International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 37 (2010) 12031207

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International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / i c h m t

Study of cold start airfuel mixture parameters for spark ignition engines fueled with
gasolineisobutanol blends
Adrian Irimescu
Politehnica University of Timisoara, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Thermal Machines and Transportation, Bld Mihai Viteazul no 1, 300222 Timisoara, Romania

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Available online 4 August 2010

Keywords:
Spark ignition engines
Port injection
Cold start
Fuel evaporation
Gasolineisobutanol blends

a b s t r a c t
Biofuels are set to play an important role in the future strategy of automotive fuel suppliers, and therefore
the study of using alcohols in spark ignition engines has become a necessity. A simple thermodynamic model
was developed for calculating airfuel mixture parameters for port injection engines fueled with gasoline
isobutanol blends, and theoretical results were compared to experimental values. For simulating the
evaporation process, gasoline was considered a mixture of four components, with isobutanol added in
different proportions. As all engine components are at ambient temperature during cold starts, mixture
formation was considered an adiabatic process, with the fuel breaking up into droplets and evaporating, thus
resulting in a temperature drop. A port injection engine tted to a passenger car was used to validate the
model for calculating airfuel mixture parameters.
2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Airfuel mixture formation in port injection engines is a complex
process of heat and mass transfer. Intake air is mixed with pulverized
gasoline that follows a multi-stage process in which the liquid is
broken into small size droplets and then evaporates. How much fuel
actually evaporates depends on various conditions such as manifold
pressure, air temperature and relative humidity, as well as airfuel
ratio.
Given the efforts of reducing emissions from passenger cars, any
improvement in spark ignition (SI) engines operation is carefully
studied at present [15], as well as the use of alternative fuels [69].
During engine warm-up, unburned hydrocarbons (HC) and carbon
monoxide (CO) emissions are much higher than normal operation. For
this reason, the study of airfuel mixture formation is an important
issue that can result in valuable solutions to specic problems such as
fueling SI engines with bioalcohols.
One major issue when using alcohols to fuel SI engines is that cold
start during winter proves very difcult, if not even impossible.
Bioethanol has been used as a fuel for many years, in regions where
ambient temperatures rarely drop below 15 C. Vehicles equipped to
run on pure ethanol (95.6% volumetric concentration or anhydrous)
generally feature an additional gasoline tank used for cold starts when
ambient temperatures are low [10].The so called ex fuel vehicles are
capable of using gasolineethanol mixtures with up to 85% volumetric
concentration of alcohol (fuel blend commercially known as E85).

Communicated by W.J. Minkowycz.

E-mail address: iamotors@yahoo.com.
0735-1933/$ see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2010.07.009

Fuel suppliers increase the gasoline content of E85 to 25% volumetric

concentration when ambient temperatures drop well below 0 C
during winter, to ensure proper cold start performance.
While ethanol has the advantage of a well known production
method and higher octane rating, biobutanol features a heating value
much closer to that of gasoline and is far less corrosive. The problem of
lower octane rating can be solved by producing isobutanol, an isomer
of n-butanol.
Studies such as the one developed in this paper can identify an
ideal concentration of isobutanol in the fuel blend, that ensures good
cold start performance and emissions at the same level as gasoline
operation, if not even lower. Of course, the major advantage of
isobutanol compared to fossil fuels is that it can signicantly reduce
carbon dioxide emissions, as it was obtained from biomass.
2. Thermodynamic model
Pulverization and evaporation of gasoline closely resembles water
evaporation, and so the idea for an h-x (enthalpy fuel mass
participation) diagram was approached [11], similar to the Mollier
diagram for humid air. In addition to extending the diagram to fuel
blends of gasoline and biofuels such as bioethanol [12] and isobutanol
[13], a numerical method was developed for calculating airfuel
mixture temperature after the fuel evaporates partially or completely.
While studies of fuel break-up and evaporation in compressions
ignition [14,15] or SI direct injection engines [16] require complex
models that employ computational uid dynamics, a simple thermodynamic model can be used for port injection engines. The mixture
was considered as an air, water and fuel vapor mixture, all being ideal
gases at relatively low pressure and high temperature, so that Dalton's

