l i c i t y ( c o m p a r eF i g . 9 , I ' l a t e
5)
has enormous advantages over any cornplex law, especially
when it comes to searching for the causes rvhich produce the
p h e n o m e n a o b s e r v e di n n a t u r e . T h u s i t i s p r e e m i n e n t ) yt h e s e
simple laws, which admit of .one interpretation and onlv one,
that should claim the attention of natural philosophers.
9, In the closest analogy with what lliot and Sauorl's
latv puts before us, for the intensity of an electric current,
on a straight wire, the Newtonian gravitational potential, for
. a homogeneous sphcre or a heterogeneous spheie made of
concentric layers of uniform density, presents to us the exessively simple fcrrnrula:

V:

Mlr

investigators,,whothus exhibit ,a feeble giasp of the

e s s e n t i a lc o n d i t i o n s o f g e o m e t r i c a l a n d p h y s i c a l r e s e a r c h ., . l , ; . ,
.;t.

Accordingly, sincethis Gcrbcrformulais invalid, when , . 1,i ;(i'-i

:t:ii; I

applied to a homogeneous sphere, or a spherical mass made .rs., i''-"-i"i

:tilt',i
up of concentric layers of uniform density like the sun; its
r :i|l

above explained. Accordingly let us see what connection,,if,!,r;r.

any, exists between Ohn's law and that of Biot and Sauart.',".:,.
';'"
a) In Riot and Sauart's larv we vary the distance, with

(rs)

which we have already interpreted in terms of wavcs frcell'

expanding in tridinrensional space.
Any other interpretation than that given for the Nervtonian potential function in thesFsimple cascs secms absolutely excluded, by virtue of the simplicity and directness of'
the most obvious special relations, as when the rvavesexpand
outwardly from a spherical nrass such as the sun.
r o. Any modilication which renclers these formulae
complicated or non-homogeneous is to be viewed u,ith pro'I'hus
found . suspicion.
the substitrrtion of Gerbcr's formula:

.,i,r,',r,',t: \ .i i'.-',

b e l o c) n tteedd..
c)

'Ihus

Biot

and, Sauart's

law,

with

i:,*

fixed

rr,

rLrvcr

lut

LdlLutd(lllE

jlr,

LIft!l!,-

,
', : . '- -1 . . 1 i f 1
, . : , r .j t
'l'.liil
r r. Accorclingly it appears that these two l"ws aie jl'r ''
n r u t u a l l y s u p p l e r n e n t a r v . F o r a l l t h e e f f e c t s ,i n t h e f i e l d 9 f , ; i , ' i . . $ 1 i .
electrodynamic waves about a wire, should include
';;'Ji;lriili:'"'.
both thosd!l'; , *l-.oo;

tensity at a fixed distance.

v:t4r(t-rfe.drldt)2
\"9)
for Ncutton's as cited in equation (28) above, is unjusti6able
occurringat a fixeddistance,as calcutated
and indefensible; yet in the perverse search for complexit.v
and tlrose occurring at a varying distance,as calculatedUV,
instead of sinrplicity, such bewildering confusion goes on.
'l'he
Dr. P. Gerber first published this unauthorized formula
in the Zeitschrift fiir Mathernatische I'hysik, I3and XLIII,
r898, p. g3:r04, and the. exploitation of it since made by'
Eiastcin, and his followers ignores the fundamental fact that
by introducing the second power factor, /2 : (r - t f c. arl at)2
in the,dlrisor, the dimensions o[ the equation are changed,
which is physically inadmissible and equivalent to violating
the essential mathirnatical condition of homogeneity for the
equatioir for the potential. Such an objection is fatal 1), since
it rests upon both geometrical and physical grounds; and
thus we witness the adoption of a mere convenience, in
violation of recognized
principles.
-scientific
rr.
Tbe
fact
thatihe
Einstein speculations involve this
.
fatal contradiction seems to have been overlooked by previous

{
tr.

:i:'

"teadt

. l'.$il

: ':'S,l
t , .{Si'.
the law of lliot and,Sauart.
trvo laws are thus broughi
into immediateand necessaryrelationship,and both conform' :l:
,.,.|.ff

to the wnve-theory.

,,,,,,i

,,; S,,liii"

\Ve may tt'rite Biot a.nd Sauart's larv in the form; -t:,i,,i;,-.,=il

I:

KIIIr

."(Si

and Ohnt's law in the form:

T:

ffi

(s'):"

IIIR.

Accordingly on combining the two expressions

which
rve may do by equating the identical intensity at any point,
we

oDtaln

vrtl
KHlr

IIIR

or

I{ :

rlR.

,,

' . ,( r l )

Therefore, rve find on substituting for K i t s v a l u e , f o r '

any value I{ and r,

I:

rIflRr:

I1 R

'

t) This rnay
b e m a d e a l i t t l e c l e a r e r b y n o t i c i n g w h a t w o u l d h a p p e n if the exactly analogous formula for the lelocit y, l/ = Lli,,
hacl e factor 1t introduced into the divisor Z. Such an arbitrary modification of the expression for the potential is purely a change de cori.,
Tenance, and not permissible on mathematical or physical grounds
.

....i

,:

25.9

260

5079

which again yiel.ds Ohnt's larv, in the form which holds for
'any fixed distance.
'.,
r4. These two laws therefore confirm the wave-theory
of the entire field about a wire bearing a steady current'
- the resistance
Ohm's law implies a cylindrical.wave field
hyperbola
a
rectangular
of
the
axes
and intensity being
Biot and Sauart's law also
referred to its assymptotes represents a rectangular hyperbola of the same type, but with
r varying instead of ,? (compare Fig. ro, Plate 5).
These two laws give the complete theory of the electrodynamic wave'action, in the whole field about a wire bearing
a steady or variable current, and thus greatly simplify the
theory of the electromagnetic field.
: :
6 . O c r s t c d ' sE x p e r i m e n t , r 8 r 9 , A r a g o ' s E x p e r i m e n t
with copper wire, t8zo, and the IMagnetic rvhirl
shown by iron filings near a conducting rvire all
confirm the wave-theory, which also agrees with
Ampirds theory of elernentary electric currents circulating about the atoms.
In the Electrod. Wave-Theory' of Phys. Forc. we have
given a simple and direct explanation of. the deflection of
ihe magnetic needle first observed by Ocrsled in r8r9, the
adherence of iron filings to copper wire conducting a ctrrrebt, first observed by Ara.go in r8zo. We also explained
., the.circulir whirl assumed by iron filings near a conducting
wire, and finally were enabled to harmonize the wave-theory
with Anfbrc's theory of elementary electric currents al)out
the atoms (comp. Fig. rr, Plate 5). l
.,,.,,Such- an illumination of the obscure subject of the
magnetic field is too remarkable to rest on nrere cbance;
as.the best
and thus we shall describe the argument briefly,'l'he
electromeans of unfolding the true qrder of nature.
the
current
bearing
the
rvire
from
propagated
dynantic waves
lie in planes through the axis of the wire, and are of the type

s:
:

asin(znxf),-t-p)
asin(znylT-rp)

tangential to the lines o[ force, which are iircles normal to

the axis of the wire.
If now, without other circumstances being altered, the
direction of the current be changed, the two poies of the
needle immediately interchange at all points about tire rvire:
The south pole is deflected to the west when beneath the
.wire, and to the east when above the wirb. And in general,
every point in the orientation is exactly reversed.
What can be the meaning of this phenonrenon in which
the current acts as if it has sides, when reacting on the
magnetic needle? We shall see that just as the magnet has
two poles of opposite properties, so also the current has ts'o
sides, due to waves which appear to be righthanded rotations
when vierved from the opposite point.
Consider the case first cited above, rvith the current
frorn the'positive copper plate of the battery florving north
and the needle suspended beneath the wire, but with the
north pole deflected to the west when the current flows.
'l'his
means that the rvaves desceuding belorv the wire have
vortices rotatins righthanded, as sho*'n in the following figure,
frorn the writer's work of I g r 7.

( 3s J

where r and y are interchangeable, owing to the symmetry

of the waves about the z axis, which is taken as the axis
of the wire. Owing to cylindrical symmetry the axes ol' r
and 7 might be rotated about that of z without any change
in the expressions for the waves receding frorn the rvire
under tire action of the current.
But as we have already pointed out the arnplitude a
decreases as in Biot and Sauart's law, inversely as
y'(xzt-tz).
r:
.
(i\ Ocrs*d's Experiment of r8r9'

Iiig.

lz.

Nerr theory of O.rttdtl's nnd Antgo's

cxPerilncnl.s, r 8 t 9-zo, tnd of induction.

It meens aiso that the rotations of the rvavesreceding

from the south pole of the needle have the opposite direction
of rotation, as shorvn in the figure.
r. For it is found by experinrent that the needle is
bodily attracted to the wire, by the action of the current,
and hence the waves fronr the wire must undo the opposite
rotations in the waves from the needle. Accordingly the
mediurn tends to collapse, and by this contraction of the
Ocrstcd
by
observed
it
was
r8r9,
of
the
experiment
In
needle is drarvn to the wire'
that if the magnetic needle be belorv the wirb, and the current volune of the mediunr the
north,
z. In all the works on electricity and magnetism which
from the copper positive pole of the battery directed
west'
to
the
be
would
pole
north
the
I have seen including Marwcll's great treatise, this question is
the deflection of
sornervhatevaded by the claim that the north pole tends to wrap
circumthe
other
wire,
but
If the needle be above the
itself around the wire, in one direction, s'hile the south pole
'unchanged,
pole
was
obnorth
the
of
deflection
the
stances
wire in the opposite direction;
served to be torvards the east. The needle might thus be tends to wrap itself around the
the needle rvould occur if
of
bending
this
actual
tliat
and
of
change
any
without
revolved in a circle about the wire,
I proved by direct experimept iu
flexible.
needle
were
the
the
rvire'
of
axis
the
to
relation
in
position
the relative
is bodily attracted. to the wire in
Accordingly it appears that the axis of the needle, sets itself r g r 4, that the needle

',

' : , 1t '

t,1;.'..,

' " , , { ,' ,, .

. I l:il*j' ,.
,.);,': t

'.1
-;11

I -,i

Ii:

F'.
t

26r

t$

5079

every possible position it may take, but I cdnnot.find so

simple a statementof this essentialfact in any earlierwork
on electricity and magnetism'
3. .The usualdiscussionabout the tendencyof the unit

262

o. It is worthy of note that since the lines of force

I
I about a magnet are rentrantvortices,- the filamentswithin
the axis of ihe magnetrotating in exactlythe opfosite direcI
I tion to those in the magnetic equator,for example,- the

north pole is very unsatisfactory, because rvhile the tendency rvaves emitted by the conducting wire in Oersteds ind Arago,s
I
thus outlined is fairly accurate, it conveys the impression erPeriments, described above, will have their elementsrotatling
I
that all porver is centred in the polb, .rather than in all the in perfect agreement with rthe vortices inside the body o1
I
particles, - notwithstanding the fact that if we break the tfe magnetic needle.. 'l'he waves from the wire thus supporr
]
physical'oscillations within the more resisting body of
magnet we get as many separate magnets as we havc fraglthe
ments, and since this subdivision may be extended to moli- | the needle, and by rendering the sunr total of the mutual
cular dimensions, we know that the theory of pole action a.ctions a minimum, the balanced needle is in equilibrium in
i
is altogether nrisleading, yet such vague teaching contirrues the position observed by Ocrstcd, r8rg.
I

dl*t
from generation
gen^er-ation,
and |
7. It is norv easy te reconcile Antplrc,s theory of
:"*,I_^hil9:9
eminent scholarshave often renrarked.to
how difficult it is to jelementary electric cnrrents
irr" ;;;il;;
"uo,rt
get rid of the most obviotis errors, rvhen entrenchedin
"^"r*.;;
the wave-theory.The formula
for a plane wave
is
irvith
authoritv

j1:i:

l,o.-.,": :rn.,

4. Further'proof of the above theory of the action of

n r r i c current
c r r r r e n ,'upon
r o n ^ a + i ^-needle
^ ^ r t ^ *might
: _ L . rbe
_ ^ deduccd
,^,_,- ,
an electrlc
electric
upon a n
nragnetic
ntagnetlc
from the fact that in nature physical actions always
"*

i"1:rt:::j"]':"^,lo_"t::tlt_l'-:tTt't

s:

a sin(znrf)"+p\ .

(:o)

I
F ma
r ry, s. hh;ifftt t, h
r ,e^ p
- ^o, i-n. t ior .f rt^h e r_e^v- .o^l ,v_i n
. ,g_v_ e- -ct tt o" 'r
-A^n: .r-l a :q w e
I
.llsying the phase angle y', lve see that by chinging
try alteri
I| 1,.
7
rt''"- o6 ti ,n, rve shouli ha'e a complete oscillation of tbe
]

; ;;; "";;,;;.;# il'";;i:

attlacteg to the needle .u.r.n, once about the atom; and also
to the advanceof
]

proceed from the needle and also from the wire, and by
,",i.r.
their interpenetration develop forces of the kind observed in I
(

.1:.1'.H.il:'',1',1'1"'_*:
i::H,';"';''l,j';:.:
;::":";,
l:*l*":n:sl*,i:1iiii:i.::::i_":":[::i
i.,,,",r"1

but not from the other: there undulations m.st nroceecl fr.,b o t h b o d i e s i n c e s s a n t l y ,a n d . t r a v e l w i t h t h e \ n ^ ' i ; : " " : ; , : ' ; ' l '
proved
T
This
h i s iis
s p
roved b
by
y o
observation.
b s e r v a t i o n , ffor
o r ,h.
t h e .",r:jo;:tTji
r y a y e a c t i o n s "lljnao-

Lrtuurtrrcrcrlce tnan a wave length ,t ol the rvave

I ""'l.'.'tr
] emrtted from the aton), all we need to do is to point out
i thnt we
l Y c do
u v rnot
r u r know
K r r u w the
r r r c nrechanisrn
I r l c c l r a n l s l n by
Lly w
which
nlcn w
waves
'1ves o
originate,
rlglnatet
i l'-l',*

j{q":t :;i",t'
L
u l r c s l ) o n cr ro r n a ! o t t n e a t o m ' A n u
*.:.;::o'lf";Ji":J',i"-1;:J:'*
IXJ};;.,,J."j
ndetermined
lii,::.",;1":{",:"",
w
a v e so f a m a g n e t;::f
i t s e l { ,l*:"1::
t h o u g h t h e .:fii:_J
v e l o c i t yo f t h e w a v e sI
l:::,:lprobablf is invol'ed here, brrt at presentrve cannot

from a natural mag'et ha'e ne'er u."n airJ.tiy il:J::::

I :Trliiplier
nx rt rvith anv accuracv
yet since lmagnets"are
r r a S u r r r 4 r E . r made
r r d u c by
u y the
Lrrc a
action
ullurr 0
of;;,,;";t";;;;
t a c u r r e n l u D o n II

a bar of steel inserted in a solenoid 1), it follows that the

velocity of the trvo classes of waves,. one from the current
and the other from the magnet, must be the same, and in
b o t h c a s e si d e n t i c a l r v i t h t h e v e l o c i t yo f l i g h t , u : 3 . o ' r o l 0 c m s .
t
( i i ) ' A r a g o ' s F ) x p e r i n r e n to f r 8 z o .
"'"1:,"'^_'."^:'..
:. .

I
]
I
I
]
I|

(iii) Natrtre of atomic vibrations considered.

For in the case of sound, the dimension of the Echnholtz resonators is not closely related to the length of the
corresponding sound rvaves received and emitted by the
e l a s t i c o s c i l l a t i o n o f t h e r e s o r . r a t o r .A n d e v e n i f t h i s c o u l d
h
o ffotrnd
^ , , - , r ; - air,
^ ; - :it1 .would
..^..rr _
^r L
^ ^the
L[,e
not
be
sarne in hydrogen,
.in

it is ob'iou'lo*ygen, nitrogen,or other gases;but dependon the

proll,r.,l
::^1"..::-^"::f1.:^:i1"li:::
-"^t
that copper
wire conducting a current
will give.a wave 6.ld n.rii.r of' these media, *;[-;
I
", mass,";-;.";hr;;";';;;;"#;
If iron filings be
j",,.1_1t
I oi the resonator,its shape,
elasticity,rigidity, ctc.
:::Jt^t|^'jlllll_
L"i::: that
""".
such a conducting rvire, ,?,!".
it is obvious

theyshoulrladher"e.oi.,,in.".".inii'g#><{--'''-a-':

r
w t l t D e c o m ea t e m p o r a r ym a g n e t ,tth
he
ee
en
nd
dss ) y ' Z i * r-.. , . / \ \ "")'.
_. .rt''''
o,'..
, :2'
rhaving
::,:::":
:"i.
^'"-Tl"'lll
:1i-'
:,"
)/,zi\\
oppositepoles,owing ro the natureof // X
X,
Y
,(

u)
.,.'
t h e w h i r l o f m a g n c t i cw a v e sa b o u tt h e w i r e . {
,,2. \,,.'
\ ,/ \., .,'
.
'\r.
Accordingly Arago's experinrentis simply
,.,
,z'\
,/
l-,.-,/::=7\
" ent,butren.\A,/..XX.,/''.>''
verificationofou.stcd'sexperim
'

z/... ,i'"'..-/::-

deredmoregeneralby the useof a copper,?!)<

.'

\1,1

wire, and solt iron filings, rvhich therefo.e -.-.-K]S1-/-:r<'-)

fall offwhen the current stops, and the wave

"'''

n.rti

"u",iif.."ppe.'*;*"Ji,;;il;

Irig'r3'

,t7

X.

;^-

.>'

,/
f:j;:;,:.";;;

;:"f;:tJJ,rerectric

currents
aboutatoms

r) As lar back
a s - r 8 z o A n y ' ) r e s h o w e d t h a t i f a r v i r e b e r v o u n d i n t o a s o l e n o i d , d e l i c a t e l yp i v o t e d
i n m e r c u r y c o n t a c t s ,a n d a c u * e n t
passed through it' it behaved as a magnet' with a north ancl south pole. Hence .tinflre,was
irnp.".r!d with the solenoidal character of magnets;
a n d i m a g i n e d t h a t r h e e l e m e n t a r y c u r r e n t s a b o u t t h e a t o m s . r n u t u a l l yd e s t r o y e d e a c h
o t h e r r v i t h i n t h e b o d y , a n d r e m a i n e d e f f e c t i v eo n l y i n t h e
surface layer of the Inagnet' rvhich was thus viewcd. as. a shell. tlit ,tr,fire's reasoning
is equally useful for proving that there are \vaves proceeding from tlrb wires bearing the current, and that they are flat in the plane througi;
the axis of the wire.

