Oilfield Review

Autumn 2003

Coalbed Methane Reservoirs

Fracture Restimulations
Building Gas Wells

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OR_03_003_0

Great Expectations for Natural Gas

In the coming decades, the world faces two critical energy
issues: a need for more electricity and a need for more liquid energy to power combustion engines. These increased
needs arise from an expected growth in world population
and an expanding demand for energy in developing countries. Natural gas plays an important role in meeting those
needs, both in generating electricity and in supplying
more fuel for automobiles, airplanes, trucks, buses, trains
and boats.
As production from conventional oil fields peaks and
begins to decline, the world will turn to natural gas and
heavy oil to meet the growing demand for liquid fuel. Natural gas will be a clear favorite because it can be used as
fuel in a gaseous form or turned into a liquid to replace
gasoline, diesel or aviation fuel. Burning natural gas in
either form is less harmful to the environment than burning liquid fuels that are refined from either conventional
or heavy crude oil.
Natural gas supplies are sufficient to meet future demand
for the next five decades. According to BP statistics
(www.bp.com), the world currently has about 5500 trillion
cubic feet (Tcf) [156 trillion m3] of proven gas reserves.
Europe and Eurasia together have approximately 40% of the
total gas reserves, and the Middle East has 36%. In 2002,
the world consumption of natural gas was about 88 Tcf
[2.5 trillion m3], of which 28 Tcf [0.8 trillion m3] (31%)
was used in North America and 36 Tcf [1.0 trillion m3]
(41%) was used in Europe and Eurasia. At the present rate
of consumption, known reserves of natural gas will last
about 50 years.
The oil and gas industry has done much less exploring for
natural gas than for oil. The industry is just now beginning
to look for natural gas in tight-gas sands, coal seams and
gas hydratesthere is no shortage of places to drill or of
new technologies needed to develop those resources. As
the industry begins focusing on natural gas, we can expect
the quantity of known gas reserves to far exceed the current
amount of proven reserves. Such future reserve discoveries
are expected to supply enough natural gas to fuel the world
for many more decades. However, before new gas supplies
can be brought to market, the industry must drill many
more wells and significantly improve technology, transportation and infrastructure.
The ability to use natural gas for either electricity generation or liquid fuels will depend on gas-to-liquid technology
development (see Turning Natural Gas to Liquid, page 32)
and transportation issues. In addition, new liquefied natural gas technologies and infrastructure must be developed
to move stranded gas supplies to market, where the gas
can generate electricity or add gas volume to existing
pipeline systems.

Clearly, the concerns about natural gas do not relate just

to drilling, logging or completing a well, although better
technologies are needed in all of these areas. The basic
question is how to transport existing, known deposits of
natural gas in a useable form to market at a competitive
price. This leads to the concept of the gas cycle, which
includes all the technologies and businesses required to
find, develop, produce, transport, store, distribute and use
natural gas. In future decades, our industry will need to
add to its traditional capabilities in finding, developing
and producing natural gas, concentrating even more on
the transportation, storage, distribution and use of natural
gas to ensure that the product can get to market efficiently
and economically.
Schlumberger has committed more than 20% of its
research and engineering spending to developing the
technologies needed by our customers to find, develop and
produce natural gas. To choose two projects that relate to
articles in this issue, Schlumberger is actively involved in
optimizing stimulation of coalbed methane reservoirs (see
Producing Natural Gas from Coal, page 8), and is further
developing the FlexSTONE* advanced flexible cement for
high-temperature applications (see From Mud to
CementBuilding Gas Wells, page 62). Working with its
clients, Schlumberger is committed to playing a leadership
role in the coming Golden Age of Natural Gas.

Stephen A. Holditch
Schlumberger Fellow
Stephen A. Holditch is a Schlumberger Fellow and the companys theme manager for natural gas and heavy oil, as well as a production and reservoir engineering advisor. In 1977, he formed S. A. Holditch & Associates, Inc., which
was acquired by Schlumberger in 1997. After holding several positions with the
Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE), he became SPE President in 2002. The
SPE has honored him with the John Franklin Carll Award and the 1994 Lester C.
Uren award in recognition of distinguished achievement in petroleum engineering technology made by a member before reaching age 45. He also received the
ASME Rhodes Industry Leadership Award. Stephen was elected to the National
Academy of Engineering, the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences and the
Petroleum Engineering Academy of Distinguished Graduates at Texas A&M
University, College Station, Texas, USA, where he is currently a Professor Emeritus of petroleum engineering. Author of more than 100 technical articles, Stephen
received his PhD degree in petroleum engineering from Texas A&M University.

