12/15/2011

Welcome to Chem 1a
Dr. Holland
Lecture:
Lab Lecture/Lab :

Office Hours:
email:
Our Stuff:

Monday / Wednesday
8:30-9:45 am
Monday / Wednesday
11-1:50 pm
Tuesday / Thursday
2 4:50 pm
Monday/Wednesday
2:00-4:00 pm Rm 5607
hollandmary@fhda.edu (not for homework help)
https://sites.google.com/site/hollandchemfun/home

Aah the Memories

What is Chemistry?

The language of matter

See Spot.
See Spot run.
Jump, Spot, jump.

Letters

words
Sentences
Grammar Rules

O
S

atoms

molecules

Reactions

Chemistry Laws and Theories

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Chemistry Does Matter!

Which is tasty to some people, which is a laxative, which is
quite deadly, which can neutralize acid and which is a
dangerous, but useful, corrosive base?

CuCN

NaHCO3

C 4 H6 O 6

MgSO4

NaOH

Classification of Matter
Matter

Pure substance

Elements
One kind of atom

Mixture

Compounds

Homogeneous
Mixture

2 or more kinds of atoms

Fixed composition

More than one substance

Same composition
throughout

Heterogeneous
Mixture
More than one substance
Variable composition

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States of Matter also matter:

Gas

Liquid

Compressible
Low density
Highest energy

Solid

Non-Compressible

Physical Properties:
No Recombination of Atoms
Ductility
Br

Br

Malleability
Ag Silver
The solid, liquid, and
gas states of bromine
Iron: Fe
Magnetism
Density:
D=m/v = mass(g)/volume(mL)

eCopper: Cu
Electrical
conductivity

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Chemical properties:
New substances formed
Heat stable or not

Hydrocarbons:
Flammability

Explosive

Many metals:
Oxidation reaction

Caustic: Strong bases

Reactive

Extensive vs. Intensive Properties

Extensive: dependent on sample size
Intensive properties: not dependent on sample size.
Which properties below are intensive or extensive?

Property of Water

Value

Value

100.0 g

10.0 g

25 C

25 C

Volume of water

0.100 L

0.010 L

Density of water

1.00 g/mL

1.00 g/mL

Mass of water
Temperature of water

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Types of Changes
Physical Changes: No change in composition
Changes of state, temperature, volume, etc.

Solid CO2 subliming

Melted Chocolate

Hoar Frost- ice deposition

Chemical Changes: Result in new substances.

Combustion, oxidation, decomposition, etc.

Mg + 2 HCl H2 + MgCl2

Baking Bread

Burning
Wood

Metric Prefixes
Need to know these prefixes (pg 14 in book)

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Dimensional Analysis
To solve a problem, put units in the right order to get correct
units of the answer, then plug in conversion factors
A car traveled 395 kilometers in 210 minutes. What was the average
mph?
Starting units: km/min Units of answer: miles/h

Arrange the units so that cancellations will result in the units for
the answer:
km x miles x min = miles
min
km
h
h

Then, plug in the given info and conversion factors:

395 km x 0.621 miles x 60 min = 70.1 miles
210 min
km
h
h

or 70.1 mph

Solution Map Approach

Identify steps necessary to convert from given quantities to
desired quantity
The gasoline in an automobile gas tank has a mass of 60.0 kg and a
density of 0.752 g/mL. What is the volume in mL?

Solution Map:

kg

g
1000 g
1 kg

mL
1 mL
0.752 g

Relationships and Conversion factors:

1000 grams = 1 kg
Density = mass(g)/volume(mL) = 0.752 g/mL

60.0 kg

1000 g 1 mL

7.98 104 mL
1 kg 0.752 g

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Protons, Neutrons and Electrons

Particle
Proton
Neutron

Mass (amu)
1.0073
1.0087

Charge
1+
0

Electron

0.00055

1-

Protons and neutrons weigh almost the same

Electrons weigh much, much less
Atoms have the same number of protons and
electrons, so they are neutral (no charge) overall.
Protons and neutrons = nucleus of atom w/virtually all
the mass

What Makes an Element Unique?

The number of protons defines an element = Z = atomic number

Number of electrons = Number of protons in a neutral atom
The number of neutrons can vary
Isotopes are atoms of same element with a different # of neutrons.

Carbon has 6 protons & 6 electrons, but can have 6, 7 or 8 neutrons.