263
',,

264

5079

'

So also within'the aether, the vibrations of the atons

are determined by causes which at present are but little
understciod;,and we can only infer that the atomic dimensions
are not directly related to the wave length, or \Yave lengths
emitted, though there probably is. some correspondencewhich
I
may be nrade out in time.
', t g.
It appears trom the researches in spectroscopy
:heretofore made that the atom of a single element nay
emiti a complicated series of spectral lines, which means
.a very complicated series of vibrations, sonre of rvhich are
connected by the forrnulae of Balncr and other investigators.
Now most of the vibrations of the visible spectrum are belorv
the resolving power of the microscope, and thus the rvaves
are so short that such vibrations do not penetrate solid or
even transparent fluid bodies to any appreciable depth. But
we know by the transmission of the sun's rays through such
a medium as the terrestrial atmosphere that longer rvaves
have increasedpenetrating power. And since Langlel extended
the length of the solar spectrum tg some zo times that observed by Netuton, without finding any indication of an end,
it is natural to bold that the waves upon rvhich gravitation,
magnetism, electrodynamic action, etc., depend must be of
comparatively great length, otherwise they would not Penetrate
solid masses as they are observed to do in actual nature.
ro. It thus appears that the shorter atomic rvaves there'
fore do not produce forces acting across sensible spaces, ancl
in dealing rvith the long range forces of.the universe \\'e nrust
look to waves of considerable length, which have the re<luirecl
penetrating power, and are least delayed in propagation
'rvill explain gravitation,
through solid nasses. Such waves
ma$netism, electrodynamic action, and are the only nreans
of rhaking intelligible the correlation of forces and th'e conservation-of enetgy, since light and heat certainly are dtte
'IJnless
the other energies be due
to waves in the aether.
to waves alSo there would be violation of the doctrine of
continuity, which is so fundamental in natural philosophy.
flowing in the same direction, and the repulsion o[ currents
florying in opposite directions,, and therefore assigns the true
physical cause of these electrodynamic phenomena.
r. Frotn the foregoing discussion it follows that when
fronr the east of the meridian we look at a positive current
florving to the north (fronr the copper terminal of a battery) rve
find the elements of the waves propagated away to be rotating
righthanded (clockwise) beneath the wire, but lefthanded
'l'his
(counterclockwise) above the wire (cf.'Fig. r8, Plate 6).
foliows also frotn the relative positions taken by thc freely
pivoted rlragnetic needle, which presents to us a south pole
when beneath the wire, but a north pole when above the'rvire.
z. Norv suppose we have two such independent currents
ffowing north: wbat will be the mechanical effects of the
mutual intbractions of their waves? If we imagine ohe wire
above the other, for conformity to the wave picture jttst
outlined in paragraph {, we perceive that between the wires,
ithe wave elements from the two conductors rvill rotate in
opposite directions: which will cause the undoing of the
separate weve stresses,and a collapse of the medium, and
the result of this contraction will be attraction.

3. On-the outside of the two wires, on the other hand,

the rotations of the wave elements will be in the sanre
direction, the stress oi agitation of the medium will there'
fore be increased, so that it expands: which will tend to
press the rvires together from the outside. Hence the wires
will be made to attract both from the internal and the external wave actions. Accordingly, we have a simple and
natural explanation of the mutual attraction ofcurrents flowing
in the same direction. And it is based upon the same conceptions as are involved in the attraction af magnets presenting unlike magnetic poles. In fact by the suspension
of magnetic needles close to the trvo conducting wires, the
sanre conclusions follow: for unlike poles are presented in
proxirnity, which nreans attraction.
4. Norv let the directiori of one of the currents be
reversed. It is easy to see that between the u'ires the rotations of the rvave elements will appear to be in tbe same
direction, as vierved from the east of the meridian ; and thus
the agitation of the medium will be increased, the nredium
rvill expand, and the wires be forced apart, so that the action
I e a d s t o . r e p u l s i o n , j u s t a s w h e n l i k e p o l e s a r e p r e s e n t e db y
two n)irgnets
5. On the outside of the two wires, howeve;, the rotations of the waves, flowing in opposite directions, will each
tend to undo the other: in the external region the niedium
rviil tend to collapse, which rvill allow the wires to be forced
al)art, so that repulsion from the region between the wires
rr'ill be accentuated by this external tendency of the rlediunr
t o c o l l a p s e . A c c o r d i n g l y m u t u a l r e p t t l s i o nw i l l b e o b s e r v e d
whenever two currents florv in opposite directions.
'l'his
is equivalent to the mutual repulsion of trvo
6.
magncts rvhich present like poles : the interpenetration from
opposite directions oI waves with ]ike iotations caused the
nreclium to expand between the bodies, and to coLlapsebeyond
them, so that repulsion immediately follorvs. Accordingly
the whole theory of the attraction and repulsion of electric
currents florving in the same and in opposite directions respectively, is analogous to the mutual actions of two magnets,
and the causes are one and the same. And as the outcome
g r e a t l y s i n r p l i f r e so u r t h e o r y o f e l e c t r o d y n a m i ca c t i o n , s o a l s o ',u" u* correspondingly assured that the results conform to t
the true laws of nature. The harmony of so rnany distinct
p h e n o m e n ar v o u l d n o t b e p o s s i b l e . u n l e s sb a s e d u p o n t h e t r u e
causes invoived: for the probabllity of such an accidental
outcome approaches zero.
7 . I l ' c b c t ' sL a r v i n d i c a t e s t h a t G r a v i t a t i o n a l ,
I V I a g n e t i c ,a n d l i l e c t r o d y n a m i c A c t i o n s a r e a l l d u e
to Waves traveling with the Velocity of Light; thus
explaining the Senridiurnal ,'l'ide in the Earth's
Magnetism depending on the NIoon, which Ncwton's
Law will not account for.
As we have previously pointed ottt, Wcfur's funda'
mental larv of electrodynamic action, published in r846,
has the form:

1:

Q n l f r 2 ) { r- ( r / r ' ) ( a r fa t ) ' + ( z r l c 2 ) . a 'a| rt }f l . ( : z )

.
The first terni of the second member is identical with
Nctaton's law of gravitation, 1686, and of coorse gives the

^lt\r',
26s

5079

266

principal'parl of the force which regulates the motions . of but of such lengih that they may be propagated through
the hear,enly bodies. But there are slight effccts resulting s o l i d m a s s e s s ' i t h o u t v e r y g r e a t l o s s o f e n e r g y .
'l'he
from the second and third terms,l'hich were first numerica)ly
z.
rvave is taken to be flat in the equator of the
investigatlcl by Tissu'and in r87 3 (cf. Tissu'azrl's 1\,ldcanir1ue atom, so that in this plane, the waves are perfectly plane
C e l e s t e , T o m e l \ r , l a s t c h a p t e r ) , b u t ' t h e t h e o r y w a s r e n d e r e d waves, while in the trvo hemispheres of the atom the rotations
more conrplete in the present rvriter's Electrodynanric trVave- g i v e r i g h t h a n d e d o r l e f t h a n d e d h e l i c t ' s , a s a c t u a l l y o b s e r v e d
1 ' h e o r y o f l ' h 1 ' s .I , - o r c . ,v o l . l , t g r 7 , w h e r e t a b u l a r d a t a r v i l l in polarized light rvhen propagdtd. through certain crystals.
b e f o u n d f o r t h e p l a n e t s , . s a t e l l i t e s c, o m e t s a n d b i n a r y s t a r s . This specification fulfilled . the most necessary optical re, T h e c h i e f e f f e c t o f t h e m i n o r t e r m s o f e q u a t i o n ( 3 7 ) q u i r e n r e n t s ,a n d t h u s p r e s e n t e d n o d i l f i c u l t y f r o m t h e p o i n t
i s t o g i v e t h e p e r i h e l i o n a s m a l l p r o g r e s s i v em o t i o n , w h i c h o f v i e r v o f l i g h t o r e l e c t r i c i t y .
-+r4!5r
i n t h e c a s e o [ t h e p l a n e t I v l e r c u r ya m o u n t s t o d a :
3 . T h e m a g n e t i c r e q u i r e m e n t ,t h a t c o n t m o n s ( e e ls h o u l d
in a Julian centur)'. This reduces the anomaly in the out- be capable of magnetization by the action of an electric
s t a n d i n g m o t i o n o f t h a . t p e r i h e l i o n t o a b o u t t w o . t h i r d s o f i t s crrrient, was met by rhe theory of lnfire
that before mag-r4z!g5 to d6:
- + z S 1 ' 4 4 ,b u t n e t i z a t i o n t h e p ) a n e s o f t h e a t o m s I i e h a p h a z a r d , w i t h t h e i r
value, namely from 6a:
d o e s n o t o b l i t e r a t e t h e a n o m a l y , w h i c h i s m o r e e x h a u s t i v e l y e c l u a t o r i a lp l a n e s t i l t e d i n d i f f e r e n t l y i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s . T h e
investigated in the second paper on the nerv tbeory of the actjon of the electric current, with waves flat in the planes
through the axis of the conducting wire, rvill yielcl electric
aether.
It was in his celebrated paper of r864, A l)linamical oscillations in the form of plane waves, oriented at right
'fheory.
of the E,lectron)agncticIiield, that ll[arirl/
reached a n g l e s . t o t h e a x i s o f a b a r o f s t e e l u n d e r m a g n e t i z a t i o ni n
t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e v e l o c i t y o f e l e c t r o d y n a m i ca c t i o n i s a s o l e n o i d . H e n c e t b e s e e l e c t r i c o s c i l l a t i o n so r p l a n e $ ' a v e s
identical rvith that of light, as alreadf indicatcd lty /t-oh/rausrh's d u e t o t h e c u r r e n t , u ' i l l f o r c e t h e a t o m s o f t h e s t e e l. b a r t o
e x p e r i m e n t a ld e t e r m i n a t i o h o l u , i n r 8 5 6 . I S u t a l t h o u g h s u t : h t i l t a r o u n d , s o a s t o m a k e t h e i r v i b r a t i o n s c o n f o r m t o t h o s e
a conclusion follorved fron Kohlrazsrl's experintents, ancl d u e t o t h e c u r r e n t i n t h e s o l e n o i d ; a n d r v h e n t h e m a g n e t i z e d
from .tifttrutrl/'s theory oI the electr.onraqneticficld, it rvas s t e e l b a r i s c o o l e d s t r d d e n l y , b y p l u n g i n g i n t o w a t e r ' o r o i l ,
necessary to lbrm a more definite conception of the nature t h e r c s u l t w i l l b e a p e r m a n e n t e l e c t r o m a g n e t o I t h e t y p e
o f t h e a c t i o n , t h a n w a s t h e n a v a i l a b l e , b el b r e t h e u s e o f z first rrade by '4tnfire about r8zz. l'hus the atoms of the
mxqnet are set in planes at right angles to the axis through
could be introduced as a rvorking hypothesis.
the poles, and all vibrate in concert.
tlfarutll's electromaenetic theory of light rvas prrt in
such shape that thc existence of electric \\'aves\\'as renderecl
4. Accordinsly, rve find a direct relation betlveen magp r o b a b l e , b u t n o t d i r e c t l y v e r i 6 e d b y a n y t a n g i b l e e x p e r i r n e n t , n e t i s n r a n d e i c c t r o c l l ' n r n r i ca c t i o n , a n d a s d y n a m i c e l e c t r i c i t y
t i l l I { e r / z ' s d i s c o v e r y o f t h e e l e c t r i c r v a v e s( r 8 8 7 - 9 4 ) r v h i c h i s f o u n c l l ; v e x p e r i m e n t t o t r a v e l o n w i r e s r v i t h n e a r l y t h e
b e a r h i s n a m e , a l o n g v / i t h a n r e t h o d f o r i n v e s t i g a t i n gt h e i r v e l o c i t y o f l i g h t , i t i s i n r p o s s i b l et o d o u b t r h a t t h e r v a v e s
p r o p e r t i e s , i n c l u d i n g a n e x p c r i m e n t a l d e m o n s t r a t i o nt h a t t h e y er-nittccib1' nrtr.rral and artificial mrgnets travel also with the
travel rvith the velocity oi light.
s a n r c s p e e d . I n f a c t i t f o l l o r v st h a t b c l b r e u r a g n e t i z a t i o nt h e
This practical development of the rheorl, of electric steel emittecl rvavesof the srme type as after action by the
o s c i l l a t i o n s , r v i t h e x p e r i m e n t a ld e t e r n r i n a t i o nt h a t t h e v c l o c i t y e l c c t r i c c u r r e n t , y c t p r i o r t o t h e a c t i o n o f t h e c u r r e n t t h r o t r g h
of the electric u,ates is identical with that of lieht, lcft no the solenoid tlre orientation of the atoms was a haphazard
d o u b t o f t b e i d e n t i t y o f t h e e l e c t r i c n r e d i r r r nr v i t h t h c l u n r i n i - o n e . ' I ' h e a c t o f n r a g n c t i z a t i o nc o n s i s t si n f o r c i n e t h e e ( l u a t o r s
fereus aether. Otherwise it is inconccivablc that the tn'o of the atoms into parallel planes, so that they may I'ibrate
velocities shorrld be identical. The previous and suLrscclucnt i n c o n c e r t , r v h i c h e x p l a i n s t h e g r e a t s t r e n g t h o f m a g n e t i s n r
d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f 2 h a v e c o n f i n n e d t h i s c o n c l u s i o r r ,s o t h a t in comparison rvitir the feeble force of gravitation.
'I'his
such a result has nou' been aciepted for abotrt a quarter of
brinss ns directly to the problem of cosmical
5.
a centurJ,. It remained, however, to form sorne demonstrable m a g n e t i s m a n d o f g r a l i t a t i o n . I n s t e e l n ) a g n e t s o f g o o d
p h y s i c a l c o n c e p t i o n o f m a g n e t i s ma n d o f g r a v i t a t i o n , * , h i c h q u a l i t y a ) l o r n e a r l y a l l t h e a t o m s a r e f o r c c d i n t o p a r a l l e l i s r n
u'ould justiil' the clainr not only that elcctric rvavestravel by thc neitations'of the current throueh the solenoirl. Now
with the speed of light, but-also that magnetic ancl gravi- the heavenly bodies contain some iron, nickel and other
tational forces are due to a similar citusc, rvh-ich s'as the m a g n e t i c e l e m e n t s , b u t m u c h o f t h e i r m a t t e r , o f a s t o n y o r
a i m o f t h e w r i t e r ' s r e s e a r c h e ^ rsg, r 4 - r g r 7 .
g l a s s y c l r a r n c t c r , e x h i b i t s n r a s n c t i c p r o l > c ' r t i eisn a v e r y f ' e e b l e
r . F i r s t , i t r v a s n e c e s s a r yt o s h o w t h a t a p b y s i c a l t h e o r y d e g r e e . N l o r e o v c r , t h e p l a n e t s a r e s u b j e c t e d t o n o . v e r y
o f m a g n e t i s n rm a y b e b a s e d o n t h e m u t u a l a c t i o n o f . w a v e rs) , s t r o n g s o l e n o i d a l a c t i o n o t h e r t h a n t h a t d u e t o t h e s u n ' s
a n d t o d i s c l o s e t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s e r v a v e s ,u ' h i c h n ) u s t m e e t m a g n e t i c f i e l d . I t i s n o t r e m a r k a b l e t h e r e l o r e t h a t t h e y a r e
c e r t a i n r e q u i r e m e n t s i n e l e c t r o d y n a m i c s ,a n d c o s m i c a l. n t a g - o n l y p a r t i a l l y n r a g n e t i c . T h e i r n r a g n e t i s n . rm a y h a l e b e e n
netism, so as to be adaptable to' the more hidden problem acquired or considerably nrodified by the secular action of
of universal gravitation. This requirement was rnet by the t h e s u n s i n c e t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e s o l a r s y s t e n t .
theory of rvaves from atbms, shorvn to conforrn to Anfirt's
6. Accordingly, Faradals great discovcry tbat under
t h e o r y o f . e l e m e n t a r y e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t s a b o u t t h e s e p a r t i c l e s , c u r r e n t a c t i o n a l l b o d i e s a r e m o r e o r l e s s n r a g n e t i c ,w h i l e
r) The fact that
w a v e s ' r v i l l e x p l a i n t h e a t t r a c t i o n a n d r e p u l s i o n o f m a g n e t s , u n d e r t h e o b s e r v e d l a s ' s o f m a g n e t i s m ,m u s t b e r e g a r d e d
a s a v e r y n o t a b l e t r i u m p h - A s n o o t h e r e , r p l a n a t i o ni s k n o w n , t h e s i m p l e c a u s e t h u s a s s i g n e d m u s t b e h c l d t o b e t h e t r u e c a u s e .
' 1 8
i i .

fip.
!t
i
*,
*

$ ,
It

267

50'7g

nickel, iron, steel, etc., are the most perfectly ,adaptable to

the process o[ magnetization, would lead us to expect cosmical magnetism to be a very geheral phenomenon, but
always somewhat feebly developed, in accordance with actual
observation. Herein lies the connection with universal gravitation, which Marwcl/ found so difficult to conceive. lVhen
the equatorsof the atoms aie not lined up in parallel planes,
so as.to oscillate in concert, they naturally are tilted haphazard, and do not lead to poles, - as in a magnet, rvhich
Airy describes as exhibiting a drlality of porvers, - but to
the central action cailed gravitation. As the hed.venlybodies
are partially magnetic, this means that they have feeble
n)agnetic poles, in addition to the powerful central gravitational
action, and thus two independent wave fields are developed,
about them, one due to the atoms lined up and acting in
concert, called magnetism, and the other to gravitation (cf.
Fig. r4, Plate 6).
r
7. It is impossible to hold any other vierv of the
interlocked magnetic and gravitational {lelds observed about
a planet. In the case of the earth Gauss fo,lod that about
r : r 38oth part of the matter acts as if it rvere magnetized
( A l l g e m e i n e T h e o r i e d e s E , r d m a g n e t i s m u sr,8 3 8 , p . a 6 ) , w h i l e
the remainder, r3jg: r38oth', should give the central action
o[ gravitation. I3y the observations taken at Mt. Wilson
Solar Observatory the sun's magnetic field appears to be
s o m e 8 0 t i m e s s t r o n g e rt h a n t h a t o f o u r e a r t h . W h e t h e r t h i s
is due to the heat of the sun, and the resulting greater conductivity of rvave action through its matter, so that the
action on the planets produce a larger secnlar effect upon
their atoms, or to some unknown cause, cannot at present
'fhe
be determined.
strength of the sun's nrirgnetic held has
no doubt added to the cosmical mngnerism of the planets,
though the changes are excessively slow.
'
8. It is more than probable that the secular changes
in the earth's magnetism should be ascribed to the working
of the sun's strong magnetic field, which is not equally powerful at all times, but varies appreciably with the sunspot cycle,
the relative position, and seasonal tilt of the earth's axis,
etc. As the magnetic storms are definitely shorvn to be
related to the cycles of the sunspots, as is also the aurora,
and the earth currents, these related Dhenomena deserve a
too.e detuiled investigation than they have yet received. 'I'he
periodic phenomena all appear to depend on the sunspots,
with their magnetic fields uncovered, and thus are more active
with the maximum of the spot cycle.
9. For many years a great difficulty existed in accounting
for the senridiurnal tide in the magnetism of the earth,
depending on the action of the moon. 'lhis rvas first detected
by l{rcil at Prague in r84r, but independently discovered
by /ohn Allan Broun, 1845. A very accurate analysis of the
observations at Dublin was published by Dr. Llo1d about
1858, which showed that the magnetism of the earth had
the same semidiurnal period as the tides o[ oui seas. Ac,
cordingly ,4.iry d,eclare'Othat there is )a true lunar tide of
magnetism, occurring twice in the lunar day, and showing