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A. Irimescu / International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 37 (2010) 12031207

After the fuel evaporates, all three components, air, fuel and water
reach the same temperature Tmix. Airfuel mixture temperature after
fuel evaporation (Tmix) was calculated from the energy balance
equation (hamb = hmix, as practically no heat is transferred to and from
engine components like the intake manifold, cylinder head and intake
valve).
Gasoline was considered a mixture of hexane, heptane, octane and
decane, with proportions determined based upon the distillation
curve [12]. Isobutanol was considered as the fth component of the
blend. Fuel enthalpy was calculated using Eq. (3), with xvi = mvi / ma
and xli = mli / ma.

Nomenclature
cf
cp
h
m
M
p
r
T
t
x
y

specic heat of liquid fuel, J/ (kg K)

specic heat at constant pressure, J/(kg K)
specic enthalpy, J/kg
mass, kg
molar mass, kg/kmol
pressure, Pa
latent heat of vaporization, J/kg
temperature, K
temperature, C
fuel to air mass ratio, dimensionless
molar participation, dimensionless
relative airfuel ratio, dimensionless
number of moles, kmol
relative humidity, dimensionless

i=1

i=1

xv =

i=1

5
pv
1
y M
pman pv Ma i = 1 vi i

Assuming equilibrium, with air and vapor as ideal gases, Raoult's

law combined with Dalton's law gives Eq. (5), with yli = li / l as the
molar participation of component i in liquid fuel.

yvi =
and Amagat's laws can be used in calculations. As the liquid phase is
far denser than gas, the volume of liquid fuel, as well as water or ice
that may form in the intake port were considered insignicant. Air,
water vapor and liquid fuel before the evaporation process, as well as
all engine components can be considered to have the same
temperature, namely ambient temperature (Tamb), as the engine is
cold. The enthalpy before and after the fuel evaporates fully or
partially can be calculated with Eqs. (1) and (2), where xf = mf / ma.
1

psi yli
pv

Dening the molar participation of component i as yi = i / (with

i moles for component i and moles of fuel), Eqs. (68) can also be
written, where yv = v / and yl = l / as the molar participations of
vapor and liquid fuel.
yi = yvi yv + yli yl
5

yli = 1

yv + yl = 1

i=1

hmix = hamix + hwmix + hfmix

+ xvi ri

Dry air and water enthalpy values were calculated with similar
equations, the energy balance resulting in an equation where Tmix is
unknown. Evaporated fuel ratio (xv) was calculated using Eq. (4), with
yvi = vi / v as the molar participation of component i in vapor fuel. It
depends on the fuel vapor pressure (pv), as the sum of partial
pressures for every fuel component.

Subscripts
amb
ambient, before fuel evaporation
a
air
f
fuel
i
fuel component number
l
liquid fuel
man
manifold
mix
after complete or partial fuel evaporation
s
saturation
v
fuel vapor
w
water

hamb = haamb + hwamb + xf cf Tamb

hfmix = Tmix xvi cpv + xli cpl

Fig. 1. Thermocouples, pressure and air ow sensors inside the engine bay.

A. Irimescu / International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 37 (2010) 12031207

1205

Fuel vapor pressure (pv) and molar participations yvi can be

calculated using Eqs. (59) solved by employing numerical methods
for a given xf, as saturation pressure (psi) depends on Tmix.