Each isotope will have a different weight

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Average Atomic Mass

Mass:

1H

2H

1.0079

2.0166

P
N N
3H

3.0253

What is the average atomic mass for each sample of

hydrogen?
Estimated:
Calculated:

The Periodic Table of Elements

Atomic number or Z
Element symbol
Atomic
mass

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Ion chargesons

Ca+ion or Anion? Check the chart:

Group A metals (Type I) cations (charge = group #)
Transition metals (aka Type II metals) also form
cations, but their charges are not predictable
except Ag1+, Cd2+, Ni2+, Zn2+
Nonmetals negatively charged ions (charge = group
# 8)

Classifying Substances for Naming and Writing

Formulas

Acids

Formula starts
with H

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Polyatomic Ions - Learn these

Ions with -1 charge
perchlorate
ClO4-1
chlorate
ClO3-1
chlorite
ClO2-1
hypochlorite
ClO-1
perbromate
BrO4-1
bromate
BrO3-1
bromite
BrO2-1
hypobromite BrO-1
periodate
IO4-1
iodate
IO3-1
iodite
IO2-1
hypoiodite
IO-1
nitrate
NO3-1
nitrite
NO2-1

hydroxide
OH-1
cyanide
CN-1
thiocyanate SCN-1
acetate
C2H3O2-1
permanganate MnO4-1
bicarbonate HCO3-1
Ions with a -2 Charge
carbonate
CO3-2
sulfate
SO4-2
sulfite
SO3-2
chromate
CrO4-2
dichromate Cr2O7-2
oxalate
C2O4-2
peroxide
O2-2

Ions with -3 charge

phosphate
PO4-3
phosphite
PO3-3
Ions with +1 charge
ammonium ion NH4+1
hydronium ion H3O+

The most productive

method of committing
these ions to memory is
first memorize the ones
that have the ate
ending. This is the most
common ending.

The Halogen Oxy-anions

Think
hypo under
ide ions hypo-ite ion
2 less O

Element

Think
hyper over

ite ion
1 less O

Memorize
the ate ion

per-ate ion
1 more O
perchlorate

ion name

chloride

hypochlorite

chlorite

chlorate

formula

Cl

ClO

ClO2

ClO3

ClO4

structure

Same pattern for Chlorine, Bromine and Iodine

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Formula-to-Name Flowchart

Beware the ides of Naming

ide at the end of a name non-metal element,
exceptions: hydroxide ion, cyanide ion
Memorize these common names and formulas:
H2O = Water/steam/ice NH3 = Ammonia CH4 = Methane
NaCl = Table salt
C12H22O11 = Table sugar

Elements are named as their element name

Formula starts with H, its an acid
Name ends in acid, the formula better start with H
And for oxyacids: ate g icK acid

ite g ous acid

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Words to Sentences
Formulas are our words and we have to get them right:
Correct chemical symbols
Correct order
Correct subscripts

Equations are our sentences: get the grammar right

Must be balanced (same # and kind of atoms on each side)
Must include states of reactants and products
May show other conditions for the reaction ( = heat, hn = light)

Chemical Equations
Balanced chemical equations are a gift!

2 Na(s) + 2 HCl(aq) 2 NaCl(aq) + H2(g)

Provides information about the reaction.
Formulas of reactants and products.
Relative numbers of reactant and product molecules
(mole ratios)
Allow us to determine masses of reactants and products
Limiting reactant and theoretical yield

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Classifying Chemical Reactions

4 General Reaction Types:
1. Synthesis (aka formation or combination)
A + 2B g AB2
2. Decomposition (aka falling apart)
AB2 g A + 2B
3. Single Displacement (or single replacement)
AB + C g CB + A
4. Double Displacement (or double replacement)
AB + CD g AD + CB

Writing Balanced Chemical Equations

1. Determine general type of reaction (S, D, SD, DD, Combustion):
a)

Write the symbols for the atoms/ions in the reactants and products

2. Balance the charges in each formula:

a)
b)

Write charges for each element/ion

Adjust subscripts to make formulas neutral

3. Balance overall equation using coefficients only

a) Count elements/polyatomics on each side

b) Pick an element to balance.
Do metals before non-metals.
If an element is in only one compound on both
sides, balance it next.
Leave free elements until last they are the
easiest.

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The Mole as a Conversion Factor

1 mole of any element has 6.022 x 1023 atoms:

6.022 1023 atoms

1 mole

1 mole
6.022 1023 atoms

1 mole of any element has the same mass in grams as

the atomic mass of that element:
Atom
Potassium, K
Silicon, Si
Neon, Ne

grams/mole
39.10 g/mol
28.09 g/mol
20.18 g/mol

moles/gram
1 mole/39.10 g
1 mole/28.09 g
1 mole/20.18 g

atoms/g
6.022 x 1023/39.10 g
6.022 x 1023/28.09 g
6.022 x 1023/20.18 g

Mole Relationships in Chemical Formulas

We can find the number of moles of a constituent element
if we know the number of moles of the compound.
Moles of compound
1 mol NaCl
1 mol CaCO3
1 mol C6H12O6