268

magnetic attraction backward and forward irr the'line from

the Red Sea to Hudson's Bay< (Treatise on Magnetism,
r87o, p. zo6).
r o. This semidiurnal tide in the earth's magnetism
depending on the moon's action is shown to be coperiodic
rvith that of gravitation (cf. Electrod. Wave-Theory of Phys.
Forc., rgr7, pp. 5o-53). And on examining Ltoyd's analysis
i n t h e P h i l o s o p h i c a lN l a g a z i n ef o r M a r c h , r 8 5 8 , I h a v e s h o w n
it to be vitiated by a subtile error, in that he retained the
hour angle 0 instead of the z0 rvhich occurs in the exp r e s s i o n sf o r t h e t i d e - g e n e r a t i n gp o t e n t i a l . A p p a r e n t l y h e d i d
n o t s u s l ) e c tt h a t t h e r e c o u l d b e s u c h a t h i n g a s a r n a g n e t i c
t i d e , a n d t h u s h i s r n o d e o I a n a l y s i ss i m p l y b e g s t h e q u e s t i o n ,
and the resulting error is repeating in many later rvorks.
For example, in his Mathematical '.fheory of E,lectricity and
N l a g n e t i s n r ,r 9 r 6 , p . 4 o z , J e a n s a s s e r t s t h a t t h e d a i l y v a r i a t i o n o f t l i e e a r t h ' s r n a g n e t i q mi s n o t s u c h a s t h e h e a v e n l y
b o d i e s c o u l d p r o d u c e - t h u s r e p e a t i n gL l o y d s e r r o r o f r 8 5 8 .
Of course this is not true, for a careful exarninationof the
problenr shows that the larger part of the terrestrial maguetism is constant, as depending on the arrangenrent of
r / r 3 8 o t h o f t h e a t o r n so f t h e g l o b e , w h i l s t t h e v a r i a b l e e l l - e c t s
a r e s u l ) e r p o s e db y t h e a c t i o n s o f t h e s u n a n d m o o n . T h u s
a l l t h e k n o r v n p e r i o d s . o t 't h e t e r r e s t r i a l m a g n e t i s m a r e s h o w n
to follorv frorn those of the heavenly bodies.
r r . N o r v . i t i s f o u n d l h a t A r e w t o n ' sl a r v r v i l l e x p l a i n a l l
grar,itational plienornena, but not the phenomena of the
rnagnetic tide depending on such a body as the nroon. Iior
a s , l i r v p o i n t s o u t , t h i s i r n l t l i e s a t t r a c r i o n b a c k r v a r da n d f o r rvard, in tire line frorn the Red Sea to F{udson's l}ay, ri.}rich
is along the iine of force of the edrth's nagnetism. 'l'he
i n t e n s i t y o f t h e e a r t h ' s m a g n e t i s mt h u s v a r i e s i n s e r n i d i u r n a l ,
periods, just as the direction of the vertical varies under
the gravitational attraction of the moon, and in similar
periods.
rz. Accordingly, the attraction to the carth'smagnetic
pole is subjected to a true tide in the earth's nragnetism,
arid can only be explained by ll/tber's larv, which takes
account of induction under the changing distance of the
p a r t i a l l y r n a g n e t i z e dr n t t r e r o f t h e g l o b e , t h e l i n e s o I f o r c e
towards the rnasnetic pole being subjected to the same ebb
and flow as the central forces called gravitation. This connects lnagnetisrn rvith gravitation, by direct observation: for
the earth has feeble polarity, with magnetic lines of force
directed to the magnetic poles, as rvell as the much nrore
powerful central lines of force producing the phenonienon
of gravitation. Now the phenomenon of local gravitational
c h a n g e , d u e t o t h e m o o n ' s a c t i o n , . i s i n d i c r L t e db y t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s o f t h e s e a , w h i l e t h a t d u e t o t h e u r o o n ' sm a c n e t i c
action is felt only by magnetic instrurnenrs ri'hich show the
variation of the northrvard cornponent of the earth's magnetism.
. r3. When the tide-generating potential is developed in
hour angle /ie (rvestward),'longitude / and latitude l, of the
place of observation, declination of the rnoon d, the components of the gravitational attraction are shown to be:

V : ( s f r n a z f r t ) l L2f c o , s 2 ) , c o s 2 dzc( h
(:S)
oo
s - t ) - r s i n z l s i n d c o s d c o s ( , 1- ,t ) * t l " ( l o - s i n 2 , 1 ) )
: zf,(tnfM)(alr)3 {cos).cos2d sin z(/to- l) -*sin l. sin z d sin(zo- z)}
westw. comp. : ? Il acos)'67
(ss)
s o u t h w ' C o m p- , * a l f a d ) " : 3 l a @ r l M ) ( a l r ) 3 { s i n z l , c o s 2 d czo( sn o - t ) - 2 c o s z , l s i n z d c o s ( l e - l ) - r s i n z ! " ( r _
3 s i n ? d ) } .( a o )

lA:i
i:

z6g

5079

. It will be noticed that the westward component is made

up of two periodic terms, one going through its variations
twice and tbe otber once a day, *'hile the southrvard comj
ponent undergoes like periodic oscillations, as illtrstrated by
the following figure, lrom Sir Georgc Dartain's Tides and
Kindred Phenomena of the Solar System, r89g.

N
?l

s
l'ig'

iurnar
semi
<r
"'l::::(;:,::1-:T";i,in

270

(S) An rr:year fluctuation depending on the sun

spot cycle.
(6) A period of 18.6 years - which is the cycle of
the revolution of the moon's nodes.
r6. This result confirms Joln Allan Broun's discovery
that the diurnal variation depending on the moon follorvs
very accurately the law of the inverse cube of the moon's
distance. -Broun remarks that >>theratio of the moon's mean
distance from the earth in tbe half orbit about apogee is ro
that in the half orbit about perigee as r.o7 to r; as the
cube of r.o7 is r.z3 nearly, we see that the mean range
of the curves for the trvo distances are in the ratio of the
inverse cubes of the moon's distance from the earth. as in
the theory of the tidcs. < (Stuaart's Article Meteorology,
Encyc.Brit. 9tr'ed., p. r79).
lts Broun had observed the lunar magnetic effects io
be as r to r..24, and. Sabinc had found similar results, he
natrrrally regarded the veri6cation of this tidal law in the
l u n a r s e r n i d i u r n a lv a r i a t i o n a s v e r y i m p o r t a n t . W i t h t h e a b o v e
correction of Llo1,d.'serror of analysis, this result of Broun
shows conclusively that all the diurnal effects observed can
be explained by the ntagnetismof the sun and moon.
It is not strange therefore that in his celebrated article
on Terrestrial Magnetism, \ t39, Batforr Slcwart recognized
that as the moon's magnetic influence follorvs as nearly as
possible Jh'oun's larv of the .inversecube o[ the distance from
the earth, it is impossible to refrain from associatingthis
- m a g n e t i ci n f l u e n c e e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y w i t h s o m e t h i n g
'fraving
the type of tidal action. Slctaat't points out that Airy
found a similar semidiurnal inequality depending on the sun
in the Greenu'ich records, and A. Adams found corresponding
rEarth Currents< to be induced in the crust of the globe
at the correspondinghours.

r4. As Neulon's law will explain the periodicvariations

of gravitation depending on the heavenlybodies but not the
observed magnetic tides due to these bodies, it follorvs that
-Ncutton'slaw is only a first approximation, though accurate
'l'he
enough for two centuries of astronornical science.
universe
is governed by electrodynamic laws, and Wcbr/s fundainental
law of r8a6 is the chief law of nature. This is another
reason why rve must use Weber'slarv in calculating the motion
oI Mercury's perihelion, which therefore shorrld progress
dd - -+r4!5r
l)er century, instead of the arbitrary and
accidental amount of 43n, as inferred by Einslein, rvithout
first taking accorlnt of tbe time of progagation of gravitation.
By connecting nragnetism with electrodynamic action and
8. Plane \\'aves propagated from the Equators
with gravitation s'e knorv all these actions take place with
o
f
t
h
e
A t o m s o f a N { a g n e t f u l f i l 1 P o i s s o n ' sE q u a t i o n
the velocity of light.
of Wave trIotion ?'!Qtf7tz:22gr (D, and yield the
r5. Since magnetism is thus connected with electro- L a r v o f A m p l i t u d e r e q u i r e d t o p r o d u c e
the Forces
dynamic action, and shown to travel with the velocity of ' o b s e r v e d i n I r l a g n e t i s m .
light, and on the other hand directly connected with gravi'fhe
oscillatory motion in a plane wave propagated
tation through the semidiurnal magnetic tide depending on
along the r-axis may be defined by the rvell known equation:
the moon, rve perceive that gravitation must be propagated
(+t)
E : o c o s ( z n x) f" + p )
with the velocity of light, and thgrefore all these forces
rvhere the zgro of the angle (znxl),-rp)
necessarily depend on \ilaves.
is reckoned from
It is not wonderful therefore that in the earth's mag- t h e p a r a l l e l t o t h e y - a x i s .
llut in plane wave rnotion the particles not only undergo
netism the main dependence is on tbe orientation of the
atoms of .the glolte, at the same time we have minor terms a p e r i o d i c s i d e d i s p l a c e m e n t l i k e t h a t e x h i b i t e d i n a c u r v e
o f s i n e s , b u t a l s o a l o n g i t u d i n a l m o t i o n , s u p p l e m e n t i n gt h e
depending on the following periods:
( r ) A s e m i d i u r n a l m a g n e t i c t i d e d e p e n d i n g o n t h e s u n ; above, which may be expressed in the form:
q:psin(znxllt-p).
also a smaller but very definite semidiurnal magnetic tide
er)
depending on the moon, discovered by Kreil atPragne in r84r,
In generalthe particlestbus undergoellipticalmoticin
but independently detected by Joltn Allan Broun in r845.
de6ned by the equation:
(b) A sotar diurnal variation of the rnagnetic decli( +r )
{ 2 fa 2 - r r 1pz,fz : , .
nation, changing slorvly through the year.
This may become circular nrotion for surface waves
( r ) A f l u c t u a t i o n i n 2 5 . 9 3 d a y s d e p e n d i n g o n t h e s u n ' s in still water, as illustrated graphically in the foregoing
mean rotation period.
figure r, Plate 4, from Airyt's celebrated Treatise on Tides
(3) A fluctuation in 29..53 days, which is the synodic a n d W a v e s , E n c y c . M e t r o p . , r 8 4 5 .
month.
In the electrodynarnic wave-theory of magnetism it is
(a) A yearly period depending on the motion of the sun. held that when the magnetism is imperfect the atoms may
r8r

z6g

5079

. It will be noticed that the westward component is made

up of two periodic terms, one going through its variations
twice and the otber once a day, r,r'hile the south.rvardcomj
ponent undergoes like periodic osciilations, as illtrstrated by
the following figure, from Sir Georgc Daruin's Tides and
Kindred Phenomena of the Solar System, r899.

N
3t

l2

l'ig'

mi<li, rnar
"''l;::#:;,?*T'TJi,lh.se

270

(S) en rr:year fluctuation depending on the sun

spot cycle.
(6) A period of 18.6 years - which is the cycle of
the revolution of the moon's nodes,
r6. This result confirms Jo/tn Allan Broun's discovery
that the diurnal variation depending on the moon follows
very accurately the law of the inverse cube of the moon's
distance. -Broun remarks that >the ratio of the moon's mean
distance from tbe earth in the half orbit about apogee is to
that in the half orbit about perigee as r.o? to r; as the
cube of r.o7 is r.z3 nearly, rve see that the mean range
of the curves for the trvo distances are in the ratio of the
inverse cubes of the moon's distance from the earth, as in
the theory of the tides.s (Stewart's Article Meteorology,
Encyc. Brit. 9tl'ed., p. r79).
As Broun had observed the lunar magnetic effects fo
be as r lo r..24, and Sabine had found similar results, he
naturally regarded the verification of this tidal law in the
l u n a r s e r n i d i t r r n a vi a r i a t i o n a s v e r y i m p o r t a n t . W i t h t h e a b o v e
correction of Lloyd.'s error of analysis, this result of Broun
shows conclusively that all the diurnal effects observed can
be explained by the n)agnetismof the sun and moon.
I t i s n o t s t r a n g e t h e r e f o r e t b a t i n h i s c e l e b r a t e da r t i c l e
'I'errestrial
on
Magnetism, \ t39, Ilofour Sltu'art recognized
that as the moon's magnetic influence follotvs as nearly as
possible JJroun'slarv of the inverse crrlre of the distance from
the earth, it is impossible to refrain from associatingthis
- m a g n e t i ci n f l u e n c e e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y r v i t h s o m e t h i n g
'having
the type of tidal action. Sletuart points out that Airy
found a similar semidiurnal inequality depending on the sun
in the Greenwich records, and A. Adans found corresponding
>llarth Currents< to be induced in the crust of the globe
at the corresponding hours.

r4. As ,lVcalon'slaw will explain the periodic variations

of gravitation depending on the heavenlybodics but not the
observed magnetic tides due to these bodies, it follorvs that
Ncalon's law is only a first approximation, though accurate
'l'he
enough for two centuries of astronornical science.
universe
is governid by electrodynamic laws, and Hibrls firndairental
law o[ r8a6 is the chief law of nature. This is another
reason why rve must usc Webcr's Iaw in calculating the motion
of Mercury's perihelion, which therefore should l)rogress
6a:-+r4!5r
per century, instead of the arbitrary and
accidental amount ol 43', as inferred by Eins/ein, rvithout
first taking account of the time of progagation of gravitation.
By connecting nragnetism with electrodynamic action and
8. Plane Waves propagated from the Equators
with gravitation rve knorv all these actions take place with
t h e A t o m s o f a M a g n e t f u l f i l l P o i s s o n ' sE q u a t i o n
o
f
the velocity of light.
of Wave N{otion 32A1A1z:42y2 (D, and yield the
r5. Since nragnetism is thus connected with electro- L a w o f A m p l i t u d e r e q r r i r e d t o p r o d u c e t h e F o r c e s
dynamic action, and shown to travel with the velocity of ' o b s e r v e d i n M a g n e t i s m .
light, and on the other hand directly connected rvith gravi'l'he
oscillatory motion in a plane wave propagated
tation through the semidiurnal magnetic tide depending on
along the *-axis may be defined by the rvell known equation:
'the
moon, rve perceive that gravitation must be propagated
acos(znrf),-+1t)
(qt)
Ewith the velocity oI light, and thprefore a]l these forces
rvhere the zgro of. the angle (znrlT-+p)
is reckoned from
necessarily depend on waves.
It is not wonderful therefore that in the earth's mag- t h e p a r a l l e l t o t h e y - a x i s .
Ilut in plane wave rnotion the particles not only undergo
netism the main dependence is on the orientation of the
atoms of .the globe, at the same time we have minor terms a periodic side displacementlike that exhibited in a curve
o f s i n e s , b u t a l s o a l o n g i t u d i n a l m o t i o n , s u p p l e m e n t i n gt h e
depending on the following periods:
( r ) A s e m i d i u r n a l m a g n e t i c t i d e d e p e n d i n g o n t h e s u n ; above, which may be expressed in the form:
,l : p sin(znxf)"+-p).
(+rl
also a smaller but very definite semidiurnal magnetic tide
In general the particles thus underg'oelliptical moticjn
depending on the moon, discovered by Kreil at Prague in r84r,
but independently detected by John Allan Broun in r845.
d e f i n e db y t h e e q u a t i o n :
(b) A solar diurnal variation of the rnagnetic decli(+:)
1 2 af 2 - r r 1 2Pf z : t '
nation, changing slorvly through the year.
This may become circular nrotion for surface waves
( r ) A f f u c t u a t i o ni n 2 5 . 9 3 d a y s d e p e n d i n g o n t h e s u n ' s in still water, as illustrated graphically in the foregoing
mean rotation period.
figure r, Plate 4, from Airy's celebrated Treatise on Tides
(3) A fluctuation in 29.t,3 days, which is the synodic a n d W a v e s , E n c y c . M e t r o p . , r 8 4 5 .
month.
In the electrodynarnic wave-theory of magnetism it is
(a) A yearly period depgnding on the motion of the snn. held that when the magnetism is imperfect the atoms may

r8'

I
[ : :

27r

272

5079

have their equatorial planes tilted at any angles in respect to

'Ihe
plane waves above outlined would
the coordinate axes;
apply to the midplane of a perfect magnet, but it is necessary
to conside,r the most general case.
Now the equation of a plane passing through the origin
of coordinatesis
:
(++)
lr-rrny-rnz
o.
If the wave be fiat in this plane it rvill travei rvith the
velocity a and at the end of the time l, rvill have spread
'distance
to a
al. Accordingly, the argurnent
5

tYtx2y*nz-a/

of volunre Q,5- ls dy dz, and integrate throughout the volume

bounded by a closed surlace S

-r02@f
-ra2@F,\
ar,z
d, :
[ ! !O'ap,,)a": ",! [ [Q2af0r2

: -"'I].Qala4ds.

(sr)

If the surface S is a sphere of radius r *ith

centre at the point P, rve may proceed as follows: '

its

os: fJlaoFr),"d, : r, (010,)

! ! Qu,Ja,,1
! ! ut,a, (s+)

rvhere d). denotes the value of @ at points on the surface of

t 4 5 / tlre sphere of radius r, about the ccritre P.

w i l l r e p r e s e n t t h e m o t i o n o f t h e d i s t u r b a n c er v i t h v e i o c i t y a .
\Vhen rve introduce polar coordinates into the first
Ilut s is the equation.of a plane u'hose norntal has rrenrbcr oi (Sf ) we obtain:
the direction cosines ,1, at, n, and whose distance frorn the
o r i g i n i s a t - + -s . . I t i s i n f e r r e d . t h a t t h e p l a n e i s t h e r e f o r e
traveling in the direction of its norrnal rvith the velocity a;
'
O n c l i f f e r e n t i a t i n gt h e r i g h t m e m b e r r e l a t i v e t o r - , w e
but it is equally logical to say that a rvave originlting in
t h e .p l a n e i s t r a v e l i n g i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s s ' i t h t h i s v c l o c i t y , a n d g e t f r o u r t h e o r i g i n a l e c l u a t i o n ( a 8 ) t ; y m e a n s o f ( 5 3 ) :
( 1 P _
,
. . "
|
^ , ^ , ^ , ( P
a t t h e e n d o f t i r n e l , t h e s p h e r es u r f a c e l a t ) 2 :
r2-+-y21rt
: a,\0ldr)(r,\dldr))
r-\c!,ct:))
(S0)
){Itrda
)Qtrdot).
would be this distance \at-rs) frour the original centre of
r O ,a . r v h i c h a p p e a r s . i n
Yet the surface intcgral
'l'hus
i n s t e a d o f c o n s i . d e r i n gt h e ' p l a n e t o r r a v e l ,
! !
distufbance.
we may consider tire rvave to travel and carry a plane b o t l r u r c r n b e r s o f ( 5 6 ) i s 4 , r t i n r e s t h e r n e a u v a l u e o f t h e
$ ; i t h i t p a r a l l e l t o t h e p l a n e i n ( + S ) . tirr-rction@. on the surface of a spltere of rtrdius 2,. ^Suppose
s - + - a t- l r - r n y * n z ,
tliis rrrean value. be denoted by Q,;. then slnce
The directions cosines o[ the plane fulhll the larv
ItA,a,
:
(q0) :
72-tnt2{172
1.
47t @, rve haie
'
r ' z Q ' ) A , f A :i ) o 2 ( 0 , ' ? r ) ( , ' ' . Z t O , l 3 r ) . ( S Z )
Norv with the value of s'in (a5), rve nray take thc
equation
d
i
f
ferentiating and dividing by'r, rve nray put
O
n
(
D
(
l
r
+
t
n
y
r
n
z
a
t
)
@:
\+l)
this in the forrn:
and derivethe follorvingresultsby simpledifferentiation:
A2|'@)|AP:
ar?"(rtO,\10r2.
(ss)

p'pfl ,!!a65: (otl0rl!!

a.(ia,,-,,r,.)
. (ss)

?4tl6r :
A@lAz:

Abp,t, : tt e'\s)
1 4 7l i /
We ma1' nol introduce two nel variables z und z,
?Al?t : - a rD'(s)
a
s
f
o
l
l
on's:
u :
at-tr
u :
(SS)
at- r.
TtrDf?x2- | e'(s)
T@lAl - 21\eY ls)
(
+
z
l
,
)
- a2 Qt'(s) .
02rDl0z2
7 n2 rD' (s) OlQtf0f
'fherefore,
by aclditionof these terms rve find :
,
. 0'tQtf0# -+-02rD
aDtrltl0t, f01,2
: V2@ : (12-+-rn2-+-n2).(r"
(s) : ttt'(s) .
( + zc J

t rlt'(s)
2 Qt'(s)

And hence by the last of the above second diffcren-'

tials .we obtain

A,reftt2 _ a2V2(D

( +s)

which is Poissot's celel-rratedequation of rvave motion. (Sur

l'intdgretion de queiques dquations lineaires aux dift'drences
p a r t i e l l e s ,e t p a r t i c u l i e r e n l e n td e I ' i q u a t i o n t d n d r a l e c l r rm o u v e n r e n t d e s f l u i d e s i l a s t i q u e s , <\ { d m o i r e s d e I ' A c a d i r n i e I L o y a l e
'l'ome
Ill, Juillet r9, r8 r9.)
des Scicnces,
I( u representsthe displacernent of the particles above
c o n s i d e r e d ,i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e r - a x i s , w e l n a y d e r i v e a
less general . but urore obvious ibrrn of Itoisson's erluation,
which rvas appiied by Eulet'to the theory of sound.
' .
Put s sil(nf-kr\
n:
,nal)" k :
zrcl)". (+S)
And then we nray derive iminediately:
--kcos(nt--hr)
?ul1t:
0uf0r:
ncos(nt-Ar)
02rl0t.t--tt2u
32uf0r2:.-+rtIu
02uf0t2: -(n2fi2)A'rl?r'.
whence
'

(So)
(Sr)
(Sr)

In the usb of Poissott'sequation of wave motion

'
A2{Df7f : a2V2(D
(+S)
we may multipll' both sides of the equation by the eleurent

If ig. I6.