* Mark of Schlumberger.

Schlumberger

Oilfield Review
Executive Editor
Mark A. Andersen

Advisory Editor
Lisa Stewart

Is the world entering a new golden age of natural gas? To answer

that question we present new data on the status of the emerging
global gas market.

A Dynamic Global Gas Market

Senior Editors
Gretchen M. Gillis
Mark E. Teel

Contributing Editors
Rana Rottenberg
Malcolm Brown
Julian Singer
Design/Production
Herring Design
Steve Freeman
Illustration
Tom McNeff
Mike Messinger
George Stewart
Printing
Wetmore Printing Company
Curtis Weeks

Producing Natural Gas from Coal

After nearly two decades, there is renewed interest in drilling

coalbed methane wells. As gas markets evolve and technologies advance, new areas of activity have emerged around the
world. Coalbed reservoirs are unusual; their properties and
behavior vary significantly on both regional and local scales.
In this article, we examine what makes these reservoirs so
different from other gas reservoirs and evaluate the methods
used by operators and service providers to better understand
and exploit this unconventional resource.

Stage l
Stage ll

Gas

Water

Production time

32 Turning Natural Gas to Liquid

Chemical conversion of natural gas to liquid hydrocarbon
products has great potential for bringing to market untapped
and stranded gas reserves. Learn more about the challenges
and potential rewards of gas-to-liquid technology.

38 Refracturing Works

On the cover:
Gathering lines carry natural gas to
a pumping station in Farmington, New
Mexico, USA. The station separates
liquid from the gas, which is then compressed for pipeline transport.

Fracture restimulation enhances well productivity and

improves reserve recovery. This article discusses some of the
reasons for refracturing success, including reorientation of
new hydraulic fractures due to changing stress conditions after
an initial treatment and a period of production. We present
conclusions from a two-year restimulation study and results of
subsequent field trials. Case histories from the USA and
Canada demonstrate candidate selection, treatment implementation and improved well productivity.

Useful links:
Schlumberger
www.slb.com
Oilfield Review Archive
www.slb.com/oilfieldreview
Oilfield Glossary
www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com

Stage lll
Well dewatered

Producing rate, Mscf/D or STB/D

Editors
Matt Garber
Don Williamson

Address editorial
correspondence to:
Oilfield Review
225 Schlumberger Drive
Sugar Land, Texas 77478 USA
(1) 281-285-7847
Fax: (1) 281-285-8519
E-mail: andersen@sugarland.oilfield.slb.com

Address distribution inquiries to:

Matt Garber
(44) 1223 325 377
Fax: (44) 1223 361 473
E-mail: mgarber@cambridge.oilfield.slb.com

Autumn 2003
Volume 15
Number 3

Advisory Panel
Abdulla I. Al-Daalouj
Saudi Aramco
Udhailiyah, Saudi Arabia

54 Analyzing Hydrocarbons in the Borehole

Rapid, accurate fluid analysis reduces the unpredictability of
field development. This article reviews advances in downhole
oil and gas analysis, highlighting field examples from the
Middle East and the North Sea.

Syed A. Ali
ChevronTexaco E&P Technology Co.
Houston, Texas, USA
George King
BP
Houston, Texas

62 From Mud to CementBuilding Gas Wells

David Patrick Murphy

Shell Technology E&P Company
Houston, Texas

The entire process of gas-well drillingfrom mud selection

through cementingcan be difficult. A high percentage of
wells in the US, Canada and other locations around the world
show signs of gas leakage long after completion. This article
shows how integrating well-construction processes can minimize the potential for annular gas leaks.