xf =

pv
1 1 5
y M

pman pv Ma yv i = 1 i i

Ratios xvi and xli can be calculated using Eqs. (10) and (11).
xvi =

pv
Mi
y
pman pv Ma vi

10

xli =

pv
Mi yl
y
pman pv Ma yv li

11

3. Experimental
A port injection engine, equipped with an integrated injection and
ignition system, was used for the experimental trials. Near the injector
of cylinder number 2, a K type thermocouple was tted for measuring
airfuel mixture temperature (see Fig. 1). The thermocouple was
connected to a digital thermometer with a resolution of 0.1 C and a
precision of 0.05% for temperatures ranging from 65 to 199.9 C. A
diaphragm micro-mechanical pressure sensor was used for measuring
manifold absolute pressure. Relative airfuel ratio () was calculated
based on measured values for instant fuel consumption and air ow
going into the engine. Ambient air temperature (tamb), pressure (pamb)
and relative humidity () were measured with a digital Hygrometer
BarometerThermometer.
The inuences that different factors exert on the process of airfuel
mixture formation were studied by measurements taken along one
year so that a wide range of ambient conditions were covered.
Temperature, ambient pressure and relative humidity recorded
during measurements were within normal values for a temperate
climate. Atmospheric pressure ranged between 982 and 1032 mbar,

Fig. 2. Evaporated fuel fraction for different ambient temperatures and alcohol content
in the gasolineisobutanol blend.

while relative humidity levels were found between a minimum values

of 18.8% and a maximum of 90.6%. The most important factor, air
temperature, ranged from a minimum value of 11.3 C during
winter, to a maximum of 36.4 C in the summer (Table 1).
All recorded values for the relative airfuel ratio were in the rich
mixture range for gasoline, with = 0.750.85, as measurements

Table 1
Measureda and calculated airfuel mixture temperatures.
pamb
[mbar]

Gasoline
1026
1007
1016
1004
993
IB10
1006
1016
1006
982
1008
IB50
1001
1016
998
1002
1015
IB70
996
982
982
1002
982
a

[%]

pman
[mbar]

tamb
[C]

tmix
[C]

Error
[C]

Measured

Calculated

82.4
63.1
44.8
46.8
23

316
327
296
234
213

11.3
0.1
16.2
28.6
36.4

19.7
14.9
0.4
7.2
15.8

20.81
12.71
0.92
7.72
14.66

1.11
2.19
1.32
0.52
1.14

67.5
58
29.1
33.8
42.5

266
286
246
242
248

12.3
18.3
21.8
23.8
26.8

2.3
0.8
2.2
3.4
4.2

3.94
0.43
1.94
3.24
5.47

1.64
1.23
0.26
0.16
1.27

34.6
62
52.1
51.2
47.6

321
306
318
292
295

7.2
9.8
13.1
20.4
23.2

3.4
0.8
2.7
5.5
9.2

3.09
1.69
0.45
3.95
5.32

0.31
2.49
2.25
1.55
3.88

88.2
50.6
24
62.1
39

286
272
272
252
322

12.7
15.4
19.4
21.7
23.7

7
7
10.6
13.2
12.2

0.72
1.83
3.76
4.41
6.89

6.28
5.17
6.84
8.79
5.31

Right after cold start, no load, n ~ 3500 rev/min, with ~ 0.750.85 for gasoline and
IB10, ~ 0.850.95 for IB50 and ~ 0.951.05 for IB70.

Fig. 3. (a) Relative errors for measurements with gasoline, calculated as absolute errors
referenced to a temperature interval of 20 to 40 C. (b) Temperature drop of airfuel
mixture after fuel evaporation for gasoline.

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A. Irimescu / International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 37 (2010) 12031207

Theoretical studies performed with this thermodynamic model

showed that a signicant drop of evaporated fuel fraction (xv / xf)
occurs at low ambient temperatures (tamb) as the content of
isobutanol was increased in the fuel blend with gasoline (Fig. 2).
This was conrmed experimentally during measurements, as for
ambient temperatures lower than ~20 C the engine could not be
started when using pure isobutanol (IB100). Cold starts were also very
difcult with high concentrations of alcohol (IB70), while for IB50 the
engine could be started even at temperatures as low as ~ 5 C.