Illustrating the Wave

us in rellccted l,igirt.

'f

lrcorl' of J\,i.rtot ,

'fhen

if, for brevity, we l)ut 7(p, the dcrivatiyes:

r/-rrve have for

0tl f 0t : A+,p lfi uf At -r 0q f 0u.0uI 0t : a (0tpI 0u-r 0Lp

p u) (oo\
0p l0r :0p l0u.0uf1r -r0q l1u.0if1r: aql1a- aql1u (o' )

82t1tf?tt:a2l02ql0u2-+-z1ttpf?yDy-+-02q10u2)(Or)
0zqf0rt:0'VlD,,'- z02qf0uou-r7zqf1u')
(o:)
.
lJy equation (5S) we have through the addition of the
terms of the right of (62) and 63

0zqf0u0y:

( o+)

:i
,:..'l

. .i.:l

.?7
3

5079

274

.Thisequationyieldsthegeneralsolrrtion:

Suppose, for exarnplb, that initially O ana liOflt are

for a certain region ,?, whose nearest poiirt
.
where /
and f2 are perfectly arbitrary funcrions o f t h e i r is at a distance 1 frorlr P, whilJ the remotest point lies at
a distance 22.
arguments.
Then so long as \ <r1f a the mean value of @ on
If /:
e, the left member vanishes:
the sphere of radius af, is zero, because the waves from the
o : _f,.(at)-rf, (at) .
( oo) nearest point have not yet reached p. After an interval
A n d a s t h i s h o l d s f o r a l l v a l u e s o f l . i t follows that
t2>r2f a there rvill be no rnore rvaves and O@Ft wilt again
the functions f1 andf2 are not independent, but one is t h e be zero at P.
negative of the other, namely

rp:1rQ)-+f2fu)

frkt) :

( o s ) both zero, except

-,fr{"t)

(oz)

b y ( O O ) , ' w h a t e v e rb e t h e u a i u e o f t h e a r g u m e n t a l .
'
Accordingly we norv put

(os
)

and then we have

rA,:
f (at-r.r)-f (at-r).
.
. When rve differentiaterelative to r, we get:
.
(D,+r?rlt,f d7 :
.
/,(at-+r)-+-f,(at-r)
'
And on putting t..* e,.this leads to

(D,.j

,{,,rJ,rn"n
7.: o.

On differentiating (6q') relative to r- ancl t,

successively:
(A l0r) (rrD,) : /, (at -t-t.) +-/, (a t - r)
'

Qla4 QQi,):

a l/' (at-+r) *.f, Q; - iI .

( o q)
( ro )

( z' )
hr)

'I,'ig.
17. Illustretingpoi.r.eon,s
Theory of Wavcs.

1\'C .get

A c c o r d i n e l y d i s t u r b a n c e sr v i l l p r c v a i l o i r l y i n t l i e t i m e
,
r y f a < l < t ' t f a a n d t h c y r o u ' e ro f c l i s t u r i r a n c e , . o rv e l o c i t y p o t c n t i a l ( / ) , i s p r o p a s a t e d i n a l l r l i r e c t i o n s* , i t h t h e v e l o c i t y a .
llt' rrsirrc lrolar coordinates. poissotr has obtained a lrlore
< l i r c c t s o l u r i o n , l r c c a u s eO ) t h e n l r c c o r n e si n c l e r r e n d e not f t h e
a n s u l a r c o o r r l i n n t e s . I i r l u a t i o n ( + 8 ) b e c o m e s,

(;:)
(;+)

A c c o r d i n s l y , l r y a d c l i t i o n , . r v eo b r a i n

? ( , @ ) P t - + ( t l a ) . A Q a , 1 p t:
'f
And for : 6,

zJ'(,tt-+t.).

[ A V @ , ) l A r - + - l l Q . a Q a , ) F :t ,),,f,,.( , , ) .
"

(;.;)

W b e nw e u s ct h e o r i g i n a vl a l u eo f O ) r : ( r l a r ) j I r n , 5 , , ,
i t t h u s a p p e a r st h x t \ . c o l r t a i n :

2f,(r): IQpi {,1+n.[ ! a, a,]

-+ft la)l,f an: l{ea,Fr),t,,,D,
I

f i ( r , 1 , ,z )

pOtl?1,:":

(;;) ]

/ ( r , J , ,, ) .

(;s)

Then by (77) n.e have

-+eI ana) 7,aa. (I s)

z/' (t'): Ql?i iV'I 4.-r
),f! n,a,,,,y
!!
But when 7': st, rve have bV hr)
the centre, and thus.finaliy rve obtain:

@: :

zf,\at):

UI qo)fppat) @t!!.F"1do-rt].'
It,,aro)]

e)p at

(so)

which is Poisson's general soluti6n of the equation (ag), for

wave motion
From this solution, it follorvs that the vajue of O) nray
be com^puted for every point P if rve know the rnean value
of O4tld1 at a time earlier by the interval at, for all p6in15
on the surface of a sphere of radius at about p, as srll as
the rate of the variation of the mean value of O) x5 ths
radius of the sphere changes. This is the typical condition
specified in wave motion.

(s')
( s ,)

A s o l r r t i o no f t h i s e q u a i i o n i s

u ' h i c hf i e l d s :

Nou' suppose tliat at the initial instant, / :

o. the
values of (D and its time derivative 7rttf1t are givcn in funct i o n s o f t h e c o o r c l i n a t e so f a p o i n t i n s p a c e :

[ @ ] , = ":

-r zf rA0l0r)
0zetl?t2
: a2(0zrDl012
0)(rrn)f11t
: n2.3r(r2)10r2
.

( ; o ) or

r e) : /lat_r)
qt:1.@t_r)lr.

(S:)
ir;i

'l'lrus

for all points of space, and all times for which

at-r
l t t s . t h e s a n r ep a r t i c u l a r v a l u e w e h a v e t h e s a m e v a l u e
r'(0, as the particular r.alue of (I) travels outward rvith the
velocity a.
It should be notcd that the value of O) is inverselrr
propgrtional to the.distancer traversed. And although the
analytical fornr (8a) makes @ infinite rvhen r :
o, vet in
r e a l i t y t h i s c o n d i t i o n d o e s n o t o c c u r , [ - t e q a u speh y s i c a i l i m i :
tations imposed by the strnctureof matter excludes the value
/ :
o, and @ is altvays finite.
Follorving the method of poisson, Lord Ra1,letgfr'and
other rvriters'on sound are accustomed to take the ielocitv
naronri

- l

'

A :

-rJ(.r,
t) :

,qcoslznf)..(r-at)l

(S5)

rvhich fulfills the irrotationalcondition of hydrodynamics:

:
JOC,

p
!{,ra**o al,q ts)

6.

(so)

But it is a fact of great importance, which,rvili be

d i s c u s s e da t l e n e t h i n t h e f o u r t h p a p e r o n t h e n e r v t h e o r r ; .
of the aether, that Poisson never concurred in the theorv of
transversevibrations for light, Poisson'sdissent from Frcs)tls
assumptionstvas based on the mathematical theory
9f waves

275

5079

in an elastic fluid. Besides the celebrated memoir of rgr9,

already cited, Poissontreated the matter in another able paper,
presented to the Acadenry of Sciences, March 24, r g 2.3,
Mimoire sur la Propagation du N{ouvement dans les Fluicles
E l a s t i q u e s ,f i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d u n d e r t h e t i t l e : S u r l e M o u v e ment de Deux Fluides Elastiques Superposds (lvldmoires de
I'Institut, Tome X) in which this celebrated geomerer confirmed the conclusions previously reached, nanely, that
whatever be the direction of the original disturbance,the
vibratory motions of the particles finally become normal to
the wave front.
\Yhen li'esttel and his follorvers obiected to ?oisson's
processes as founded on mathematical abstraction, though
deduced from the assumption of contiguous elements, tte
celebrated geometer returned to the subject in a series of
later menroirs, as follows:
r , M i m o i r e s u r I ' E r l u i l i b r e e t l e X ' I o u v e m e n dt e s C o r p s
E l a s t i q u e s ,A v r i l r 4 , r 8 2 8 . I v l d m o i r e sd e I ' I n s t i t u t ,' I ' o r n eV I I I ,
p p . 3 57 - 6 2 7 .
z. Mdmoire sur l'llquilibre des Fluides,Nov. 24, rgzg.
Tome IX, r-88.
3 . M d m o i r e s u r I a P r o g a g a t i o n d u l V l o u v e m e n tc l a n s
.
i e s M i l i e u x E l a s t i q u e s ,O c t . r r , r 8 3 o , 1 ' o m e X , p p .
549-6o5.
4. Mdmoire sur I'Equilibre et le lVlouvementcles Corps
C r y s t a l l i s d s ,T o r n e X V I I I , p p . 3 - r 5 2 .
In all of these memoirs the earlier conclusions of
r 8 z 3 a r e c o n f i i m e d a n d e m p h a s i z e c l t, h a t r v h a t e v e r t h e p r i m i t i ' r ' e d i s t u r b a n c e m a y h a v e b e e n , a t a g r e a t d i s t a n c ei h e
m o t i o n o f t h e , r n o l e c u l e s f i n a l l y b e c o m e s p e r p e n c l i c u l a rt o
t h e w a v e s n r f a c e . T h i s i s d e d u c e d j n t h e m e r - n o i ro f r g r o ,
pp. 5Zo-5?r, by an argumentwhich cannot well be evaded,
and announced in these words:
r l l e n r e s u l t e d o n c q u ' l m e s u r e r l u e I ' o n s ' d l o i g n ed u
c e n t r e d e I ' i b r a n l e m e n t p r i m i t i t , l a v i t e s s ed u p o i n t l l a p p r o c h e
de plus en plus d'6tre dirigde suivant son rayon vecreur ,.,
et qu'tr une trds-grande distance, oi l'onde mobile peut 6tre
regardie comme sensiblenrentplane dans une grande itendue,
o n d o i t , e n m e m e t e m p s , c o n s i d i r e r I e m o u v e m e n td e s r n o l i cules qui la composent, comme perpendiculaire i, sa surface,
quel qu'ait itC I'dbranlement primitif.(
On pages 524-5 of the same menroir of rg3o, poissott
deduces the formula (D :
r lr . t! (r - at, y,, 1,) and passes to
tbe case at > r* c,

276

distance, ces ondes sont sensiblement planes dans chaque

partie, d'une petite dtendue par rapport i leur surfacb entidie;
et alors, la vitesse propre des moldcules est, dans ious les
c a s , s e n s i b l e m e n tn o r m a l e i r l e u r p l a n t a n g e n t . M a i s o n p e u t
aussi considdrer directement la propagation du mouvement
par des ondes infinies et planes dans toute leur. dtendue.
Or, on va voir que. la vitesse des molecules sera encore
p e r p e n d i c u l a i r ea c e s s o r t e s d ' o n d e s e n m o u v e m e n t . <
Accordingly, in his most matuie memoirs, after re_
searches on the theory of waves extending over.25 years,
f'oisson confirmed the conclusion that in elastic rnedia, of
tbe type of a gas, the nrotion of the molecules is alwavs
like that of sound. This result rvill be found to have great
s i g n i f i c a n c e w h e n w e c o m e t o d e a l w i t h a f u n d a m e n t a li r r o r
in the wave-theoryof light, in the fourth paper on the New
'lheory
of the Aetber.
Q . l i e j e c t i o n o I T / t o t t t t s o uC' so r p u s c u l a r T h e o r y
o f a n E l e c t r i c C u r r e n t , b e c a u s eo f t h e S m a l l V e l o l
city tbus attainable:'I'heoryof a Magneron also
r e j e c t e d b e c a u s eo f i t s I n c o n s i s t e n c y w i t h E l e c t r o _
d i ' n a n . r i cr \ c t i o n : o b s e r v e d H i g h V e l o c i t y o f E l e c t r o n
runder Charge explained by Acceleration due to
Aether \\raves.
(i) T'ltotrsonand other electronists hold that an electric
current is due to the notion of electrons.
In his Corpuscr-rlarTheory of Nlatter, rgo7, Sir
J. J.
T/to,tsott p,t forth the 'ierv that an electric current consists
i n t h e n r o t i o n o f t h e e l e c t r o n s . > O n t h e c o r p u s c u l a rt h e o r l of electric conduction through metals the electric current i;
carried by the drifting of negatively electrified corpuscles
a g a i n s t t h e c u r r e n t .( . . , , ' I ' h e c o r p u s c l e s w e c o n s i d e r a r e
t h u s t h o s e r v h o s ef r e e d o m . i s o f l o n g d u r a t i o n . O n t h i s v i e r v
t h e d r i f t o f t h e c o r p u s c l e sr v h i c h f o r n r st h e c u r r e n t i s b r o u s h t
about by the direct acrion of the elecrric field on the fiee
c o r p u s c l c s . (op . . l q . )

uAs, ho*.ever, the mass of a corpuscle is only about

.
t f t T o o o f t h a t o f a n a t o n ) o f h y d r o g e n , a n d t h e r e f o r eo n l y
a b o u t r / 3 4 o o o f t h a t o f a n r o l e c u l e1 f h y d r o g e n , t h e m e a n
vaiue of the square of the velocity of a corpuscle must be
i4oo times that of the sarne quantity for the rnolecule of.
hydrogen at the same temperature. Thus the averase
v e l o c i t y o 1 -t h e c o r p u s c l e m u s t b e a b o u t s g t i m - e s
that oI a molecule of hydrogen at the tem-perature
@ - rfr'tlr(p,1)
o f t h e n r e t a l i n w h i c h t h e m o l e c u l e s a r e s i i u a t e d1 ) .
where we should have
At o' C. the mean velocity of the hydrogen molecule is
s
r f a 2 ' 0 6 f A 1: o
a b o u t r . 7 . r o 5 c m / s e c , h e n c e t b e a u e . n g e " n e l o c i t yo f t h e
'' >Il rdsulte de cette discussion
q u e d a n s l e c a s o i l l a c o r p u s c l e si n a n r e t a l a t t h i s t e m p e r a t u r e
is about ro? cm/sec,
formule uds * udl -+-wdz ne satisfait pas i la condition
o r a g r p i o x i n r a t e l y6 o r n i l e s p e r s e c . 1 ' h o u g h t h e s e c o r l t u s c l e s
d ' i n t i g r a b i l i t C , l e s l o i s d e l a p r o p a g a t i o n d u r D o u v e m e n t ,I
are charged, yet since as n)any are ntoving in one direction
une grande distance de I'dbranlernent, ne diffdrent pas essen_
as in the opposite,there will be on the average no flow of
t i e l l e r q e n t d e c e l l e s q u i o n t l i e u , l o r s q u ec e t t e c o n d i t i o n e s t
electricity in the metal. Although the change produced in
remplie, ainsi que je I'avais supposddans rron ancien memoire
t h e v e l o c i t y o f t b e c o r p - u s c l e sb y t h i s f o r c e i s , i n g e n e r a l ,
sur Ia thiorie du son.s
v e r y s m a l l c o r n p a r e d w i t h t h e a v e r a g ev e l o c i t y o f t r a n s l a t i o n
> L e m o u v e m e n t i m p r i m d a r b i t r a i r e r n e n tI u n e p o r t i o n o f t h e c o r p u s c l e s ,
yet it is in the samedirection for all of
limitde d'un fluide homogdne se propage toujours en ondes t h e n r , a n d y r r o d u c e s
a kind of wind causing the corpuscles
sphiriques autour. du lieu de cet dbranlement. A une srande to flow in the
opposite direction to the electric force (since,

(sz)

(ss)

t) The
s p a c i n g ' o u t o f t h e c o n c l u d i n g s e n t e n c ei s m i n e -

not in the.original.

277

5079

the charge on the corpuscleis negative),the velocityof the

wind beirrg the velocity imparted to the torpusclqs by the
electric forcer).<

Again, (p. ,+o) Crr.tlrr,

,279

iThese electrons,.
if

"dds:
no electric force be acting, will be
moving in all directions,
so that if we. take any cross section of the metal the number
of electrons crosSing it in one direction will be the same
as the number crossing it in the opposite direction, and sb
the total transference of electricity across lthe section will
be zero.<
>If, bowever, rve apply an electric field to the body
there .will be a force on each electron urging it in the
d i r e c t i o n o f t h e 6 e l d . T h u s i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e i r r e g u l a rm o t i o n
due to the heat energy of the body, there will be a steady
d r i f t o f t h e e l e c t r o n sa s a w h o l e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e e i e c '
tric force. ((
'Ihis
discussion, like that of Thomson, admits that an
electric field is necessary so set the electrons in motion, but
the nature of the electric field itself is not explained, beyond
the general phrase that difference of potential is involved.
This is almost as unsarisfactory as the failure of the electronists to account for the high velocity of electric signals
on wires.