Eteng A. Salam
PERTAMINA
Jakarta, Indonesia

Shallow-gas zone

Sjur Talstad
Statoil
Stavanger, Norway
Richard Woodhouse
Independent consultant
Surrey, England

77 Contributors
81 New Books and Coming in Oilfield Review

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Oilfield Review is published quarterly by

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Review is distributed by Schlumberger to
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Contributors listed with only geographic

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or its affiliates.

Oilfield Review is pleased to welcome

Sjur B. Talstad to its editorial advisory
panel. Sjur is Senior Vice President,
Exploration and Exploitation for Statoil
ASA in Stavanger, Norway. He sets the
direction for technology and information
technology development in subsurface
studies and leads subsurface and technical networks throughout Statoil. Sjur
works across all Statoil assets within
exploration, field development and
operations, with other responsibilities
including securing best practices, quality
assurance and decision support. He
joined Statoil in 1986 as a reservoir
engineer and in following years had
increasing responsibilities in Azerbaijan,
the North Sea and Venezuela. He earned
MS degrees in petroleum technology
and industrial economy from the
Norwegian Institute of Technology in
Trondheim, Norway.

2003 Schlumberger. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise without the prior
written permission of the publisher.

A Dynamic Global Gas Market

Natural gas has come a long way from the days when
it was just a by-product of the search for oil, a nuisance
that was removed by aring. Within a generation, it
could become the worlds most important fuel because
150

of its abundance, cleanliness and diverse uses.

The overall demand for energy from oil, gas and

other sources is expected to more than double
over the next 50 years, and there will be massive
shifts in the pattern of demand. At present, the
United States, Canada and Europe consume about
half the worlds energy, while the Asia-Pacic
region uses a quarter. In the next half-century,
those consumption positions are likely to be
reversed.1 The composition of energy supplies is
also changing and observers now expect the world
to consume more gas than oil by 2025 (above
right). The gas industry may have to provide two to
three times more gas over the next 30 years than it
has since 1970.2
The world has around 156 trillion cubic meters
(trillion m3) [5500 trillion cubic feet (Tcf)] of
proven reserves of natural gas, according to a BP
study.3 Of this worldwide resource, approximately
31% is in Russia, 36% is in the Middle East, and 8%
is in the Asia-Pacic region (next page, top).
Present consumption is about 2.5 trillion m3 [88
Tcf] a year, and demand is growing rapidly, especially in the Asia-Pacic region where many countries are pressing ahead with energy-intensive
industrialization programs.4
A key reason for the rising demand for gas is
that it burns more cleanly than other fossil fuels. A
gas-red thermal power plant typically emits far
less carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxides than either
a coal-red or an oil-red plant. The cleanliness of
gas makes it particularly attractive to those who
are trying to minimize the environmental impact of
energy use. The Chinese economy, for example,
is predicted to grow at around 6 to 8% a year,
suggesting that China will need much more energy
in the future. While committed to rapid growth,
the Chinese also are aware of environmental problems in their country. They are determined to

Consumption, million BOE/D

125
100
75
50
Oil
Gas

25
0
1980

1990

2010

2000

2020

2030

Year

> Expected oil and natural gas consumption. Some experts believe gas consumption will exceed that of oil by about 2025, when put in consistent units of
barrels of oil equivalent per day (BOE/D). Future estimates indicate prediction
ranges. (Adapted from Watts, reference 1.)

reduce their dependence on coal. As such, gas

consumption in China could increase sevenfold
over the next 20 years.5
Making Gas Even Greener
Gas is already greenermore environmentally
friendlythan the other main fossil fuels, oil and
coal, but technology is helping it to become even
more friendly to the environment. Gas-to-liquids
(GTL) technology is being developed to convert
natural gas into ultraclean liquid fuels (see
Turning Natural Gas to Liquid, page 32). When
GTL-converted fuels are used in conventional
engines, they produce only a fraction of the
emissions generated with normal gasoline or
diesel fuels.
The GTL process uses a modern version of the
Fischer-Tropsch process, which was developed in
the 1920s, and consists of three steps:
1. By partial oxidation of carbon-bearing material, convert natural gas into synthesis gas, a
mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide.
2. Produce synthetic oil from the synthesis gas
in a Fischer-Tropsch reactor.
3. Upgrade the synthetic oil to produce a nal