Moles of constituents
1 mol Na, 1 mol Cl
1 mol Ca, 1 mol C, 3 mol O
6 mol C, 12 mol H, 6 mol O

3 mol H2O
5 mol (NH4)2CO3

____ mol H, ____ mol O

___ mol N, ___ mol H, __mol C

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From Molecules to Moles to Mass

Molecules:

+
3 H2(g) + N2(g) 2 NH3(g)
3 molecules H2 react with 1 molecule N2 to make 2 molecules
NH3
17.03 g
17.03 g
2.02 g
28.00 g
Moles:

2.02 g

2.02 g

3 mol of H2

1 mol of N2

+ 28.00 g N2 g

6.06 g H2

2 mol of NH3

34.06 g NH3

3 mol of H2 react with 1 mol of N2 to make 2 mol of NH3

Mass (grams): Mass of 1 mole of H2 = 1.01 g + 1.01 g = 2.02 g/mol

How Many Grams of Glucose Can Be Made From 58.5 g of CO2 in

Photosynthesis?
Photosynthesis (opposite of combustion):

6 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(g) C6H12O6(s) + 6 O2(g)

58.5 g CO2

mol CO2

mol C6H12O6

g C6H12O6

Mole ratio from equation

mol CO2
44.01 g CO2

58.5 g CO 2

1 mol C6H12O6
6 mol CO2

180.2 g C6H12O6
1 mol C6H12O6

1 mol CO 2 1 mol C 6 H12 O 6 180.2 g C 6 H12 O 6

39.9 g C 6 H12 O 6
44.01 g CO 2
6 mol CO 2
1 mol C 6 H12 O 6

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H3PO4

Percent Composition
H:
3 x 1.01
P:
1 x 30.97
O:
4 x 16.00
mm of H3PO4

=
=
=
=

3.03
30.97
64.00
98.00

Mass % H =

3.03 g H x 100% = 3.09%

98.00 H3PO4

Percentage of each element in a compound by mass

Can be determined from either:
Formula of the compound.
Experimental mass analysis of the compound.
Can use as conversion factor

Mass Percent

mass of element X in 1 mol

100%
mass of 1 mol of the compound

Combustion Analysis

Compounds containing C and H are routinely analyzed through

combustion in a chamber like this.
C is determined from the mass of CO2 produced.

Mass of CO2 x mass % C in CO2 g C

H is determined from the mass of H2O produced.

Mass of H2O x mass percent H in H2O g H

O is determined last by difference

Mass of O = mass of sample (mass of C + mass of H)

(Sample and practice exercise 3.15 in your book)

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Finding an Empirical Formula from Experimental Data

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

gA

mol A

gB

mol B

gC

mol C

mole
Mole ratio ratio

formula

whole
number
ratio

empirical
formula

Convert the percentages to grams, if necessary.

Convert grams to moles (Use molar mass of each element)
Write a mole ratio formula using # of moles as subscripts.
Divide all subscripts by smallest number of moles.
Multiply the results by a whole number to make all
subscripts whole numbers, if necessary.
If a ratio is: ~0.5 = multiply all by 2
~0.33 = 1/3 multiply all by 3
~0.25 = multiply all by 4

Empirical to Molecular Formulas

The molecular formula = multiple of empirical formula.
To determine the molecular formula, you need to know the
empirical formula and the molar mass of the compound.
Molar massmolecular formula = Factor used to multiply subscripts
Molar massempirical formula

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Solutions in Water
Homogeneous mixtures of 2 or more substances
Solvent
Solute
Solution characteristics:
Components never separate spontaneously
Concentration of a solution:
amount of solute present in a given quantity of solvent
Solubility:
maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in a
given amount of solvent (g/mL or g/L):
saturated solution

Dissolution/Dissociation
When ionic compounds dissolve in water,
anions and cations separate: dissociation.

Not all ionic compounds are soluble in

water!
Polyatomic ions dissociate as one ion.
When molecular compounds dissolve in
water, only acids and bases can form ions
Soluble non-acid/base molecules dissolve as
the complete molecule

Sugar (sucrose): C12H22O11

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Electrolytes & Non-electrolytes

Ionic compound
Complete dissociation
(after dissolving)

Weak acid
CH3COOH CH3COO- + H3O+

Non-acid molecular
No dissociation
(methanol (CH3OH) in water)

Reactions in Solutions: Processes

Precipitation reactions
Metathesis or displacement/ replacement
Acid-base reactions
Acid reactions with gas formation

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AcidBase Reactions: Neutralization

Also called neutralization reactions because the acid and
base neutralize each others properties.
In the reaction , the H1+ from the acid combines with the
OH1- from the base to make water.
The cation from the base combines with the anion from
the acid to make the salt.
acid + base salt + water
2 HNO3(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) Ca(NO3)2(aq) + 2 H2O(l)
HC2H3O2(aq) + NH4OH (aq) NH4C2H3O2 (aq)+ H2O(l)
Think of water as H-OH

Acid Reactions w/ Gas Evolution

Some reactions form a gas directly:
K2S(aq) + H2SO4(aq) K2SO4(aq) + H2S(g)
Other reactions form a gas by the decomposition of
one of the products into a gas and water.