Thontson's calculations of the velocity of 6o miles per

second are based upon the formulae cited in Section I2,
below, which I had made before I found the above statement. T/tonson does not drvell on the inadequacy of this
velocity of 6o miles per second to explain the transrnission
of electric signals on' rvires, which have a velocity only
slightly less than that of light.
On page 68, horvever, he points out that in a Rdntgenray-bulb giving out hard rays the velocity of the corpuscles
in air may be about roto cm/sec,.or ros times the r;elocit1,
of those in the metals.
It is held in tbe theory of ionization of gases by
X-rays, that the positive and negative parts of the atorns are
separaterl. >The positive ions are attracted to the nesative
electrode and the negative.ions to the positive elecirode,
and the movement of these electric charges consritutesa
current,( says Du1fs, 'I'ext Book of Physics, (ed. r9 r6,
p. 498). This is used at the Uniyersity of California, and
(ii) Experimental tests of the velocity of electric waves
this discussion was rvritren by Prof. R. I{. ,ltcCluzz.gof the
University o[ ]\Ianitoba, who is a Doctor of Science of the o n r v i r e s .
University of Cambridge, Ensland, and thus speaks rvith
The problem of the velocity of the electric waves along
rvires has been much discussed, and formulas given in such
authority.
Likervise, Crotather says on p. r3g of his r\Iolecular lyorks as Cohen's>Calculation of Alternatihg Current problems<,
P h y s i c s : r W e h a v e n o w c o m e t o c o n n e c t e l e c t r i c i t y w i t h rvhilst the propagation of waves in metals has been treated
e l e c t r o n s ,a n d h e n c e a n e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t i s a f l o r v o f e l e c t r o n s theoretically by Drurlc, Lehrbuch der Optik, 2, Chap. IV,
from a place of high to a place of lorv potential. \Ve nray a n d b y o t h e r a u t h o r i t i e s .
r e g a r d a c o n d u c t o r , t h e n , a s a s u b s t a n c ec o n t a i n i n g e l e c t r o n s
But rvhen we come to deal .rvith concrete .measurewhich are lree to move under the action of an electric field, r n e n t s o f a c t u a l v e l o c i t i e s , s u c h m e a s u r e l n e n t sd o n o t
seem
w h i l e i n n o n - c o n d u c t o r s t h e e l e c t r o n s a r e f i x e d a n d u n a b l e to be plentiful: yct we note a ferv values in the following
to follow the impulse of the field.<
table.
Observed Z
4 6 3r 3 3 K m .
3 t o 4 75
r7989o
99938
z r o q o oI

,isZo"I

z4r 8oo

Authority

Remarks

Wtcalstonc, Phil. Trans., r8r4

I{irchltoif Ganot's Physics \ 796
Iiizcau and Gounelle
Siencn-s and Frblich,
Ann. Bd. CI-VII.

Poggend.

[)uration of ])lectric Sperk IIethod.

Theoretical Calculation frorn the trIeasurementsof Constant Electric Currents.
Signals on Copper \\'ire.
Signris on Iron \\'irc.
O l r s e r v a t i o n so n T e l e g r a p h \ \ ' i r e s o f I r o n , 2 3 3 7 2 K m s . l o n g .
'l-elegraph
U l r s e r v a t i o n so n
1\'ires 7352 Kms. long,

These measurements, rvhich are of very unequal value,

give a mean of 2546t8 Knrs., which ruouli not seem iml
probable, in view of the lact that the Sitntrns-Fr-i)licl series,
apparently by far the best, give a mean z4z966 Kms. for
electric waves on iron rvires, As the electric disturl;ances
should travel with the velocity of light, 3ooooo linrs., except
for the resistance of the wires, it rvould thus appear that
the velocity is reduced about 1/5,ho. t/u,n of the rvhole. 'l'he
rsistance causes the disturbance to travel slorver in the rvire
and thus the waves around the wire envelope it, and necessarily follow it as a conductor.
A more modern investigation of the velocity of electric
waves on wires was nrade by .Prof. Jofin Troral,rirl,ge and

ir

W. Duane, and published in the Philosophical Magazine,for

r8o5, vol. 40, p.2tr.
They.used a pair o[ parallel short
wires, 58.6 metres long, but determined the duration of the
electric oscillation in the rvire very accurately by photo.graphy of the sparks in a rapidly rorating rnirror. The wave
lengtlr rvas 56.77 m, and the duration of the spark was found
to be r.8goZ.ro-7 second. The mean valueof the velocity
'of the lvave on the wire
came out I/:
3.oo3. ro10 cm/sec.',
which slightly exceeds the adopted velocity of light.
But a much more thorough direct comparison of thre
velocity of electric lvaves on wires with, light itself was
quite recently undertaken by the French physicist C. Gutton,
.
'Ihis
experimenr
J o u r n a l d e P h y s i q u e ,r g r z ( 5 ) , . v o l .z , p . 4 r .

) I quote at length from the chief authorities, in ortler to feel sure that the views of the electronists are correctly cjted. As I cons i d e r t h e e l e c t r o n - t h e o r y r o b e g r c a t l y _ o v e r r a t e d ,t h i s p r e c a u t i o n i s d e e m e d n e c c s s a r y ,i n j u s t i c e t o t h e i r r e s e a r c h e s ,r v h i c h f ; i i g h t 6 n d
dif6culty
i n a c c u r a t e l yc o n d e n s i n g i n t o a n y b r i e f e r s t a t e r n e n t s .
I li

279

5079

':was

arranged with great ingenuity, and the apparatus so

designed as to sho.w a small difference in the trvo velocities,
'rif
such difference existed. The first observations showed that
the two velocities were nearly identical, yet not rigorously
the same.
Under the delicate and dependable means o[ adjustment used Gutton discovered that the velocity of the electric
wave on the wire. was a little. less than that of light. And
he found that the difference thus very accurately deternrined
amounted to about one-half of one percent. Accordingly for
the velocity.of eiectric rvaveson wires Gutton'svalues would be:
Electric rvaves Z:
z9g5oo Kms.
Zj3oooooKms.
Light
This retardation of the electricwavesby wires is small,
but fortunately the experiment of Gullon was so rvell de. signed that no doubt can attach to the reality ofthe difference.
We must therefore admit that the electric I'aves on *,ires
a r e s l i g h t l y r e t a r d e d b y t h e r e s i s t a n c ei n t h e . n ' i r c s . l - h i s
h a s b e e n p r o b a b l e o n g e n e r a l p r i n , c i p l e s ,a n d i n d i c a t e d b y
t h e o l d e r e x p e r i r n e n t s ,a n d i t n o ' n ' t a k e s i t s p l a c e a s a n
established fact of observation.

28o

therefore the disturbances are spread along in space, when

ne deal rvith a wire on rvhich the disturbance travels, so.
that the oscillations diagrammed on the left are repeated
throughout the wire.
'l'he
reflection of any element of the aetber wave outside the wire is given dorble effect by the surge from the
opposite snrface of the wire, as shorvn in the diagram. And
thus the wave rotations take the reversed directions shown
'Ihis
above and belorv the wire;
is the wave field we investigate in Otrsted's experiment, and find to follorv Biot and,
Sauatt's larv, as already explained in Section 5.
A c c o r d i n g l y t h e d e l a y i n p r o p a g a t i o r it h r o u g h t h e w i r e
causesa slight whirling.of the aether particles against the
w i r e , t h e n a r e b o u n d , . r v i t hr o t a t i o n s i n t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n
i n r v a v e st ' h i c h a r e . p r o p a g a t e d a w a y d s s h o w n i n t h e
diagranr of the ivave field. In regaid to such reflection from
metallic surfaces, Prof. F'leatiug says: )'I'his electrical radiat i o n ( r v a v e so f l e n g t h a p p r o a c h i n g 4 c n s . ) , p e n e t r a t e se a s i l y
through dielectric bodies. lt is completely reflected from
nretallic surfaces, and is also more or less reflected lrom the
s u r f a c e so f i n s u l a t o r s u( p . 4 r r ) .
:
'a
(iii) Rejection of the theory of
magneton as contrarv to electrodynamics.
1\re norv pass to the discussion of the so - called

1'he result is sinrilar to tbat rcached in the frrstpaper

on the New Theory of the Aether, rvhere we shorved that
wireless wa\\'es travel more .slowly through the solid nrass
of the earth,-and the wave front is thus bent arourrd the lil:lgt)('toil.
r . l t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e s o - c a l l e dm a g globe, w h i c h e x p l a i n s t h e o b s e r v e df a c t t h a t t h e l ' i r e l e s s
'fhis
wave travels around the earth.
propagation of the n e t o r ) i s p u r e ) i ' h y p o t h e t i c a l . I t w a s a t f i r s t a d n i t t e d , r v i t h
w i r e l e s s w a v e a r o u n d t h e g l o b e h a d l t r o v e d v e r y n r y s t e r i o u s , s o n r ei r c s i t a t i o n ,a s a p o s s i b l ec o r p u s c l e ,i n n r a g n e t s ,a n a l o g o u s
'l'his
idea
a n d n o . s a t i s f a c t o r ye x p l a n a t i o n o f i t h a d b e e n l b r t h c o n r i n g . t o t l l e e l c c t r o n i n t h e p r o b l c n s o f . e l c c t r i c i t y .
s
e
e
n
r
e
c
i
I
o
g
i
c
a
i
i
n
t
e
r
m
i
n
o
l
o
g
y
,
and the narne appeared in
.
A s * ' e h a v e n o r v d e f i n i t e p r o o f o f t h e r e t a r c i a t i o no f
c t : r t u i r rI ) a I ) e r so l ' t h e } h i l o s o l r h i c a l ' I ' r a n s a c t i o n so f t h e R o y a l
e l e c t r i c . w a v e sb y t h e r e s i s t a n c ee n c o u n t e r c cw
l ithin a nterallic
general use.
w i r e , w e s e e t h a t t h e r v i r e i s s u r r o u n d e t l b v a n e n v e l o o eo f S o c i e t y , a n d i t h a s s i n c e c o n r e i n t o r n o r e
2. Ilut the above described ternrinoiogy apparently
i
n
t
h
e
.
f
r
e
e
w
a
v
e
s
a
e
t
h
e
r
t
c
'
n
d
i
n
g
t
o
i
v
i
t
h
v
e
l
t
c
i
t
y
t
h
e
.
liroceed
o f l i g h t , y e t h e l d b a c k b y t h e r e s i s t a n c ew i t h i n t h e r v i r e , o v e r l o o k s t h e f a c t t h t t m a g n e t s a r e p r o d u c e d b y t h e a c t i o n
and thus the advancing rva.r'eenvelopes and is made to follorv o f a n e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t . I f t h e r e f o r e e l e c t r o n s b e a c t i v e i n
.the wire. Is it not probable that we have here the trr,re a c r l r r e n t , a n d t h e c r l r r e n t g e n e r a t e s a l l t a g n e t , i t i s m o r e
n a t u r a l t o e x l t l a i n n ) a g n e t s b y t h e c f f ' e c t so f ' e l e c t r o n s ,a n d
explanation of the nature of a conductori
Of course a conductor must be metal, n'hich has both to do away lvith the nlagncton as supcrfluous.
j . I n t h e l ) r e s c n t n L r t h o r ' s* ' o r k , l r o l ' t . r ' t : r , w a v e s a r e
t h e p o r v e r o f i n d r r c t a n c ea n d c a p a c i t y , - o t h e r u ' i s et h e e l e c t r i c
m
a
d
e
the basis of the generation of a rl)agnetout of steel
distur.banceswould not take the forrn of wavs, thus exl)enb
y
t
h
e
lining-up action of an electric current. Ir is thus
ding the energ)' due to difference of potential. Yet, there
i
l
l
o
g
i
c
a
l
t o i n t r o d u c e f i t : t i t i o u s c o r p u s c l e si m a g i n e d t o h a v e
must be another physical cause at wori<to make the disturbance follow the wire. It is this, that the rvave in the free rotatory propertics, rvhen sirnple waves in the aether suffice
aether'travels more rapidly than 'lvithin the dense resisting for all practical purposes.
4 . I n t h e l ' r i n c i p i a , L i b . I I I , t 6 8 6 , / \ r e t u l o zlra y s d o w n
. w i r e , a n d . o w i n g t o t h i s r e s i s t a n c e ,t h e w a v e s f o l l o r v t h e w i r e ,
as the frrst rule of philosoplry: >\Ve are to admit no more
being bent towards it on all sides,. as shorvn in the inner
causes'of natural things tl-ran such as are both true and sufpart of the Fig. 18, Plate 6.
'l'he
ficient to explain their appearances.< >'l'o tiiis purpose the
discharge spark of d Leyden jar is due to the
philosopherssay that nature does nothins in vain, and rnore
oscillations of the invisible aether, rendering particles of air.
is in vain rvhen less rvill serve; for nature is pleased-with
luminous by the agitation; and rvhen this spark is photo'mirror,
sirnplicity, and affects not the poulp of superfluouscauses.(
graphed in a rapidly revo.lving
the oscillations are
5 . U n d e r t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s ,t h e r e i s n o n e e d f o r , t h e
shown as indicated on the axis of the rvire to the left. \\/e
must therefore assume electric surges from one side of the wire hypothesis of a magneton, and thus we reject it because its
. to the other, just as in a Leyden jar. Moreover, as the aether use in inconsistent with electrodynamic phenomena as ex' is compiessible, this compressibility contribntes to the develop- plained by the wave-theory.
(iv) Velocity of the electron made to approximate that
ment of waves.
I t i s t o b e n o t e d t h a t . t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s photographed of light . by the action of electric waves.
in the mirroi have their phases spread along in time, and
In his later researches on the ratio of the charge to"

z8r

5079

the mass of cathode ray particle, Thomson devised 'a method

for exactly balancing the electric and magnetic forces, and
was able to determine the ratio efm, and get V from the
ratio of the strength of the electric field X 1o the strength
of the magnetic field ZI, both of which could be measured.
In this way he found V:2.g.roecnrs.
per second, or
about one-eleventh of the velocity of light.
This value was found to be not qnite constant, but to
vary somewlst with the potential in the tube, yet the value
cfm was found to be I.Z.ro7, and shown to be independent
of the nature of the gas used in the tube. The greatest
value of cfm known in electrolysis is for the hydrogen ion,
and comes out roa, whence it was concluded that the value
for the cathode particle is rToo times that for the hydrogen
ion. As the charge r carried by the cathode particle rvas
found to be the same as for the hydrogen ion, it was held
thaf the mass of the cathode particle is r f r 7 oo of the
hydrogen ion or atom,
It will be seen that notwithstanding the great ingenuity
displayed by Thornson and his pupils, this whole subject is
involved in considerable uncertainty. Perhaps it may fairly
be asked whether any of these phenomena are yet interpreted on their final basis. No doubt the experiment as
described supports the result found, but it is always difficult
to feel sure that some entirely different view of these matters
hereafter, orving to further experimentation,
may not develop'in
the theory of the aether.
or improvement
The net result is therefore as follows:
r. Viewing the electron as a corpuscle of a gas, it
would attain a velocity of only about 98 kms. (6o miles)
per second, or r:3ooo'h of the velocity of light. This is
very insignificant compared to the velocities observed in light
and electric waves.
z. Under the action of impulses in the tubc not yet
fully understood, but generated under considerable electric
tension, the velocity of the charged particle may be augmented
nearly 3oo fold, so as to become a little less than a tenth
of the velocity of light a.nd electric waves.
3. The mhss of the corpuscle is considered to be due
wholly to the charge, but too little is yet known to justify
this claim, and it cannot be admitted. Apparently wave
action alone could produce the velocity oI the electron,
z.8.roe, approaching one tenth that of light, becausethe
aetherons move r.5Z times faster yet.
4. In his *o.k on Irfolecular Physics, p. 7-8, Croutthtr
describes how much energy may be given to a small mass by
increasing its speed to about r/r5th of the velocity of light.
rSuch particles, however, actually exist, and it is the
discovery of these particles and the measurementsmade upon

z8z

them that have led to the great advances in molecular physics

which we are about to describe. Particles having this velo,
city are shot out in large numbers from radioactive bodies.
To anticipate a little we may say that the a-particles from
radium consist of atoms of helium shot out with a speed of
this order of magnitude, and bearing a positive charge.
Thus it is that a single a-particle is able to cause a flash
of light when it strikes upon a screen covered with a suitable
material.<
The view that the high velocity attainable by the electron is due to the action of electric waves is suggested by
Croutlher's further remarks:
. rThe a-particles consist of helium atoms only. Velocities approaching that of the a-particles can be given to
atoms' and molecuies of other substances by passing .an
electric discharge through them in the gaseous state at very
low pressures. The phenomena of the discharge tube have
indeed afforded the best means of investigating the properties.
o[ moving electrified particles, anU we shall proceed to their
c o n s i d e r a t i o n i m n r e d i a t e l y<.
Aciordingly it seemsthat the electron researchesstrongly
support the wave-theory as the only means of generating the
velocity of the electron found by observation1). If heliurn
atoms or a-particles can be given such high velocities by
electric cbarges, still more may electrons, in view of their
very small size, be given the high velocities approaching
r/roth that of light. I,-or as helium gas is .monatomic but
trvice as heavy as hydrogen, the electron is about 68oo times
lighter than helium, and under gaseous laws a velocity of
over 8o times that of a helium atom might be expected for
the electron, if equal energy were concentrated in a single
corpuscle, This gives ample power to account for the observed velocity ol' projection of the electron, and the high
velocity therefore is naturally attributed to wave-action.
It is worthy of note tbat, with Crotathtr's estimate that
the electrons attain a velocity of r : r 5th of the speed of
l i g h t , t h e a e t h e r o n sh a v e a s p e e d r 5 . r . 5 7 : 2 3 . 5 5
times
that of the srviftest corpuscle heretofore recognized. The
'I'heory
New
of the Aether thus bids lair to give quite an
impetus to the study of high velocities.
'l'he
Io.
Identity of the Velocity of Electric
Waves rvith that oi Light shows that the Aether
underlies both Classes of Phenomena: the Formal
Public Discussions on doing away rvith the Aether
recently held before the Royal Societies in London
striking Evidence of the General Bewilderment.
(l) fne physical significance of the identity o[ the
velocity of electric rvaves with that of light.