product, such as low-sulfur diesel fuel

or gasoline.6
At present the only two commercial GTL
plants are a Shell facility at Bintulu, Malaysia, and
a PetroSA South Africa plant. They have a
combined capacity of 6760 m3/d [42,500 barrels
per day (B/D)] from conventional gas sources. Two
other South African plants provide an additional
25,400 m3/d [160,000 B/D] from coal-derived
gas (for more on coalbed gas, see Producing
Natural Gas from Coal, page 8). Some estimates
suggest that within ve years there could be at
least 14 plants in 10 countries, with a combined
capacity of nearly 111,300 m3/d [700,000 B/D].7
The hydrocarbon liquid output could be used
directly in vehicles or blended with other fuels.
Although natural gas is now an energy
resource in its own right, much of the gas associated with oil production is still ared. Flaring
natural gas is harmful to the environment. The
industry collectively burns off or vents about
93 billion m3 [3.25 Tcf] of gas annually, gas that
could be put to better use.8 For example, if the
gas currently ared in Africa were used as an
energy source, it could meet nearly half the

Oileld Review

61.04

7.15

North America

12.61
56.06
Asia and
Pacific
11.84
7.08

Europe
and Eurasia
Africa

South and
Central America

Proven natural gas reserves, trillion m3

Middle East

> Proven natural gas reserves at the end of 2002, by region. Russia holds about 78% of the reserves of Europe and Eurasia. The Middle East is the other
region containing large reserves of natural gas. (Adapted from BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2003, reference 3.)

From Regional to Global Market?

Because gas is difcult to transport, nearly 80% of
current gas demand is met by supplies from wells
within the end-users own country, but if demand
continues to grow rapidly that will change (right).
Gas will have to be transported over much longer
distances and across borders. By 2030, according
to one estimate, less than 50% of demand will be
met by indigenous supplies.11 Pipeline imports
could double. Imports of liqueed natural gas
(LNG), a liquid obtained by cooling the gas to
162C [259F] so that it occupies only 1/600th of
the volume of the original gas, might grow by a factor of ve.12
More countries are becoming signicant LNG
producers, including Egypt and Norway, and there

Autumn 2003

North America
3000
Natural gas production, billion m3

power needs of the entire continent.9 To try and

solve this worldwide problem, the World Bank in
collaboration with a number of governments and
oil companies has launched the Global Gas
Flaring Reduction Partnership. The aim of this
initiative is to limit aring and use the gas in
other ways. Companies that have joined the partnership include BP, Shell, ChevronTexaco, Total
and Sonatrach. Member governments include
Angola, Cameroon, Ecuador, Nigeria, Norway and
the USA.10

Europe and Eurasia

Asia and Pacific

2500

Other parts of the world

2000
1500
1000
500
0
1977

1982

1987

1992

1997

2002

Year

> Distribution of natural gas production by region. During this period, natural
gas consumption showed a similar trend, because most gas was consumed
near where it was produced. However, trade between regions is expected to
increase in the future. (Adapted from BP Statistical Review of World Energy
2003, reference 3.)
1. Watts P: Building BridgesFullling the Potential
for Gas in the 21st Century, speech delivered at the
World Gas Conference, Tokyo, Japan, June 3, 2003,
www.shell.com/static/mediaen/downloads/speeches/
PBWwgc03062003.pdf
2. Watts, reference 1.
3. BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2003. London,
England: BP (June 2003): 20. BP conversion factor used
for this statistic.
4. BP study, reference 3: 25.
5. Watts, reference 1.
6. Cottrill A: GTL Seeking Its Big Break into Stardom,
Upstream (March 8, 2002): 2425.

7. Thackeray F: Gas-to-Liquids Prospects: GTL in 2007,

Petroleum Review (January 2003): 1819.
8. US Energy Information Agency, World Natural Gas
Production, 2000,
www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/ieapdf/t04_01.pdf
9. World Bank press release, August 30, 2002,
www.ifc.org/ogmc/pdfs/PartnershipPressRelease.pdf
10. World Bank, reference 9.
11. Watts, reference 1.
12. Watts, reference 1.