3NaHCO3 + H3C6H5O7 Na3C6H5O7 + 3H2CO3

3CO2(g) + 3H2O

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Net Ionic Equations

Net ionic equations show us what reaction actually
happened if any.
To write net ionic equations, start with the ionic equation
and cross out any ions that are the same on both sides.
2K+(aq) + 2I-(aq)+ Pb2+(aq)+2NO3-(aq) 2K+(aq)+2NO3-(aq) + PbI2(s)

Net Ionic Equation:

2I-(aq)+ Pb2+(aq) PbI2(s)

The ions that didnt react (and were deleted from the net
ionic equation) are called spectator ions.
Only strong acids, strong bases and soluble ionic
compounds will be separated in ionic equations

OxidationReduction Reactions
Element that loses electrons in the reaction is oxidized.
(Lose Electrons: Oxidation)
Element that gains electrons in the reaction is reduced.
(Gain Electrons: Reduction)
LEO goes GER

You cannot have one without the other.

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Oxidation and Reduction: A Better Definition

Oxidation occurs when an atoms oxidation number
increases during a reaction.
Reduction occurs when an atoms oxidation number
decreases during a reaction.

CH4 + 2 O2 CO2 + 2 H2O

-4 +1

+4 2

+1 -2

oxidation
reduction

Activity Series
Li, Na, K, (Group IA)
Ca, Ba (Group IIA)
So reactive that they combine
w/O2 & H2O vapor in air
Mg, Al, Zn, Mn
Slightly less active. Don't react
w/H2O at room temp but react
rapidly w/acids
Cr, Fe, Co, Ni, Sn, Pb, Cu
React only with strong acids.

Ag, Au, Pt, Hg

Inert at room temperature.

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Concentrations of Solutions
Concentration: amount of solute in a quantity of solvent.
Amount can be expressed in many ways
Grams per mL or L mass/volume
Moles per mL or L Molarity
Mass percent mass solute/total mass of solution x 100%
Volume percent volume solute/total mass of solution x 100%
Atoms per gallon
Maybe not the most practical
Hold still Im

trying to count!!

Ion Concentrations
The molarity refers to the # of moles of the whole compound
For molecular compounds, concentration = molarity
Ionic compounds dissociate in water, so the # of moles of the
individual ions in solution depends on formula of compound
For example: 1 mole of CaCl2 dissociates in water to form 1
mole of Ca+ ions and 2 moles of Cl- ions

Cl- Ca+ Cl-

1 mole1 mole
of CaCl
of2Ca+

2 mole Cl-

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Dilutions: A type of v/v solution

Dilutions: Adding solvent to a known quantity of a
concentrated reagent to make a less concentrated
solution.
Handy equation: C1V1 = C2V2 same mass in either volume
Concentration initialVolumeinitial= Concentrationfinal x
Volumefinal
Works whether concentration is w/v, v/v or molarity

100

NaCl
5.0 M

Forms of Energy

Kinetic: Mass and speed of an object

Electricity
Heat or Thermal Energy
Light Energy

Potential: Energy stored within a physical system as a result of the

position or configuration of the different parts of that system.

Electrostatic: Energy from the interactions of charged

particles
Nuclear: Potential energy in the nucleus of atoms.
Chemical: Potential energy in the attachment of atoms

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Energy: Many Forms; One Basic Unit

Kinetic energy: Ek = mv2
mass in kg; velocity in meters/sec
Ek = kg m2
s2

Potential energy: Ep = m x gravitational constant x h

mass in kg; g= 9.8 m/s2; h in meters
Ep = kg m m = 9.8 kg m2
s2
s2
SI derived unit for energy is the Joule, J
units for J = kg m2
s2

Tracking Changes in Energy: The System vs.