Given that the thermodynamic model for calculating airfuel

mixture temperature levels was conrmed with a large number of
measurements for gasoline, only a small number of determinations
were performed for IB10. Only a few trials were possible with IB70, as
cold start would often fail, or the engine would start and then stop. As
a result, conditions were not as close to adiabatic as with gasoline and
heat was transferred from different engine components to the airfuel
mixture. The component that greatly contributes in the heat transfer
is most likely the intake valve, as it quickly warms up as a result of the
combustion process inside the cylinder and the fuel is sprayed by the
injector directly on to it.
Experimental results were compared to values obtained through
theoretical studies, and absolute errors were in the range of 4.32 to
4.7 C for gasoline, 0.31 to 4.52 C for IB50 and 4.82 to 8.79 C for
IB70. These absolute error values were referenced to a temperature
interval of 20 to 40 C (or 60 K), the range covered by ambient
conditions during the experimental trials. Relative errors were then
calculated, and over 96% of all recorded values were situated below an
8% error, and over 92% of all recorded values below 6% relative
error when the engine was fueled with gasoline (Fig. 3a).
Given that ambient air temperature is the main factor that
inuences mixture temperature after the fuel evaporates, temperature drop as a result of the evaporation process (tmix) was plotted for
gasoline (Fig. 3b), IB50 (Fig. 4b) and IB70 (Fig. 5b).
A good agreement of calculated airfuel mixture temperatures
with measured values was noticed for low to medium concentrations
of isobutanol blended with gasoline (pure gasoline, IB10 and IB50).
Higher errors for IB70 (Fig. 5a) can be explained by the fact that

Fig. 4. (a) Relative errors for measurements with IB50, calculated as absolute errors
referenced to a temperature interval of 20 to 40 C. (b) Temperature drop of airfuel
mixture after fuel evaporation for IB50.

Fig. 5. (a) Relative errors for measurements with IB70, calculated as absolute errors
referenced to a temperature interval of 20 to 40 C. (b) Temperature drop of airfuel
mixture after fuel evaporation for IB70.

were performed right after the engine was started. As the content of
isobutanol was increased, the relative airfuel ratio shifted towards
lean mixtures, with = 0.850.95 for 50% volumetric concentration of
alcohol (IB50) and = 0.951.05 for 70% concentration (IB70). The
reason for mixture leaning is that the injection system cannot increase
fuel ow to compensate for the additional oxygen content of
isobutanol when the oxygen sensor is not working within its normal
temperature range. Any mixture enrichment adjusted by the
electronic control unit was done only to ensure stable operation
after the engine started. Another important aspect that was taken into
account is that when the engine is idling, backow phenomena has a
signicant inuence on air ow inside the intake manifold. For this
reason, measurements were recorded at 35004000 rev/min, an
engine speed higher than the normal 720880 rev/min for idling. At
such higher engine speed backow of exhaust gas into the intake
manifold is greatly reduced.
4. Results and discussions

A. Irimescu / International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 37 (2010) 12031207

measurements could not be performed in the same conditions as with

the other blends, due to poor cold start performance of the engine. For
this reason, a small number of experimental trials were performed
with this high concentration of isobutanol, as the engine would often
start only after several failed attempts and then stop after a few
seconds of operation. A relatively reduced dispersion of relative error
values (Fig. 5a), as well as the fact that measured temperature drops
were all lower than calculated values conrm this explanation.
5. Conclusions
A simple thermodynamic model was developed for calculating air
fuel mixture parameters during cold start of spark ignition engines
when fueled with gasolineisobutanol blends. Numerical results were
compared to measured values of mixture temperatures for various
ambient conditions. As there is a good agreement between theoretical
values and the results obtained during the experimental trials, the
model was validated for gasoline, as well as blends with different
concentrations of isobutanol.
Given that errors are within an acceptable range, the proposed
thermodynamic model can be used for complex and complete studies
of airfuel mixture formation in port injection engines fueled with
gasolineisobutanol fuel blends. As with all alcohols, isobutanol
causes unmodied SI engines to exhibit poor cold start performance
during cold seasons. The thermodynamic model developed in this
paper can provide a useful tool for the study of cold start performance
of port injection engines when fueled with gasolineisobutanol
blends.
Acknowledgement
This work was partially supported by the strategic grant POSDRU/
89/1.5/S/57649, Project ID 57649 (PERFORM-ERA), co-nanced by the
European Social Fund Investing in People, within the Sectoral
Operational Programme Human Resources Development 20072013.
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