75.34
39.33

11.60

57.97

5.97

14.16

108.80

22.05
7.45

20.20
20.56

5.93

4.08

4.28

8.40

6.95
4.90
14.50

8.45

3.10

5.48

6.20

6.34

2.85

7.95

4.15

6.78

23.40

9.72

USA
Canada
Mexico
South and Central America

5.34

Europe and Eurasia

Middle East
Africa

Pipeline

Asia and Pacific

LNG

Major natural gas trade flows worldwide, billion m3

> Major trade movements for natural gas in 2002. Gas is traveling ever greater distances, both by pipeline and as cargoes of liqueed natural gas (LNG).
Most of the current shipments, shown here in units of billions of cubic meters, remain within two or three large regions. (Adapted from BP Statistical
Review of World Energy 2003, reference 3.)

is a possibility of new LNG supply projects in

Angola, Iran and Venezuela. Supply diversication
will increase the attraction of natural gas to
customers. They will feel more secure because
they will not depend on a single supplier.13 LNG
supplies can be distant from the customer
(above). In 2002, for example, Japan imported
cargoes of LNG from Abu Dhabi, Oman and Qatar,
in addition to obtaining LNG supplies from the
Asia and Pacic areas. The major supply of LNG
for the USA came from Trinidad and Tobago, but
the USA also took deliveries from Algeria, Brunei,
Malaysia, Nigeria, Oman and Qatar.14
There has been much debate about whether
gas could eventually become a globally traded
commodity like oil. Most of the worlds oil is
traded internationally and prices are more or less
the same everywhere. Natural gas, by contrast, is
traded regionally or even locally, and prices vary
signicantly from place to place. The debate on
globalization has been spurred by a number of
factors, including an increase in the number of
LNG cargoes transported over long distances and
the rapid expansion in the eet of LNG carriers.
Recent maintenance problems at a nuclear power

plant owned by Tokyo Electric Power Company led

to suggestions that the company might seek
additional LNG supplies as a temporary replacement source of energy.15 Any such transactions
could impact supplies to other major consumers,
like the USA.
Analysts tend to think of the world as
comprising two principal gas-trading blocsAsiaPacic and the Atlantic Basin, which includes
everything from the United States to Europe and
Africa. Some experts consider Europe as a separate, third, bloc, but the specic groupings are not
important. More signicant is some analysts
belief that although most past LNG trade has been

within regional blocs, substantial future trading

could be between blocs. If that happens, they
argue, prices around the world will converge and,
ultimately, LNG and natural gas generally could
become global commodities.
Whether such a revolution is just around the
corner or 20 years away, analysts agree about the
limiting factors. First, LNG trade is dominated by
long-term contracts, meaning that most LNG is
spoken for and cannot simply be diverted in
response to price without signicantly restructuring contracts. It should be remembered, however,
that in the 1960s and 1970s most natural gas in the
USA was also sold using long-term contracts. That

13. Cook L: Liqueed Natural GasRealising the

Potential, speech delivered at the World Gas
Conference, Tokyo, Japan, June 5, 2003,
www.shell.com/home/html/iwgen/downloads/lindacookwgc3.pdf
14. Poten and Partners: 2002: Global LNG Imports Reach
Nearly 111 MMt, Market Opinion, March 21, 2003,
www.poten.com
15. Tokyo Electric Power Company Press Release:
Investigation of Maintenance Work at TEPCOs Nuclear
Power Plants, August 29, 2002, Conclusion of a Heads
of Agreement on LNG Purchase under the Sakhalin II
Project, May 19, 2003, and Ofcial Participation in
Darwin LNG Project, June 30, 2003,
www.tepco.co.jp/corp-com/press/index-e.html

16. Thackeray F and Leckie G: Stranded Gas: A Vital

Resource, Petroleum Economist 69, no. 5 (May 2002): 10.
17. DeLuca M: Thinking Big, Delving Deeper, Offshore
Engineer (April 2002): 24.
Carr G, Pradi E, Raymondeau M, Christie A, Delabroy L,
Greeson B, Watson G, Fett D, Piedras J, Jenkins R,
Schmidt D, Kolstad E, Stimatz G and Taylor G: High
Expectations from Deepwater Wells, Oileld Review 14,
no. 4 (Winter 2002/2003): 3651.
18. Collett TS, Lewis R and Uchida T: Growing Interest in
Gas Hydrates, Oileld Review 12, no. 2 (Summer 2000):
4257.
19. Kvenvolden K: Gas HydratesGeological Perspective
and Global Change, Reviews of Geophysics 31, no.2
(May 1993): 173187.