Surroundings

The

The System: The reaction or process we are studying

Only the atoms/molecules that are reacting
The Surroundings: The rest of the universe
Closed systems can exchange energy but not matter with
surroundings
Internal Energy of the system, E:
Sum of all potential and kinetic energies
of all the components

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Energy Diagrams

E = Efinal Einitial

Exothermic reaction:
Products have less
energy than reactants;
excess energy went to
surroundings
E is negative

Endothermic reaction:
Products have more
energy than reactants;
system took energy
from surroundings
E is positive

Changes in Internal Energy

E = Efinal Einitial
Change in Energy is exchanged between
the system and surroundings as
piston
position either heat (q) or work (w).
Work (w)

Heat (q)
Change in temperature of
system or surroundings

E can be defined in terms of

work and heat:

E = q + w

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E, q, w and Their Signs

E = q + w
The sign for E reflects what happened to the
The signs for q and w reflect whether the system gained or lost
energy:
If work is done on the system; w is positive
If heat is gained by the system; q is positive
And vice versa:
If work is done by the system; w is negative
If heat is given off by the system; q is negative
w and q are both forms of energy, so units are J or cal

From Enthalpy to Molecular Geometry

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State Functions

A property that depends only on the condition or "state" of

a system; not on the path used to obtain the condition.
E is a state function; value depends on Einitial and Efinal
State Functions
Internal energy Pressure
Enthalpy
Temperature
Volume
Altitude

Path Functions
Work
Heat

Enthalpy
Enthalpy (H) of a system is defined as the internal energy
plus the product of pressure and volume (work):
H = E + PV
Enthalpy: heat flow between system and the surroundings
At constant pressure: the change in enthalpy (H) is:
H= (E + PV) = E + P V
Remember: E = q + w and P V= -w
Substituting:
H= (q + w) - w
H= q
Enthalpy is a state function

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Point of Confusion: Enthalpy and Stoichiometry

Energy change given by Hrxn is for the molar amounts
(and states) in the balanced equation:
C3H8(l) + 5 O2(g) 3 CO2(g) + 4 H2O(g) Hrxn = 2044 kJ
However, the amount of energy change (q) in a lab
reaction depends on:
the amounts of reactants (more fuel; more heat)
the states of reactants/products
How much heat would be given off if 10.0 g of liquid C3H8 are burned?
[molar mass of C3H8 is 40.10 g/mol]

From the equation: 1 mole 2044 kJ or 2044 kJ/mol is given off

Mol

Mass

10.0 g x

1 mol C3H8
44.10 g

KJ
2044 kJ
1 mol C3H8

= 463 kJ

Specific Heat Capacity

Look at the units for specific heat: J/g-K

Specific heat, Cs=

heat transferred (J)

Mass (g) temp change (T in K)

Cs =

m T
or
q = Cs m T

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Calorimetry: Measurement of Heat Flow

For reactions in aqueous solution:
Molecules/atoms in the reaction= the system
Water/container = the surroundings
We can measure T of the surroundings easily

T = Tfinal Tinitial
Using T and information on the mass and specific heat
capacities of the water and container, we can calculate
qsurroundings
Since qsurroundings = -qsystem, we can calculate Hrxn

Hess Law
Hess law states that If a
reaction is carried out in a
series of steps, H for the
overall reaction will be
equal to the sum of the
enthalpy changes for the
individual steps.

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Lets Try One

Target Equation

Use the thermochemical equations shown below to determine

the enthalpy for the reaction:
2NH3(g)N2(g) + 3H2(g)
CH2O(g) + N2(g) + 3H2(g) N2H4(l) + CH4O(l)
N2H4(l) + H2(g) 2NH3(g)
CH2O(g) + H2(g) CH4O(l)

H=18.5 KJ
H=-9.0 KJ
H=32.5 KJ

N2H4(l) + CH4O (l) CH2O(g) + N2(g) + 3H2(g)

2NH3(g) N2H4(l) + H2(g)
CH2O(g) + H2(g) CH4O(l)
2NH3(g)N2(g) + 3H2(g)

H= -18.5 KJ
H=+9.0 KJ
H= 32.5 KJ
H= 23.0 KJ

For more fun like this: http://proton.csudh.edu/lecture_help/lechelp.html

Scroll down the menu for the Hess Law DP (drill and practice)

Enthalpies of Formation, Hf
Hf = enthalpy change for a reaction in which a compound
is made from its elements in their standard states
measured at standard conditions (25 C , 1.00 atm)
Hf of the most stable form of any element is zero
Hf is shown by a reaction where:
each reactant is an element in its standard state
the product is one mole of the compound.

2Na(s) + O2 (g) Na2O (s)

H2 (g) + O2 (g) H2O (g)

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Calculation of Hrxn using Hf

We can use the Hf table and Hesss law in this way:

Hrxn= nHfproducts mHf reactants

where n and m are the stoichiometric coefficients from
the balanced equation.

Quantization of Energy
Max Planck

(1858 1947)

How do you get more light out of a light bulb?