1) In his History of tbe Inductive Sciences, Whene/l bestows high praise on Rocmer, - who lived about
a century in advance .of
his contemporaries, so that his discovery of the velocity of light was accepted by very few, chiefly by Neulon and l{u1,ghens,- because this
c e l e b r a t e dd i s c o v e r e r n o t i c e d t h a t t h e e c l i p s e s o f J u p i t e r ' s s a t e l l i t e sv e r e d e l a y e d i n t i m e i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e d i s t a n c e o f t h e e a r t h f r o m J u p i t e r .
Thus when Jupiter was near opposition, the eclipsescame about t6 minrrtcs earlier than when the earth rvas on the opposite side of the sunl
tnd, WheucII remarks on the highly philosophic character of Roctnc/s argument for the gradual propagation of light across space, which no
one before him had suspected from the earliest ages.
Now in our time the researches of the electronists have occupied great prominence, but without any inquiry, so far as I know, being
instituted by them to account for the known velocity of clectric waves on wires and radio waves across free space, This neglect greatly weakens
the position of the electronists, and when they propose to do away with the aether, without accounting for the propagation of light and electricity, they add presumption to carelessness; and therefore if Roemer's course was highly philosophic the course adopted by the electronists
has been just the reyerse - unphilosophic and indefensible !

r9

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'

5079

The early evidence deduced by Maxwell, in r864, and

his successorsduring the next quarter of a century, to the
eft-ect that electricai actions travel sensibly with the velocity
of light, received a remarkable confirmation from the physical
discoveries of I{crtz, who devised nrethods for investigating
electrical rvaves of the type since used in radio-telegraphy.
And the.progress of radio-telegraphy has been such that the
velocity of these waves between Paris and other parts of
France, and between Paris and Washington, has been measured
as accurately as is humanly possible in the deternrination of
inten'als of time iess than a fiftieth of a second.
We cannot sa)' indeed that the meastlrelnentsbetween
Paris and \\rashington give incontror,ertible experirnentalproof
that the electrical rvaves travel rvith exactly the vclocity of
lieht. Perhapsthe velocity of propagation is involved in say
fiue percent of uncertainty; yet all the observations are consistent with the speed of light.' And in vierv of the accuracy
of the determinations of l/, by such nrethods as were ernployed
by the American llureau of Standardsin rgo7, we must hold
that the radio-rvaves betrveen Washington and Paris travel
with the observed laboratory velocity, which appears to be
exactly identical with that of ligbt.
'fhe
fact that approximateiy the same speed is attained
bv light and radio-electric waves, reduces us to the necessity
of adrnitting:
r. llither the trvo classesof rvavestravel rvith oreciselv
the sarue velocity.
z. Or rve must assume the existenr:e of tu'o media rvith
siightly different elastic porvers, vet giving rvaves of practically the sarne velocity.
Marucll long ago protested against the unphilosophic
habit of inventing a nerv medium every time we have a new
phenomenon to explain ; and fortunately in this case lneasurenrent Fupports ll,faru,ell's contention, by showing nrore and
more conclusively that the two velocities are identical. 'l'he
difference between the velocity of electric waves in free
aether and light is now so small as to be within the probable
error of the separate determinations; and it is difficult to
decide which rnethod affords the greater accuracy of measurement. We must therefbre wholly reject any claim for two
media, and acknowledge that light and dynamic electricity
depend on one and the same nrediunr - the aether. And
we have discussed the physical character of that medium,
and fixed the constants with such great accuracy that when
the density is calculated by a new method, in the ltresent
paper, it is found to be
6:
1888.r5.ro-18
as against the other value, now no longer adnrissible, as
shown above in section I,
6:
439.ro-tS
yet found in the first paper by the rnethod invented by
Loid Kcluin in r854 and since improved by Kcluin, Maxutcll
and the present writer.
'lhe
physical significance of the identity of the velocity
of light and electricity is therefore unmistakable; nanrely,
electricity in motion consists of waves in the aether, and
as they travel with the same velocity as light, we know that
electricity and light both depend on the aether, and are

284

simply waves of different length and type in this all-pervading medium.

(ii) Accordingly, as Sir Oliuer Lodge correctly says,
Einstcin has not done away with the aether, but simply
ignored it, and thereby shown a renrarkable lack of under:
standing of the physical universe.
I n a i r u b l i c a d d r e s sa t S a n F r a n c i s c o , A p r i l 1 r , r g 2 o ,
Sir Oliucr Lorlgc dealt with the physical properties of the
aether, as the vehicle of energy, and enphasized the vierv
that although totally invisible, the aether is capable of exerting
the nrost stupendous power throughout space, and thus is
the medium or vehicle rvhich transutits the forces rvhich
govern the nrotions of the planets and stars in their orbits.
Not only is the aether necessary lor conveying the
light of the sun and stars across space, but also for conveying the stresses to get)erate the planetary forces, tvhich
are equivalent to the breaking strength of gigantic cables
of steel stretched between the sun and planets. 'l'hese stup e n d o u s g r a v i t a t i v e m e c l r a n i s m sa r e w h o l l y i n v i s i b l e , a n d y e t
frorn the observed operation of centrifugal force, we knorv
that the gravitative forces lbr balancing them do really exist.
Under the circunrstances, as Sir Oliucr Lod3e pointed out,
we cannot hold that appearances correspond to reality. \\re
know of the aether chiefiy fronr its transm'ission of rvave
action, which in free space travels with the velocity of light.
Accordingly, after tracing the physical properties of
the aether, Sir Oliuer Lod.gc jttstly exclaimed: >You have
heard of Einsttitt, and probably knorv that he has go use
for the aether. He has, however, not done. away with the
aether, but sirnply ignored it.<
'I'his
concise statement covers the case exactly; but in
view of the fact that Einsftin shuts his eyes to the unseen
operations of the physical universe, which Nru'lttz artribdted
to irrpulses in the aethereal mediunr, it is not remarkable
that the uranl' sagacious investigators.of natural phenomena
are obliged to reject the nrystical and misleading doctrines
of,Lins/titt.
'fo
turn as'ay frorl a mechanical explanation of the
tvorld, and attelnpt to account tbr phenornena by ruere
f o r m u l a e r e p o s i n g o n t h e s u p p o s i t i o no f a c t i o n a t a d i s t a n c e ,
and to furtber cornplicate the reasoning by the assurnption
when such an hypothesis is
of the curvature of space, unnecessary and purely fictitious, * is not a sign of penetration, but of lack of experiencd in natural philosophy.
It is just such unwarranted procedure which Ncutton
denounces as resting on >vain fictions(, in the second sentence
of the discussion following the statenrenr of Third Rule of
Reasoning in Philosotrihy: >We are certainly not to relinquish
the evidence of experiments for the sake of dreams and
vain fictions of our own devising; nor are we to recede
from the analogy of nature, which uses to be simple and
always ionsonant to itself< (Principia, Lib. III).
It appears from Ncutton'sdiscussionthat electrical actions
conveyed along wires and across space, as in radio-telegraphy,
and found by actual experimental measurenrentsto be transruitted with the velocity of light, are the very kind of >evidence of experiments< which that great philosopher says we
are not to relinquish for the sake of dreams and vain fictions

285

5079

of our own devising; yet Einstcin and his followers have

thus plainly violated Ncu.ton's Third Rule of Philosophy, in
proposing to do away with the aether. Without this medium
the phenomena here cited are not explainable, so that even
a cbild can see the necessity for the aether. The sun and
stars are the perpetual witnessesto the existence of the aether,
and all rvho live and behold the light, as Honer says, thereby
recognize ttris superfine medium (.1i0{1d.
(iii) The formal discussions on the theory of relativity
before the Royal Astronomical Society, Dec., rgr9, and Royal
Society, Feb. 5, r9zo, wholly unpro6table, in default ,of a
kinetic theory of the aether.
In view of the above criticisms it is unnecessary to
emphasize the unprofitable character of the fornral discussions
held before the Royal Astronomical Society, Dec., r g r g,
and the Royal Society, Feb. S, rgzo. But the fact that two
of the oidest scientific societies in Europe did not refuse
to $'aste their time and resonrces of publication on the vague
thereby still further
and chirnerical theory of relativity confusing the public mind, already bewildered by the misapplication of mathernatics which rests on no physical basis,
u'hen the problem is primarily a physical one - may rvell
deserve our attention.
A report of these meetings will be found in the Monthly
Notices, and in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, and
other journals, such as the Journal of the British Astronomical Association, for Nov., r g r 9, ar'd Jan., r g zo, which
al)l)ear a month or so late. lVe may condense the discussion
as an American physicist summarized .a similar discussion
held in Washington about ten years ago:
>When we got through, we did not know any rnore
than when rve started.<
Now we submit that such methods are not those by
which science is advanced. And when the proceedings of
learned societies take the form oI unprofitable debates, orr
rnere subtleties, or on reasoning which rests on false presuch as a mere mathematical foundation,
mises,it is a sign
when a physical foundation is required, of the mysticism which usually accornpaniesintellectual decadince. There can be no defense for the policy of exploiting
Einstcin's theory without first considering the kinetic theory
of the aether,which renders such mystical doctrines unnecessary
and wholly inadmissible.

'fo

cite an exampleof historic interest,the chimerical

is judiciouslypointed
characterof Kcller's early speculations
out by Loplact (Precis de I'Hist. d'Astron., p. 94):
>Il est affligeantpour I'esprithumain de voir ce grand
homme, mCme dans ses dernidres ouvrages, se complaire
et les regarder
avec dilices dans seschimiriquesspdculations,
comme I'Ame et la vie de I'astronomie.<
Delanbre is even more severe, and subscribesto the
judgement of Bai$, in regard to Kcplcr (Astron. du moyen
A g e ,r 8 r 9 , p . 3 5 8 ) :
>After this sublime effort (discoveringthe planetary
laws, is meant) I{epler replunges himself into the relations
of music to the notions, the distance,and the eccentricities
of the planets. In all theseharmonicratiosthere is not one

286

true relation; in a crowd of ,ideas there is not one truth:

he becomes a man after being a spirit of light.<
The results brought out in the first and second papers
on the New Theory of the Aether, show the worthless bharacter of the whole theory of relativity. We are justified in
saying it is a foundation laid in quicksand, rvhen a foundation
of granite rvas near at hand. And therefore the whole
theory of relativity, as heretofore taught, is now shaken to
its foundations, and thus no longer deservesthe serious con.
sideration of natural philosophers.
As throrving some historical light upon the unprolitable
subtleties of the theory of relativity, and the vague and chim e r i c a l d i s c u s s i o n sw h i c h t h e R o y a l A s t r o n o m i c a l S o c i e t y
and the Royal Society have inflicted upon a bewildered and
long suffering public, \rye recommend an attentive reading ol
the latter part of the first volume of Wheutell's History of
the Inductive Sciences.lllcu,ell dedicated this justly celebrated
*'ork to Sir John fftrsrhtl, and it ought to be familiar to
every modern investigator.
ll'heutrll's lurninous discussior-rof the >Indistinctness of
I d e a s i n t h e M i d d l e r \ g e s < ; > C o l l e c t i o n so f O p i n i o n s < ; > l n d i s t i n c t n e s so f I d e a s i n l l l e c h a n i c s <; > > l n d i s t i n c t n e sosf I d e a s
i n A r c h i t e c t u r e ( ; > I n d i s t i n c t n e s so f I d e a s i n A s t r o n o m y < ;
> I n d i s t i n c t n e s so f l d e a s s h o w n b y S k e p t i c s < , ( p p . 2 5 3 - 2 6 8 )
is especially worthy of study.
In opening the treatment of >Indistinctness of Ideas
shown by Skeptics< U/hcu,cll remarks:
rThe same unsteadiness of ideas which prevents men
frorn obtaining clear views, and steady and just conyictions,
on special subjects, may lead them to despair of or deny
the possibility of acquiring certainty at all, and may thus
make them skeptics with regard to all knowledge. Such
skeptics are themselves men of indistinct views, for they
could not otherwise avoid assenting to the demonstrated
truths of science; and, so far as they may be taken as specimens of their contemporaries, they prove that indistinct
ideas prevail in the age in which they appear. ln the stationary period, moreover, the indefinite speculations and unprofitable subtleties of the schools might further impel a man
of bold and acute mind to this universal skepticism, because
they offered nothing rvhich could fix or satisfy hirn. And
thus the skeptical spirit rnay deserve our notice as indicative
of the defects of a system of doctrine too feeble in demonstration to control such resistance.<
Accordingly, from the considerations here advanced,
it follows that the recent formal discussionsbefore the Royal
Society and Royal Astronomical Society of the theory of
relativity, which is both vague and chimerical, have confused
rather than clarified the subject in the public mind; and
thus in the cause of truth I have felt obliged to protest
against the misuse of the powers of these learned societies.
I L Rejection of the Theory of ,Electrical
Mass' except for Smail Particles of Common Matter
expelled under Electric Charges:the so-called,Electrical Mass'thus not applicable to the Aetherons,
or Corpuscles of rvhich the Aether is made up.
(i) Description of the so-called ,electrical mass'.
Of late years a number of physicists occupied with
tg'

287

288

5079

experiments involving the ejection of snrall charged particles,

in an electric field of very considerable intensity, hive
Iaid much stress upon the so.called ,electrical mass', and
even gone so far as to entertain the view that all mass is electrical (cf. Crowthcr, Molecular Physics, r9r4, pp. 6Z-8S).
It is true no doubt that under the charges involved in these
experinrents there is an ,electricai mass' because tbe small
mechanical mass is thereby thrown out of electric equilibrium
with its surrounding field.
But when we deal with the aether as an all-pervading
medium, we have to do with the motions of the aetherons
only, and as common matter is not involved, we have to
reject the ,electricai mass' as applied to the aether, for
the reason that the aetherons make up the field, and normally are in kinetic equilibrium, so as not to be subjected
to any forces except those due to passing waves in the
aether, involving concerted displacernent of neighboring
aetherons.
It is well known that Ncuton rvas quite aware of the
effect of the resistance of a medium upon the motion of a
sphere or otber body projected through it. In the Optics,
r72r, pp. 342-3, Ntaton discusses the very problem here
treated o[ in the follouing manner:
>>Theresistance of water arises principally and almost
entirely from the vis inertiae of its matter; and by consequence, if the heavens were as dense as water, they would
not have rnuch less resistance than water; if as dense as
quick-silver, they rvould not have mnch less resistance than
quick-silver; if absolutely dense, or full of matter rvithout
any vacuum, let the matter be ever so subtile and fluid,
they would have a greater resistance than quick-silver. A
solid globe in such a nredium would lose above
half its notion in moving three times the length
of its diameter, and a globe not solid (such as are
the planets) would be retarded sooner. And therefore
to make way for the regular and lasting motions ol the planets
and comets, it's necessaryto ernpty the heavens of all rnatter,
except perhaps some vcry thin vayrours, stealns or effluvia,
arising from the atmospheresof the earth, planets and comets,
and {iom such an exceedingly rare aethereal mediun'r as we
described above. A dense lluid can be of no tse for explaining the phenomena of nature, the nrotions of the planets
and comets being better explain'd without it.<
In this passagerve have spaced the sentence especially
applicable to the problem of the ,electrical mass', rvhich
is explained as follows. I.et m be the ordinary mechanical
mass o[ the nroving particle; then the ordinary kinetic energy
.due to its motion becomes

E -

rf
2n.u2

(ss)

But electrical experiments on small particles ejected

under considerable charge, show that there is in addition a
quantity of energy due to that charge. I'he total energy is
found to be made up of the two parts shown in the right
nrember o[ the following equation:

by the particle, and a is the radius of the spherical space

occupied by the charge. The ,electrical mass' is not quite
constant for all velocities, but the above formula holds approximately for moderate speeds.
(li) fire rejection of the theory of the so-called ,electrical mass', as an effect of the aether due to the systematic
arrangement .of the u'aves, justified by Thontsaze's
views o[
the motion of a corpuscle' through an electrical field.
In his Elenrents of Electricity and Magnetism, 4th ed.,
rgo9, p. 5zr, Prof, Sir ]. |. Tltotnson indicates that il nt
be the mass of an uncharged sphere, the kinetic energy of
such a sphere with charge e, magnetic-permeability 1e, and
radius of action a. is

6 :

rf

2 l n + 2 f s p c 2af ) u 2.

(s')

The effect of the charge is to increase the mass of

'I'his
the sphere by ?fspre2fa.
is a resistance called the
,electrical mass', and the question arises whether it should be
regarded as an increase of nrass, as described by Tlunsou,
or an effect of the field in which the sphere moves, as described by tVutton in the discussion above cited frorn the
Optics, r7zr.
'fhonson
compares the motion of a torpuscle
Sir ]. ].
through an electrical field with that of a sphere through a
liquid, which he says leads to an increase in the effective
mass, because the moving sphere drags some of the liquicl
along with it. .Thus.rvhen a sphere nroves through a liquid it
behaves as if the mass were increased from n to n-rr;'.,ttt',
where nl is the nrass of the liquid displaced by the sphere.
Again, when a cylinder moves :rt right angles to its axis
through a liquid, its apparent mass is til-rrn', where zr'is the
mass of the liquid displaced by the cylinder.
)In the case of bodies moving through liquids<, says
Thonson, >the increase in nrass is due to the motion of the
body setting in motion the liquid around it, the site of the
increased nass is not the body itself but the space around
it where the li<1uid is rnoving. In the clectrical problenr, n'e
rnay regard the inr:reased nrrss as due to the .|'-arada_l,ttbes
settingin nrotion the ether as they urovethrough it> (p.5zz).
This reasoning concedes that the so-called ,electrical
mass' depends not on the sphere itself, but on the field about
iti in other rvords the,electrical ntass'is an effect due to
the surrounding fieid, and not inherent in the body itself.
For that reason it is necessary to consider carefully whether
the ,electrical mass' in the larger mechanics, ought not to
be rejected altogether'as fictitious, and due to disturbances
in the aether 6lled with waves and thus polarized, the arrangement of the waves exerting the force called the ,electrical mass'.

(iii) Theory of J. A. Cr;otother, rgt4.

I n h i s I v l o l e c u l a rP h y s i c s , r 9 r 4 , p . 7 o , ( e i r i t a d e l p h i a ,
Blakiston's Son .t Co.), J. A. Crowtltcr, also of the Cavendish
Physical Laboratory, Cambridge, points out that the extra or
mass is due to the fact that the particle carries
,electrical'
rf
( S o ) a charge. Crou,ther even says that if the
B - r f, n u 2 - + - rsf e 2 ua2:f
, [ m - r 2 fs c zaf ] u 2
,mechanical' mass
the first term yielding the mechanical energy depending on n be zero, the ,electrical' mass will still persist. Analytically
n, and the second that depending on the so-called ,elec- this follows from the above formula (9 r ), but physically
trical mass', 'lot'lo, where e is the electrical charge borne there is no proof that such an ,electrical' mass can exist

z8g

5079

independentlyof nratter, and thus Crowther's claim cannot

be admitted.
Croutlhcr announceshis final conclusions thus (pp. 7o
a n d 7r ) ;
. >Since this,electrical'mass is really that of
the rnagnetic field surrounding the particle, it
resides not in the particle itself but in the medium
surrounding it, that is, in that mysterious fluid
rvhich lve call the etherl). As soon, however,as we
attempt to alter the motion of the particle this energy flows
into it from all sides, so that, as far as experinrents upon
the particle itself are concerned, the results obtained are
precisely the same as if it resided permanently there.((
>To make this somewhat novel idea a little clearer
n'e may consider a close and very servicable analogy, where
the rnechanism of the extra mass is a little clearer than in
the elcctrical case. lf anv body is nroving through water,
or any viscous fluid, it carries with it a certain anrount of
the liquid through rvhich it is moving. In the case of a
sphere, for exarnple, the quantity carried along by the motion
of the body anrounts to half the volume of the sphere itself.
A long cylinder rnoving at right angles to its orvn length
rvill carry with it a quantity of fluid equal to its own volunre.
On the other hand, if it moves in the direction of its own
length the fluid entangled is practically nil. Thus, in order
to set the body in rnotion rvith a velocity er, rve have to
supply to it energy enough to give this velocity, not only
to the sphere itselfl but also to the mass of fluid which it
carries with it. That is to sal', if M is the mass of the
sphere itself, and M' the mass of the attached fluid. the
'n'ork done in starting the body is tf"(-lfe-U,) .i,2.
In other
rvords, the body will behave as if its mass rvere increased
by the mass of the fluid entangled by it. Just as in the
electrical case, this extra mass resides in the surrounding medium.<

290

(iv) We therefore conclude that the ,electrical mass

depends wholly upon the aether.
As the ,electrical' mass admittedly depends on the
aether, and the inffuence it exerts depends on the wave motion in this medium, it is better for most purposes to reject
the doctrine of a so-called ,electrical mass' as fictitious, and
consider separately the common Newtonian mass ,rr, and the
influence exerted by the field in which zz is moving.
In case of the ,electrical mass':