Heated objects emit light spectrum based on temp
Energy can be only emitted or absorbed in chunks or quanta.
Matter can emit energy only in whole number multiples of h:

E = h
E equals the energy of just 1
quantum (or 1 step) smallest
amount of energy that can be
emitted or absorbed as EM radiation
h=Plancks constant = 6.26 x10-34J-s

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Albert Einstein:
1879 1955
When a photon strikes clean surface of a metal, e- are emitted if:
1. for photon is above a minimum level for the metal
2. The photon has enough energy
Einstein : Light energy striking the metal behaves like a particle
(think teeny tiny photon torpedoes)
The energy of a photon is also equal to E = h.
The smallest value for h is the energy of one photon

Energy States of Hydrogen Atom

n = principal quantum number energy level of orbits.

n= 1: smallest and lowest energy orbit.
What does n= represent?

Bohr calculated the energies of the hydrogen atom orbits using:

E= (hcRH)(1/n2) = -2.18 x 10-18 J /n2
h= Plancks constant, c=speed of light and R H = Rydbergs constant
The difference in energies of orbits, E = energy of the photon :
h = E= -2.18 x 10-18 J (1/nf2 1/ni2)
Note the sign is negative (energy is emitted, but h is positive)

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The Fine Line Between Energy

and Matter
Light: No mass, no volume
Made of energy
Travels in waves
Can behave as a particle

Electrons: Have mass

Take up space
Show wave behavior
Very hard to locate

Louis De Broglie: Lets see what happens if we treat electron behavior as a wave function
His equation allowed wavelengths to be calculated for not just
electrons, but all matter:

De Broglies equation

= h/mv
h = Planks constant
mv = mass x velocity or momentum
The catch is that is incredibly tiny for anything we can see!

The Observer Effect:

Trouble Tracking e-s
Dual nature of matter limitation on how
precisely we can know both location and
The guy in the hat?
h
momentum

(x) (mv)

Where: x is uncertainty of the position

mv is uncertainty in momentum
Heisenberg Uncertainty Priniciple

Werner Heisenberg,
but Im not certain

For an electron with: mass = 9.11 x 10-31 kg

speed of 5 x 106 m/s ( 1%),
The uncertainty in the location of the electron is 10 times
greater than size of a hydrogen atom (10-9 m vs 10-10 m)

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Schrodinger Does the Wave

Erwin Schrdinger:
probability approach
energy is quantized
physics equations for wave behavior

The result : wave function equations that

predict the probability of finding an
electron with a certain energy at a
particular location in the atom.
We call these regions of high probability
orbitals

Electron Addresses: Quantum Numbers

Schrdinger's model allows electrons to
occupy 3D space, so it requires 3 coordinates,
or quantum numbers, to describe the orbitals
where electrons can be found.
The principal quantum number, n, specifies
the main energy level or shell for the electron
Values of n can go from n = 1 to n =
(theoretically)

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Schrodingers Quantum Numbers

Principal Quantum Number:
n = energy shell number; possible values are 1 to ?
Nouter shell = the row (period) number for an element
l is the angular momentum number (0 to n-1)
usually shown by a letter:
tells us the orbital shapes

mL is the magnetic quantum number (-l to + l)

Give # of orbitals in each subshell & their orientation (x,y,z)

ms is the spin quantum number

Spin is designated by an up

or down arrow

Subshells, Orbitals and Energy

Subshells of a principal shell have different energies.
s < p < d < f.
Orbitals within a subshell all have the same energy (degenerate)

Each subshell contains one or more orbitals.

s subshells have 1 orbital.

p subshells have 3 orbitals.
d subshells have 5 orbitals.
f subshells have 7 orbitals.

Each energy shell and subshell has a maximum number of

electrons it can hold, based on the number of orbitals in
the subshell (2 electrons per orbital)
s = 2, p = 6, d = 10, f = 14.

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The Amazing Periodic Table

Some Anomalies

Check out Cr, Cu, Ag and Au

Key Concept: Electrons tend to laziness and solitude

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Zeff Review

Zeff = Z Core electrons

Trends:
Increases across a row
Increases down a column

What Is the Size of an Atom?

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Sizes of Ions: Smaller to Bigger

Ions increase in size as
you go down a column.
This is due to increasing
value of n.

More layers of e-s

Ionization Energy

Ionization energy: Energy required to remove an electron

from the ground state of a gaseous atom or ion (n becomes
)
The 1st ionization energy: energy required to remove 1st e The 2nd ionization energy: energy required to remove 2nd e Each additional electron takes more energy to remove

Ionization energies are positive; energy required to knock

e- out of orbit

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Trends in First Ionization Energies

As one goes down a
column, less energy is
required to remove the
first electron.
For atoms in the same
group, Zeff is essentially
the same, but the
valence electrons are
farther from the nucleus.

Electron Affinity and Electronegativity

Electron affinity: the energy change when a neutral atom gains an
e- to become a negative ion. Values are mostly negative, except
for noble gases & a few other elements

Electronegativity: the ability of an atom in a

molecule to draw electrons to itself. Used to predict bond polarity

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Trends in Metallic Character

ns1

Group IA: Alkali Metals

The Active Metals

Hydrogen an alien in Group 1A
Soft, low melting point, low density
Flame tests:
sp excitation,
p s emission

H2

Li = red, Na = yellow, and K = violet.

1st ionization energy low:

Very reactive, never found uncombined in nature.

Tend to form water soluble compounds

React with water to form basic (alkaline) solutions
and H2
2Na (s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
Very exothermic; H2 self ignites

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Other Reactions of Alkali Metals

Alkali metals react with O2:
To form oxides (Li is the most calm):
4Li (s) + O2 (g) Li2O (s)
To form peroxides (except Li).
2K (s) + O2 (g) K2O2 (s)
To form superoxides (K, Rb, and Cs):
K (s) + O2 (g) KO2 (s)
4 KO2 + 2 H2O 4 KOH + 3 O2
Alkali metals react with H2 to form hydrides
2Li (s) + H2 (g) 2LiH(s) (note H-) 4 LiH + AlCl3 LiAlH4 + 3 LiCl
And with sulfur to form sulfides Your friend in organic synthesis
2Na (s) + S (s) 2Na2S(s) + H2O (g)

Group IIA: Alkaline Earth Metals

Harder, higher melting, and denser than
alkali metals.
Flame tests:
ns2
beryllium

Ca = red, Sr = red, Ba = yellow-green.

st
magnesium
1 ionization energy relatively low
Reactive, but < alkali metal neighbor.
calcium
Form stable, insoluble oxides
strontium
Oxides are basic = alkaline earth.
Reactivity with water to form H2:
barium
Be: no reaction
Mg with steam only
Ca, Sr, Ba with cold water Ca (s) + 2H2O(l) Ca(OH)2 (aq) + H2(g)

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Group VIIA: Halogens

Halogens: very typical nonmetals.
Their 1- ions as a group are called
halides
Quite active as a group!
Ionization energies are?

Helium
Xenon

Group VIIIA: Noble Gases

Neon

Krypton
Argon
The nobles:
they can be excited, but they are way too cool to react

A family of (almost) completely unreactive, colorless, and

odorless elements
They are found as monatomic gases.
The noble gases have very high ionization energies.
Their electron affinities are positive.
How about their Zeffs?

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Lattice Energy: Hf of ionic compound from gas ions

NaCl

Lattice energy depends on

Charges on ions
Hf = -788 kJ/mole
Sizes of ions
Arrangement of ions in lattice
The potential energy of interacting charges is :
Eel = Q1Q2/d
Q1 and Q2 = ion charges, d = distance CaCO3
between charges, is a constant.
Lattice energy increases as
Ionic charges increase (biggest factor)
Ion radii decrease (d = sum of ionic radii)
Hf= -2804 kJ mol1

Hess Law: Lattice Energy Practice

Use the following to calculate Hlattice of MgF2
Mg(s) Mg(g)
Mg(g) Mg+(g) + eMg+(g) Mg+2(g) + eF2(g) 2 F(g)
F(g) + e- F -(g)
Mg(s) + F2(g) MgF2(s)

H = 148 kJ
H = 738 kJ
H = 1450 kJ
H = 159 kJ
H = -328 kJ
H = -1123 kJ

Reverse:
Reverse:
Reverse:
Reverse:
Reverse ; x2
Keep
Hlattice

H = - 148 kJ
H = -738 kJ
H = -1450 kJ
H = -159 kJ
H = 656 kJ
H = -1123 kJ
-2962 kJ

What is the equation for Hlattice of MgF2?

Mg2+(g) + 2F -(g) MgF2(s)
Mg(g)
Mg(s)
Mg(s) Mg(g)
+(g)
+(g)
Mg
Mg(g)
+ eMg
Mg(g)
+ e+2
Mg (g) + e- Mg+(g)
2F2F(g)
(g)
2FF(g)
2(g)
2F -(g) 2F(g) + 2eMg(s) + F2(g) MgF2(s)

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Covalent Bonding
There are several electrostatic
interactions in these bonds:
Attractions between electrons
and nuclei
Repulsions between electrons
Repulsions between nuclei

Atoms can share up to 3 pairs

of electrons: single, double
and triple bonds
Electron sharing can be unfair

Polar Covalent Bonds

When two atoms share electrons
unequally, a bond dipole results.
Dipole strength depends on 3 factors
Polarity of molecule
Magnitude of charge
Geometry of molecule
The dipole moment, , is calculated
as: = Qr
Where: Q is the charge

HF
HF

between 2 equal and opposite charges in units of an

electronic charge (1.60 x 10-19 C); r is the distance

is measured in debyes (D) where 1 Debye = 3.34 x 10-30 C-m).