E -

2f,p.c2uefa

(sr)

where a is the radius of the space occupied by the charge,

and 1athe mag.netic-p.ermeabilityof the medium, e the charge,
it is thus obviorrs that Z becr:mes trrrly a drag exerted on
the moving mass /,,/. It is evident that this effect ought to
depend on /2, and z?, since the induction due to the waves
is thus developed like ordinarl' rnechanicalwork done.
F o r i t m u s t l r c r e m e n r l r e r e dt h a t t h e r e a r e r v a v e s i n t h e
field, produced by the bodies and charges of the universe,
and also waves, or Faradav tubes of force, produced by the
moving corpuscle itself, rvith charge r. Since the charge a
is a measure of the electri6cation of the corpuscle, the field
about it necessarill'lvill have ,a corresponding condition,, but
negative in character, and the interaction of the charged
corpuscle on the field will be measured b.v the product of
these charges, and thus by a2.
This explains the nature of the formula (92), except
the divisor a. And Croathcr (1tp. 16z-3) shows that the
total energy in the field is the integral of the total magnetic
energy lretrveen trvo spheres of radius r and r*dr,
when
taken from the surlirce of the electron of radius a to inlinity, becomes:
r -

[:

tt ,' . , 1et,2 u. 2P ),d r rfr "! :

t f, 1 , 1 2 , ,a2.f

(qs)

l'rom this line of investigation it appears rhat we are

justified in rejecting, and even required to reject, the
,elecAccordingly, it clearly appears, from T/tonson,s and,
trical mass' for the aetherons, rvhich pervade the universe, and
Crou,l/tc/s arguments, that the ,electrical' mass 2fsezfa clepends
by their vibrations render the aether the vehjcle of energy.
rvholly on the field in which the charged corpuscle is moving,
A c c o r d i n g l y o u r c o n c l u s i o n sa r e :
not upon the body itself, and changes when the motion
r. It appears that Prof. Sir ]. ]. Thonson's argument
through the field is altered. All that the arguments can be
said to prove therefore is that the aether in a magnetiC field, tor the ,electrical mass' is an extension of that given by
exerts an influence on bodies moving through it. 'fhis shows Ntruton, but is likely to be misapplied, unless the specific
that the aether really exists, is polarized near magnets and condition of non-electric e<luilibrium underlying the experismall particles is clearly borne in mind.
electric wires bearing currents, and acts physically according nrents with
'Ihe
z.
doctrine of the ,electrical mass' has therefore
to definite larvs.
a very limited field of validity. On page g r of the rvork
This is a reason therefore rvhy the theoiy of the aether
above cited Croutthu says that most physicists cherish the
cannot be rejected, as some superficial rvriters have held.
belief at the bottom of their hearts that all mass is electrical
The other reasons for adntitting the aether are as convincing
in origin, ,but it cannot at present be said to be much more
a s s t u p e n d o u sc a b l e s o f s t e e l w o u l d b e . i I w e c o u l d a c t u a l l y
than a pious hope.<
see them stretched from the sun to the several planets for
(v) lhe nature of the X-rays investigated.
holding these huge masses in their orbits. l'or the centrifugal force of the planets has to be balanced and the
It will be recalled that for a long time great mystery
aether is the medium which sustains the tremendous forces attached to the nature of the X-rays. Soon
after these rays
required to curve the paths of the planets at every point, were discovered by Rt)nlgen, in the winter
of r895-6, three
and enable them to describe Keplerian Ellipses about the different theories were formed of their nature: (r)
Electrified
sun as the focus.
material particles projected with great speed fronr within the
r) The
s p a c i n g . o u ti s m i n e .

29r

5079

bulb quite through the walls of the glass tube; (z) the Ultraviolet theory, which supposes the energy to be aether-wave
rnotion of the same character as light, but of only about
r: rooooth part of the wave length of visibie light; (3) the
longitudinal aether-wave theory, at first lavored by Ranryen,
Jauntann and others, which ascribed the observed effect to
longitudinal motion in the aether weves.
Probably something could still be said in favor of each
of these theories, and it is not yet certain that the nature
of the X-rays is understood. In the usage of men of science
however, the ultra-violet wave-theory has found most favor.
In rgrz the Swiss physicist Dr. Laue first nrade use
of X-rays to investigate the structure of crystals, and from
this beginning has grown a resourceful nrethod for attacking
the problem of molecular arrangement in crystals, which may
even throrv light on the internal structure of the atoms thenr.
selves. An article on this subject by Prof. l[/. L. Bragg, on
rCrystal Structure(, will be found in Discovery, Feb., rgzo;
and a review of the subject appears in the Journal of the
British Astrononrical Association for March, r92o, pp. r99
till zoo.
The following table gives an outline of the different
types of waves, expressed in Ahgstrdm units, or tenth-metres,
r m'ro-10, D"f's
Physics, p. 64o:
Gamma rays
X-rays
Shortest ultra-violet waves
Shortest visible waves (violet), about
Violet, about

o.r
r
6oo
38oo
4OOO

Blue

Green

i:::

Yellow
i Zoo
Red
6qoo
Longest visible wa'res (red)
Zi"o
Longest rvavesin solar spectrum,more than
5 3ooo
Longest waves trensrnitted by fluorite
95ooo
Longest waves by selective reflection
from rock salt
5ooooo
from potassiumchloride
6rzooo
Longest waves fronr nrercury lamp
3r4oooo
Shortest electric waves
4ooooooo:

4 nrnr.

It is very difficult to understand horv such very short

waves as X-rays are supposed to be, on the ultra-violet theory,
could penetrate so easily through the human body and other
semi-solid subst4nces, as they are found to do in practice.
The experiments of lauc, Bragg and others in crystal photography show the extreme fineness of the X-rays, and their
great penetrating power.
But it is perhaps possible that what appears to be a

passageof X-rays through resisting structuresis rather a

general agitation of the aether by which the atoms emit
wives 1) rvhich can impressthe photographicplate, than an

292

actual passage of such short waves through these resisting

masses, If so, the facts of experience would lend a strong.
support to the wave-theory since it might be much easiei to
evoke vibiation of appropriate length than for such short waves
to actually pass. The waves evoked by agitation of the aether
would show crystalline structure, and even the diffraction of
X-rays, quite as well as. the passage of X-rays waves.
In confirmation of this view that the X-rays observed
are waves evoked by agitation, lve quote front Dulf's TextBook of Physics,1916, p. 64r:
>Glass is opaque to waves shorter than 35oo Angstrdm,
units, and longer than about 3oooo Angstrci* units. Quartz
is transparent between the wave-lengthstSoo and 7oooo,
and for some longer waves; rock salt is transparent between
r8oo and r8oooo, and fluorite, one of the nrosttransparent
substances, will transnrit ultra-violet waves liorn about l, roootol-g5ooo.(
A similar argument has also been adduced by Prof. Sir
J. !. Thonsoz to the effect that X-rays depend on collisions
by negatively charged particles. They are evoked by the
somewhat irregular agitation of the wave-field, the disturbance
produced being due not so much to regular continuous wave
motion, as to isolated wave irupulses,rvhich travel throughout
the neighboring aether, and set free the corpuscles from the
atoms. Such X-rays could not well interfere, and their diffraction, if obseived, would be of the type photographed by
Lauc tn crystais, corresponding to short waYes, probably
produced by the degeneration and breaking up of longer
a e t h e r i m p u l s e s o f n o c o n s i d e r a b l er e g u l a r i t y o f m o v e m e n t .
1'his puts the ultra-violet theory in a new light, in Iine
with the wave-theory, and at the sarne time explains the
mechanically injurious effects of X-rays in surgerye) as due
to the irregular u'ave impulses, which regular ultra-violet
waves could hardly produce. And it explains also why calciurn tungstate lray render the X-rays capable of casting
shadows visible to the eye. !'or the irregular irnpulses would
come rvith sulficient rapidity to give an effect which optically
is apparently continuous. When obsen'ing the X-ray througb
calciunr tungstate I have noted an appearance of rapid
llickering, as in the case of rapid but irregular electric
sparks, or liglrtning flashes in quick succession but at un-.
eclual intervals.
In connection with this subject it is well to bear in
mind that magnetism, which in the .wave-theory depends on
polarized waves of perfect regularity, can penetrate thick
plates of glass 9r any other substance, but the action seems
to take a little tinie. Probably the polarized character of
magnetic waves and their length makes this penetration
possible, whereas it is possible for the confused waves of
light only within fixed limits. Thus we hold that the irregular inrpulses in X-rays correspond to long waves, which
under degeneration call forth the very short ones used for
the newer investigations in crystals.

') This idea is suggested

b y l l i n l g e n ' s o r i g i n a l e x p e r i m e n t o f c u t t i n g o f f a l l c a t h o d er a y s w i t h b l a c k c a r d b o a r d , y e t n o t i n g t h a t s o m e
crystals of^barium platino-cyanide in the darkened room were rendered lurninous by the general agitation in the aether,
'?) A dispatch
from Paris, \lay 26, quotes M. Dauiel Bcrthelo/ as reporting, \laf 25, to ile Acatlemy of Sciences a nerv method. ftrr
protecting operators against the injurious effects of X-rays, which are neutralized by a simultaneous application of infra.red rays. This use of
infra-red rays to counteract the X-rays confirms the theory here developed; unless the agitations underlying the X.rays were long, the long
infra-red rays could hardly afford the protection reported. - Note added, May z[, rg2o,

zg3

5079

t2. The acknowledged Failure of the Electron

Theory, which. represents a Subordinate Phase of
Scientific Progress: The Larger Problems of the
llniverse can only be attacked through the WaveTheory based on the Kinetic'l'heory of the Aether.
(i) The acknowledged failure of the electron theory.
In his interesting but unconvincing work on l\4olecular
Physics, Philadelphia, r914, Crout/ur treats of rnany molecular phenomena from the point of view of the electron
theory. Including the effect of the electrical mass, 2fse2u2fa,
Crorulhrr concludes (p.8t) that the mass of an electron is
8.8. ro-28 gms., while the value of the charge it carries is
r.57.ro-20 units. Thence he deduces for the radius of the
electron r .8 7 . r o- 13 cms.1)
, Calling attention to the conclusion that the radius of
an atom is of the order of lo-13 cms, he adds a comparison
u'hich I give spaced:
>We rnay now say that small as the atom is,
the electron is so mnch smaller that the electron
bears to the atom which contains it very mucb the
same relation as a pea to a cathedral.<
rWe have seen that the whole of the mass of the
electron is due to the charge which it carries. 'fhe thought
at once suggests itself: Are there indeed trvo kinds of mass
or is all mass electrical in its originl Probably nrost physicists cherish this belief at the bottom of their hearts, but
it cannot at present be said to be mrrch more than a pious
'l'he
hope.
mass of a negative electron is about 1/17eppart
of the mass of a hydrogen atorn. Neglecting the positive
charge of the atom, of which we know practically nothing,
it would require rToo electrons to make up the mass of
a single hydrogen atom. This of course is not a priori an
i m p o s s i b l en u m b e r c o n s i d e r i n g t h e s m a l l n e s so f t h e e l e c t r o n ;
and speculations along these lines were for a time freely
indulged in. In this case, however, experiment failed to con'I'he
firm the bold conjecture.
nurnber of electrons in the
atorn has been determined at any rate approximately, and
affords no support for such a theorv. <
Croutther then examines at some length the question
of the number of electrons in an atom, and after admitting
the obscurity of positive electrification, finally concludes,
pp.'8S-8+ as follows:
>Unfortunately, we are not yet acquainted with the
nature'of positive electricity. Prof. Sir J. J. Thonson's experiments on the.positive rays, brilliant as they have been,
have not at present thrown nruch light upon this exceedingly
difficult problem. For the present the term ,positive electrification' remains for the physicist very much what the term
,catalytic action' is for the.chemist - a not too humiliating

294

method of confessing ignorance. lf we suppose that the

positive electricity is distributed uniforrnly over a sphere of the
size of the atom (a hypothesis which lends itself very readily
to mathernatical treatment), the author's result would indicate
that the nunrber of electrons in an atom is almost exactlv
t h r e e t i m e s i t s a t o m i cr v e i g h t . T h a t i s t o s a y , t h e n u m b e r
of electrons in a hydrogen atom would be three.2)
If we go the other extreme, and suppose that the positive
electrification is a sort of nucleus at the centre of the atom,
and that the electrons revolve around it somewhat after the
manner of the rings of Saturn, the number of electrons in
a hydrogen atonr works ouf at unity, the number in any
other atom being equal to its atornic weight. The assigning
of unit atomic weight to hydrogen would then have a very
.definite physi.calsignificance, as it $'ould be the lightest atom
which could possibly exist. In either case the number of
electrons in an atom is only a very small nrultiple of its
atomic weight. We cannot, therefore, assign any appreciable
fraction of the mass of the atoms ro the negative electrons
it contains.<
>'fhere still renrains, of course, the possibility that the
mass is electrical, but that it resides in the positive portion
of the atom. If the formula for the electric mass be examined, it rvill be seen that for a given charge the mass is
inversell' yrroportional to the radius of the sphere upon which
it is concentrated. II we suppose the positive charge on
the h1'drogen atom to be concentrated upon a sphere of
t/rroo ol the size of the nesative electron, its
mais would
b e r T o o t i m e s a s . g r c a t ,t h a t i s t o s a y , e q u a l t o t h a t o f t h e
hydrogen atom. Our perfect ignorance of the nature .of
positive electricity renriers the suggestionnot unt'enable,though
evidence for it is sadly Iacking.<
'fhis
is a very frank confession of a failure of the
electron theory, for two chief reasons.
r. In size the electron bears to the atom about the
ratio of a pea to a cathedral.
z. The nuntber of such electron peas to the atom
cathedral is very small, either r or 1 for hydrogen, and
always a small multiple of the atonric rveight. Hence the
i,mportant conclusion: )We cannot, therefore, assign any appreciable fraction of the mass of the atoms to the negative
electrons it contains.<
Accordingly it is not surprising that Crouttho. admits
that >for the present our belief in the electro-magnetic nature
of all mass remains an expression of our faith that all the
varied phenomena with which we have to deal are manifestations o[ some single principle or essence which underlies them all.<
Another important and much more elaborate work,
>The Electron Theory of matter(, by Prof. O. W Richardson

r) Another proof
of the great uncertainty attaching to the theory of the electron is afforded by conflicting deductions as to the absolute
d i m e n s i o n so f t h i s l i t t l e m a s s .
.
_t. _Crouthcr' pp. 8t-r65, give3 for the radius of the electron r.87.ro-ts cm, and for the radius of a hydrogenatom t.2r,ro-8 cm.
Thus the hydrogen atom has about 66oootimesgreaterdiameter, yet it has only rToorimesthemassoftheelectron, wlich makes the electron
relatively very heavy for its small diameter. If of equal density with the hydrogen, this mass would make the'hydrogen atom have a diameter
rr.93 times that of the electron,
z. But the diameter of the electron itself must^be very uncertain, In Phys,Rev.vol. r14, pp.247-259, Sept.1919, A.I{. Comliton,
who had previously estimatedthe diameter to be z'ro-toc-s,
now finds it to be (1.85*s.qe5;.rotid".r,
or")':6.g"i.t;;;
cm. This is
about zoooo.times larger than Crouttler's value; so that apparently no conhdence whatever can be put in these results.
') The
s p a c i n g - o u ti s m i n e .

295

5079

296

of K_ing's College, London, appeared under the

auspices of containing electrons which are free to
move under the action
the University Press, at Cambridge, rgr4, pp. r_612.
We of an electric field, whire in non-cond.uctors
the electrons are
cannot attempt to describe the treatment, except
to say that fixed and .unable to follow the impulse
of the.field.c
it is similar to Crouther,s work, but less expeiimental,
)How are these electrons set free?
and
In the first place
sets forth .the mathematical tbeory in greater detail.
it may be noticed that the only good conductors
of elec_
In spite of the elaborateness of this treatise, Ric/tardson
.
tricity are metallic, that is to say, elictro-positive
i., .t u.""t.r,
is obliged to admit the short-comings of the electron
theory. substances which we know from other phenomena
readily
On page 5gz the author admits tf,at rwe cannot
be sure part with an electron under the slightesi
provocation. Now
'provocation
that the rnass of the electrons is not appreciably
different in a solid. such
may well be supplied by the
in djfferent substances.<
.Accordingly it'would appear that close propinquity of the neighbouriDg molecules. It is
well
the mass of the electron is definitely fixed only in
particular known that a charged body *ill ^tt.u*"t
light uncharged sub_
substances which have been experimentally investigated,
It
stances. The attraction of a well-rubbed siick of
seaiing wa*
is acknowledged that nearly ail the atomic problems
are for srnall
clouded in great obscurity.
.pieces of paper is generally our first introduction
to the science of electricity. The attraction
is of course
Under the head of General Conclusions,p. 6oo, we
read: mutual, the force on the charged body
being equal to that
r>A review of the preceding discussion
shows that the on the uncharged paper, Hence
an ilectron in one atom
electron theory is not in u porition to make
very definite is attracted by a neighbouring
uncharged
atorn, and under
assertions about the nature of gravitational attraction.
It
ravouraDle clrcumstances, and especially in
the case of an
seems likely that the Newtonian law of attraction
between atom only too ready to part with its
electrons, the attraction
elements of matter is one between elements of
mass or con- may well be sufficient to enable it
to make its escape.<
fined eneigy and.that it is of a very fundanrental
character.
It is obvious without further discussion that
this theory
It is doubtfull) if it can be replaced by a
n r o d i f i e d is so very defective that it cannot
be seriously entertained
law of electrostatic force bitween electrons
or
by investigators who are familiar with the propagation
elements of electric charge, unless the
of
modified
electric and radio-telegraphic waves and light-acioss
free
law includes the associated mass explicitly.
E v e n space. For, in the first place, it claims
to account for disso, the case does not appear very simple. <<
turbances along conductors, which cannot
be done with
In closing Richardson concurs in tie opinion of Lorenlz
e,lectrons of the recognized mass. And, in
the second place,
th.at gravitation may be an electrodynamic effect
propagated the electron theory gives no explanation
of light and iadioyilh..,h." velocity of light, like that since develop"d i.,,gi"t..
telegraphic waves across free space, wbere
the aether alone
detail by the present writer.
is involved.
(ii) The electrons usually assumed to
Accordingly the electron theory cannot
be more or less
explain the
.
to aroms, and set free chiefly i" -"t"f.
(.;;j;.:
phenomena of the aether, and it rnu.i b.
,bou,nd.
adrnitted that the
torsj,. to make up an electric current: but
this will not subject of the electron is still involved in great
obscurity.
explain the propagation of electric disturbances
as we can judq-e it can only be cleaied
with the
up ly tt e
9o .fur
velocity of light, and thus the electrons cannot
replace the further. development of the wave-theory, deduced from
the
aether.
new kinetic theory of the aether.
It is well known that the electrons usually
For although the mass of the aetheron given
are taken ^
'which
in the
to be more or less ,bound, to lhe atorns, with
first paper on the New Theory of the Aether, will
thef
have to be
are associated. A vast amount of discussion
has arisen as multiplied by about 4.3r to take account of the increased
to the setting free of the electrons, by heat
and electric absolute density of the aether, found by the new method
disturbances. It will be noted thereiorei
of section I above, after Lord l(cluin,s method
was sbown
r. The electrons are not taken to be entirely
free, to _be invalid: yet the total change in the mass of the
to pervade all space and all bodies, like the aetherons,
which aetheron is comparatively slight, ,,a-.rrely: molecular weight
travel with, a velocity
times that of ligbt, 47rz3g kms. : 6 7 . o 7 2 . r o - r z .
^r.57
z. The speed of the electrons is no"t taken
Accordingly the general mass and dimensions
to le in
of the
any case greater than one third that of light.
As the mass aetheron are but slightly altered, yet the size of this corpuscle
of the electron is considerable, though irly
is somewhat increased and becomes:
yrfr.
of that of a hydrogen atom, this smiller velocity,
"Uorrr. The radius of the aetheron 'lroor.,
;;;
of that of a
rooooo kms. is very intelligible.
"f'
hydrogen molecule.
The hypqthesis of Crouther, and others, (Molecular
z . T h i s r a d i u si s e q u i v a l e nt o
5 . + 4 ., o ' - t , c m s . , t h a t
Physics, p.r39), that ran electric current is a flow
oi electrons o f ' h y d r o g e n b e i n g t a k e n
,.34.ro-"r.rr.
from
place
high to a place of low potential( cannot
".
(iii) fne electron theory
.a
-of
like that of radio_activityis
be adnritted, ,because the observed velocity of
3ooooo kms, a subordinatephase of scientificprogress,
for light and electricity could not be attained
b! suctr heavf
The electrontheory developid luring the last quarter
masses as electrons.
'physiof a century by a considerablegroup of e"lperimental
Crout/ter
states this electron theory
-;h;", as
-",follows:
cists. led by. Prof. Sir j. J. Tionsin and others,
>We may regard
has now
.ondu.tor,
a substance II aacquired
cqulred
s u c h definite
such
definite
fnrm
a n . l shows
c h a , , , o such
.,.^L r^r^^.^
L-^
form
and
_-_'
"
defects, athat
we
1) The spacing.out
is mine.

297

5079

are safe in considerin!' it a subordinate phase in scientific

progress. If it should prove to be an ultimate development,
apparently this can only be owing to the more fundamental
rvave-theory, which underlies the electron.theory and gives a
\
physical basis for the pihenomena of electrons.
r. l'he alpha-, beta-, gamma-rays, recently so much
observed, are held to give experimental proof that snrall
particles, under electric charges of grenter or less intensity,
are. ejected from certain bodies with velocities which may
be one third that of light,
z. It is very difficult to understand how alpha-, beta-,
gamma-particles can be ejected with this enormous speed
unless conrrnotions incident to wave action underlie the
ejections. For electrodynamic waves travei with the velocity
of light, and material particles caught up by a combination
of such waves might travel more slorvly than light, but yet
with so great a speed as to approach that speed or a large
fraction of it.
3 . I t i s i n c o n c e i v a b l et h a t v e l o c i t i e sa p p r o x i m a t i n g o n e
third that of light could be generated without sone association rvith the release of elastic action in the aether, which
speeds on with the enormous velocity of 3ooooo kms per
second. llven in solid bodies.the aether waves advance at
a rate which is a large fraction of that in free space. .+
4. Now rnolecular and atomic velocities are very small
indeed compared to that of light. I{ence it is apparent that
no ordinary molecular collisions or disturbances could eject
particles with these enormous speeds. But if invisible electro.
dynamic waves underlie these ejections their speeds are easiiy
accounted for. Under oscillating electric charges the particles nright be carried along from the surface or even into the
interior of a splid anode or cathode, or similar terminals.
5 . I n t h e a u t h o r ' sw o r k o f r 9 r ? , p . 2 0 , w e h a v e e x plained the nature of an electric current, and illustrated the
waves about a conducting rvire by a figure (cf. fig. rz, p. z6o,
above) showing the rotations which make up the waves; Tbe
'waves act in concert, tbe elements whirling
everyrvhere in
the same direction. If therefore, there be a particle small
enough to be ejected, yet observable, it might be carried
away with great speed.
6. But in a Geissler-tube, or similar rarified gaseous
medium, we have rarified gas itself for the conductor or
discharge of the electric sftain at the ternrinals. In such a
good conducting partial vacuum, it apparently wouid be much
easier for a small particle to be ejected with great speed
than from any conductor of metallic constitution.
7. Thus, in all the phenomena of electric discharges
through rarified gases, on which Prof. Sir ]. f. Thonstn has
experimented for so many years, the indications are that the
observed velocities of the ejected particles are attained under
wave influences or releasesof electric stresses,by commotions
in the aether traveling with the velocity of light.
8. Since the rarified gas acts as a conductor - Prof.
Troabridgc
of Harvard University having found that
John
rare air is a more perfect electric conductor than even copper
wire -, we should in fact expect certain solid particles to
be transported along with a large fraction of the velocity of
light. Thus the electron phenomena are not remarkable, but
naturally lollow from the wave-theory.

298

9. Accordingly, it hardly seems possible that the alpha-,

betd-, gamma-particles,so rnuch studied in the electron theory,
can be other than a temporary phase in thc progress of
science. Irrportant as the results attained are, they do not
disclose to us any workable theory of the universe. Even
the ejectiqns of small charged bodies rnust rest on the wave.
theory : there is no other possible way in which we can
explain the ejection of these corpuscles, and their enormous
velocities, whereas the wave-theory makes their ejection natural and re<luires it to be at high speed.
to. Incidently, the electron theory renders the corpuscular theory of the aether more probable than it otherwise
would be. It all implies excessively rapid motion for very
small bodies. Unless there be waves traveling with the
velocity of light, it is impossible to explain the phenomena
of radio-activity.
To show the difficulty of reconciling these results, we
add a few calculations. Let us assume in tbe first case that
the free electrons behave as a gas, and thus follow the law
announced by tl{arutell, that all nrolecules have equal kinetic
energy, which is verifed by experience for many actual gases.
'Ihen,
if m and u denote respectively the mass and the velocity of a molecule of hydrogen, while n, and z, denote
corresponding quantities for an electron, rve have:
rf2nu2: tf2n,u,z.
(Sq)
1/3ae6of a
Accordingly if u :
1696 ms, and r/ :
hydrogen molecule, *'hich contains two atoms, we find
u' V 34oo.r/: 58.3r.r696 nrs:98.893 kms. (SS)
'fhis
is a comparatively snrall velocity, e little over
6o nriles per second; and thus rve find the electron as a gas
partiq]e could not attain a sensible ,fraction of the velocitv
of light, 3boooo kms. Different authorities give differeni
v e l o c i t i e s f o r c h a r g e d p a r t i c l e s : C r o u t i l e r ( p . Z O ) c o n s i d e r sa
particle moving with one tenth of the velocity of light, and
Milliftan has asserted.the probability of a speed of one-third
t h a t o f l i g h t . S u c h h i g h v e l o c i t i e sa r e w h o l l y i m p o s s i b l e ,o n
the kinetic theory o[ gases; but as expelled under electric
charges they might be possible, iI carried along by the
wave action traveling at 3ooooo kms per second. But the
acceleration of the velocity appropriate to a gas, under the
kinetic theory, would ha.r'e to be very great.
For the above value q8.8g: kms is less than t/uooo,n
that of light; and if rve take ll[illiian's estirnate ot' t7r-iie
velocity of light for the swiftest charged particles, ejected,
the above kinetic velocity will have to be accelerated a
thousand times its calculated value, or receive energy augmentecl by the factor (rooo)? 16e66e6feld,
Now in view of our ignorance o[ molecular physics,
it is difhcult to say upon what forces such an acceleration
may depend; but I know of nothing adequate except waves
traveling with the higher velocity of 3ooooo kms per second.
A particle having a speed of Lf, f, lvould have only
l/sth of the energy of a particle traveling
with the velocity i.
It looks therefore as if waves passing by with much greater
velocity might have given the particle a velocity which is
a considerable fraction of the velocity of light.
On p. 8r, Crowt/ter attributes the whole mass of the
electron'to the charge which it carries. We can not admit

299

5079

such a supposition, lbr reasons already given; yet if the

charge exerts a drag on the aether in which the waves
are traveiing,. the velocity attained will be reduced to a
fraction of that of light, in accordance with observations.
No other hypothesis than that here adopted will explain the
phenomena; and it seems certain that the electron phenomena are explicable by means of the aether, but not without
'nrediunr.
this nruch finer
(iv) Explanation of inertia, momentum, the larvs of
motion and of static electricity.
Ever since the formulation of the Newtonian philosophy
in the Principia, r686, the problenr of inertia, momentum
and the laws of motion have appeared to natural philosophers
as 1>henomenarequiring elucidation; yet for n iong time no
solid progress could be rnade in this inquiry, becausethere
was no adequate theory of the aether. Now that a kinetic
theory of the aether is outlined, and the properties of the
r r e d i u m s o n t e w h a tu n d e r s t o o d , w e c o n s i d e r i t a d v i s a b l e t o
sug(estan explanation of the chief mechanical actions which
underlie natural philosophy.
r. Since the aether is filled u,ith rvai'es and presses
s1'mmetrically upon bodies at rest, or in uniforn-rrnotion, and all bodies carry their wave fields rvith thern, - whatever
their state of rest or rnotion, we perceive that the high elasticity of tlie aether makes it impossible to move a body at
rest, or alter the velocity of a body in motion, without expending energy upon it. For in every case the wave-field
about the body must be readjusted, and rrnder the elastic
porver of the aether, this involves work, - just as the aether
waves of solar radiation, for exarnple, do work when arrested
in their motion at the surlace of the earth. The kinetic
theory of the aether therefore accounts for inertia, which
represents the energy to be overcqnre in readjusting the
wave-field about any body,
z. To make this a little clearer rve recall a remark
of T1'ndall in his work on sound, 3'd ed., 1896, p. 73:
>A certain sharpness of shock, or rapidity of vibration,
is needed for the production of sonorous waves in air. It
is still more necessary in hydrogen, because the greater mo-_
bility of this gas tends to prevent the formation of condensations and rarefactions.<
In further proof of Tyndalls remark as to the increased
difficulty of starting waves in hydrogen compared to air, we
cite the fact tfat heretofore Prof. F. E. Atiphcr of St. Louis
is the only experimenter rvho has been able to generate
'I'o
waves in the aether by nrechanical nreans.
this end Niphcr
used dynamite, which generates trenrendous forces acting
with extreme quickness - exactly as Tltndall points out should
be the case for a gas having very great mobility of its
'l'his
molecules.
confinns the kinetic theory o[ the aether
and the cause assigned for inertia by an experinlentunt crucis.
3. ln the case of momentum, the physical cause involved is the same as that assigned for inertia, for very
obvious reasons, Ior mornentum is the prodtrct of mass by
velocity, tnu, and as the mass does not change, the change
can only occur in z, the velocity, and thus momentum and
inertia are identical as to physical cause.
We may even go a little further, and say that all

3Qo

kinetic energy depends on the aethg; for the fornrula for

the kinetic energy
E -

Lf
1f
(so)
2nu2 :
"ud2sf dt!
involves only mass zr, which is constant, and the velocity z,
any charfge in which is resisted by the moving rvave-field
about the body, exactly as in the case of inertia.
4. Ls Ncwtoz's laws of motion, Principia, Lib. r, are
concerned with motion, which involve chiefly chanees of
velocity, we perceive that these laws have their recognized
form in virtue of the kinetic medium of the aether: and
that all.changes of motion involve.changes in the aether
wave-fields about bodies, and are thus proportional to the
forces acting, and produce effects in the direction of these
forces, or stresses,in the aether.
5. It only remains to l)oint out that as rve ascribe
dynamic electricity, or electric currents, to waves of the
aether in motion, so also rve ascribe static electricitv to a
non-equilibriurn of the wave-field of the aether due to the
escal)e of certain waves, under friction or other disturbing
causes, which lbcilitates tbe escape i-aster than restoration
takes place, and thus leads to the developnront of charges
'lhus
of static electricity.
it is easy to throrv the universe
out of electric equilibriunr, and develop electric stresses.
6. As a charge of static electricity is not permanent,
b u t a c c o r n p a n i e db y a g r a d u a l d i s c h a r g e , i t i s n a t u r a l t o h o l d
that the insulators on u'hich the electric stressact:umulates
do not allow of an adequate flow of aether waves to rlaintain the electric e<luilibrium in the local lield of the universe.
H e n c e s t a t i c c h a r g e sa c c u m u l a t e , a n d m a y b e d i s c h a r g e d b y
varlous causes,
'lhis
nray involve graduai restoration of the equilibrium,
by wave dissipation through the air or other media, or a
sudden restoration, when metallic contact is made by a conductor connecting the so-called positive and negative charges,
and a nrotion of aether waves along the wire restores complete equilibriurn.
It rvill be seen that the viervs set forth in this paper
and nraintained rvith vigor are very different from tbose
previously current among investigators. In the search foi
truth we do not enter upon such new paths from any mere
love of novelty, but only from the hope of finding a way out
of the general confusion heretofore recognized to exist.
It it be thought sourewhat audacious to depart from
these old ways of thinking, in extenuation thereof I must
point to the triunrph of the theory of a very small density
for the aether, after a density of zooo million times that of
lead had been held by the electronists, as outlined in the
'l'he
first paper.
small density no\\' appears to be established
on an unshakable basis, by the discovery of the new method
for determining the absolute density o[ the aether. And in
general when nothing is hazarded in the hope of the discovery of new truth, history shows that inrportant discoveries
cannot be made.
Thus I think it infinitely better to venture upon paths
which promise progress rather than to hold to lines of mere
conservatism, which retrlrn to some part of the old dark
labyrinth, without leading out to real light under a clearer
and brighter sky. If others are able to add to the development here brought forth I shall heartily welcome their ad-

30I

5079

vance; and I ask no more of <ithers, in respect to following

the new path here struck out in the hope of discovery, than I
voluntarily exact of mysel[, in the search for light, more lightl
As this paper is somewhat lengthy I shall defer going
into further details of static electricity, till we conre to deal
rvith the phenomenon of lightning and the molecular forces,
I am indebted to lt4r. V:. L. Middlcton, Mr. G. L. Ealey,
and especially I{r. tr4/.S. Tranftle, for facilitating the completion o[ this paper.
Starlight on Loutre, l{ontgomery City, Missouri,
r g z o I V I a y8 .
T. J. J. See.
Postscript:
Since this paper lvas finished, I have just received
Science Abstracts, No. z7o, June 3o, r9zo, with notice of
the Theoretical and Experimental Researches on Gravitation by Prof. Q. Ifajorana, of Rome (Phil. l{ag., vol. 39,
pp.488-5o+. N{ay, rgeo), who raisesthe question as to
the absorption by a dense rnedium o[ the encrgetical flux
which is supposed to proceed frorn all matter and cause
gravitative attraction.
N{r. P. E. Shau' gives the following account of Majozarza's researches:
'
)A particle of mass dar would put forth a fl,ux kdn. If
this flux passesthrough distance r of a dense rnedium, having
quenching factor I{, the flux at the end would be rtdn.c-Ht,
Here E is proportional to the density of the medium - /r0r.
Now, suppose the particle of mass dn to be a particle inside
a sphere, the author finds that the total flux emerging from

all pointsin the sphereis

-+, I
-F : h n 0, Rs [r fp _ r f zpt_+2-"r (r f1;2

"?t)]

where ?u : density of the sphere, R :

radius of the sphere,
and p:
1717. Let Mo - the apparent mass of the sphere.
This is less than the true mass Mu on account. of this atji
sorption effect. I.et Mo - 7[,9 - af..rr7rR] p, where

,lt :

u nlt - r zp\-+e-'n (r p2-+ t r?t)) .

I l?
f
f
l

The relation of yt to r/-r is shown graphically. The case of

the
sun is specially considered. The astronomical density of
.
the sun is r.4r. This is the apparent density. On certain
hypotheses we can arrive at a value for the true density, and
fronr this deduce the. values of 1p, ?, and I{ successively.
-l'he
.values of t!, ?, and f{ the author drarvs up in a table,
giving a range of hypothetical density from r.4r to 2o.o.
For a material of density r.o the value of .E{ is h. This
factor h is supposed to be a universal constant of value
b e t w e e n r o - 1 9 a n d r o - 1 1 .u
>In order to find the value of /t, the author has performed the following experiment. Fronr a delicate balance
in 'r,acuo hangs a lead sphere, counterpoised.by a similar
sphere. One lead sphere is hung in a chamber surrounded
by one which can be used empty or filled rvith mercury, so
as to surround the lead synrmetrically. The lead has mass
1274 gm, the mercury has mass ro4 kg. By means of a
mirror, the balance, and a distant scale it is possible to
estimate the mass to 1/rroorngnr on each readine. On trying
the experiment, the author finds that in all casesthe weieht
of the lead is reduced rvhen it is surrounded by mercuiy.
This indicates an absorption effect by the mercury. The
observed decrease in weight is (o.oozo9to.oooo7) mgm.

But various corrections must be applied. These include the

attraction of the mercury on the counterpoise, and on the
beam, and on other parts used. The greatest admissible
error for asymmetry of the mercury is :to.oooog mgm.
The net effect after the application of these corrections is
(o.ooog8to.ooor6)
m g m . T h e a u t h o r n e x t c o n s i d e r so t h e r
possible causes of error, such as electrostatic or magnetic
actiorl, radiometric or electrornagneticaction, heat effects,and
mechanical perturbation. He considersthese effectsnegligible,<
> T h e v a l u e f o u n d f o r k i s 6 . 73 . r o - 1 2 . O n a p p l y i n g
these results to the sun, the author considers the sun's true
density to be 4.27, which is three times as great as that
believed in by astronomers.(
This remarkable result seentsso strikine as to be worthv
oI careful attention. It rnay be recalled that in the F]lectroj.
Wave-Theory of Phys. Forc., vol. r, rgrT , p. r
5 5, paragraph 18, I pointed out that )up to the present time the
researches of astronomers throw but little light on the amount
of rnatter within the heavenly bodies. 'l'hey have simply
calculated the.arrount of matter within these masses which
nay nrake itself effective by external attraction; and the
amount of matter actually there may be considerably larger
than we have heretofore believed.<
Perhaps it may appear premature to claim that my
prediction of r9r7 is already definitely verified by Majorana,s
researches,.but as his experiments were well planned, and
executed with such care as to command :ippro,r,al in the
highest scientific circles, the evidence certainly indicates the
detection by dilicate physical experiment of a screening effect
in the action of universal gravitation which I first discovered
from the fluctuations of the moon's nrean motion, l)ec. ro,
r g r 6 , a s r e c u r r i n g w i t h t h e e c l i p s ec y c l e s ,a n d t h u s d e p e n d i n g
on the interposition of the solid globe of the earth in the
path of the sun's gravitative action on the rnoon.
The conrse of this celestial-terrestrialprogress is the
nore remarkable, because Prof. E. l4/. Rrotun, the leading
lunar theorist, had pronounced against the theory, after Ilottlinger and Secligcr had been unable to conlirm the interceotion
of part of the sun's gravitation near the time of eclipses.
It rvould notv seem that Majorana's experiments open a new
line of attack on the nature of gravitation, which can scarcely
be interpreted except in terms of the rvat'e.theory.
If so, it will no longer be admissible to speak of
action at a distance, rvben the sun's action on the moon
is 'shown to be partly put off by the interposition of the
earth's mass near the time of lunar eclipses, while terrestrial
gravitation can be sensibly reduced by the layer of mercury
made to surround one of trvo deiicately balanced lead spheres,
in Majorana's laboratory experiments.
It may be noted also that the explanation of the prosression of the perihelion or mercury given by me in AN
5 o 4 8 , p . r 4 3 , s e e m st o b e t r i u m p h a n t l y v e r i f i e d , a n d t h a t t o o
without resorting to relativity or the theories o( Einstcin, which
I believe to depart from the laws of nature, because they
are both lacking in physicai basis. It is not by accident
that '4[ajorana's experiments confirm my lunar researches of
r g r 6 , a n d t h e s i m p l e e x p l a n a t i o no f t h e o u t s t a n d i n gr n o t i o n
of Mercury's perihelion given in AN 5o48.

r g z o A u g u s t1 8 .

T. J. J. Su.
'
2o'