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Ionic vs. Covalent Bonds

Between pure ionic and pure covalent bonds there is a
continuum of potential partial charges (+
-)
Tin (IV) chloride (tin tetrachloride) is molecular
Can use differences in electronegativity to classify bonding
as ionic or covalent:
Bigger differences ionic
Na vs. Cl = 2.1
Smaller differences covalent Sn vs. Cl = 1.2
Not completely predictive, though. When metal charge
is > 4+, bonds will have covalent character: MnO4-

Estimating H rxn with Bond Energies

Bond energies can be used to estimate H for a reaction
Think of any reaction as happening in 2 steps:
breaking bonds
forming new bonds.

CH4 + Cl2 CH3Cl + HCl

Break
minus

Make

Hrxn = (bond energies for bonds broken)

(bond energies for bonds formed)

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Valence Electrons
The # of valence electrons determines how atoms
behave chemically and physically.
Valence electrons: outer electrons involved in bonding
For Group A, electrons in highest principal energy shell.
For transition metals, electrons from an unfilled d shell
and the electrons from the outermost s subshell
Filled d or f subshells do not count as valence electrons

Drawing Lewis Structures for Compounds

1. Add up the valence electrons from all atoms.
Add 1 for each charge; subtract 1 for each + charge.
2. Draw a skeleton structure with single bonds.
3. Complete the octets of atoms bound to central atom.
4. Place extra electrons on the central atom.
5. If the central atom doesnt have an octet, try forming
multiple bonds.
6. Check formal charges to ensure the best structure
Formal = number of valence Charge
electrons

lone pairs

1/2 of shared
electrons

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Exceptions to the Octet Rule

There are three types of ions or atoms that do not follow
the octet rule:
Ions or atoms with an odd number of electrons (N)
Ions or atoms with less than an octet (B, Be, N)
Ions or atoms with more than eight valence electrons
(an expanded octet, Row 3 and below)

Shapes and More Shapes

2

Linear

Trigonal-planar:
bent

Tetrahedral:
trigonal pyramid, bent

5
Trigonal
Bipyramidal:
See-Saw, T-shaped, Linear

Octahedral:
square pyramid, square planar

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Multiple Bonds
acetylene

In multiple bonds,
2 sp orbitals form a bond between the Cs
1 or 2 pairs of unhybridized p orbitals overlap bond
Can figure out hybridization from # of electron domains
around the atom

Resonance

Formate ion (from formic acid)

The electrons of the double bond do not sit between
the C and the O, but rather can move among the two
oxygens and the carbon.
They are not localized; they are delocalized.

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Resonance revisited: A Home for the Wanderers

Localized electrons

Now can show where wandering pair

of electrons hang out: in p orbitals
The p orbitals on all three oxygens
overlap with the p orbital on the
central nitrogen.
Looking at the 2nd structure: Does the
Delocalized electrons orbital hybridization of the oxygens
change?

Welcome to Chemistry 1A! You may not believe it, but by

the end of this course you will be able to:
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
K.
L.
M.
N.
O.
P.
Q.
R.

Classify matter and distinguish between chemical and physical properties of matter.
Understand the SI system of units and convert between the English and metric systems of units.
Solve problems using dimensional analysis and report number of significant figures correctly
Understand and be able to apply the laws of chemical combination.
Understand Daltons atomic theory and describe the structure of the atom.
Understand the terminology and function of the periodic table.
Name and write formulas for ionic compounds, binary molecular compounds and acids
Write, balance, and classify chemical equations and recognize patterns of chemical reactivity
Write net ionic equations for precipitation, acid-base, and oxidation-reduction reactions
Understand the meaning and uses of the mole and of Avogadros number.
Perform stoichiometry calculations and understand the concept of a limiting reactant.
Understand nature of energy and calculate energy changes associated with chemical reactions.
Understand Hesss Law and be able to use it to determine heats of reactions.
Explain the electronic structure of atoms using aspects of quantum theory.
Identify relationship sbetween periodic table, atomic structure, and periodic properties of elements.
Understand the basic concepts of chemical bonding.
Construct and identify the geometry and polarity of simple molecules and polyatomic ions.
Describe covalent bond formation in terms of the valence-bond theory.

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