Oileld Review

practice quickly changed in the 1980s when

demand and gas prices increased substantially.
Second, pricing is not transparent, largely
because of the contractual nature of the business.
A potential customer cannot simply log on to a
commodity exchange to see the latest prices
around the world. Services such as natural gas
transportation, storage and distribution also were
bundled in the US gas market in the 1960s and
1970s. Once the US government separated these
businesses, competition took over and the costs of
each part of the business were soon evident.
The third and most important factor: substantial infrastructure investment would be required
to make interregional trade feasible. Liquefaction
plants would have to be built to convert gas to a
low-temperature liquid, and regasication equipment would be necessary at ports of entry to convert the LNG back into gas.
Stranded Gas
Natural gas may be abundant, but more than a
third of global gas reserves are classied as
stranded.16 Stranded reserves are those that have
been discovered but are undeveloped because
they are too remote or too small to justify production. Until recently, that would have been the end
of the story. Now, however, companies with
stranded reserves are looking for ways to bring the
gas to market. There are two ways of doing so: by
mounting LNG facilities on a barge or by using
oating GTL units.
Shell is among the leaders in the development
of oating LNG (FLNG) facilities. An FLNG operation is one option being discussed by Shell and its
partners to exploit the large Sunrise gas elds in
the Timor Sea, the stretch of water lying between
north Australia and the island of Timor. There is
no agreement yet between Shell and its partners
on whether an FLNG vessel is the best option for
developing the eld of greater than 230 billion m3
[8 Tcf] reserves. However, if the FLNG option were
selected, a barge would remain on station at
Sunrise for at least 20 years. Once gas had been
liqueed on the barge, it would be ofoaded to
dedicated carriers.
In the future, new technologies may help turn
stranded gas from a liabilitygas that would have
to be ared or reinjectedinto a saleable asset.
However, the product still has all of the constraints of LNG, not least the fact that its site of
production may be distant from intended markets.
Costly and time-consuming supply chains have to
be developed to make LNG trade a viable global
market. An alternative is to convert gas not into

Autumn 2003

LNG, but directly into premium-grade liquid products through GTL technology aboard a vessel.
Such GTL products would have ready local and
regional markets.
Deep Gas
The physical difculties involved in nding deepwater gas are the same as those for nding deepwater oil. However, developing the gas eld and
getting the gas to market at a reasonable price
present special problems. A project that may
prove to be a blueprint for the exploitation of a
group of small elds is the Canyon Express project
in the Gulf of Mexico. Canyon Express, which
came on stream earlier this year, uses a common
gathering system to take gas from elds owned by
three different companiesTotal, BP and
Marathon.17 The shared infrastructure means
lower costs for each company.
Exploration teams are not only drilling in
deeper water, they are also revisiting acreage in
the shallower waters of the Gulf of Mexico
continental shelf and drilling there to much
greater depths. The shallow-water section of the
Gulf of Mexico, less than 300 m [1000 ft] deep, is
peppered with wells and is generally thought of as
an area in decline. But the US Department of the
Interiors Minerals Management Service (MMS)
believes that there may be about 300 billion m3
[10.5 Tcf] of natural gas at much greater depths in
the same area.
The US government proposed nancial incentives to companies to drill at depth in the region.
Under the proposal, the MMS would provide
royalty suspension when companies take the risk
of exploring and developing deep gas deposits in
shallow-water areas that they have already leased.
Around 60% of the estimated 300 billion m3 of new
gas is thought to be below existing leases, with the
rest in blocks that are not currently leased.
El Paso Production, which has experience in deepgas drilling onshore, has already drilled deep wells
in the Gulf and by last year was producing 9.7 million m3/d [340 million scf/D] from ve wells in
sands at depths of 5360 m to 5790 m [17,600 ft to
19,000 ft]. An advantage for companies working
in the area is that the infrastructure built for
shallow-water nds over the years is still there.
The new deep wells can also use these facilities,
keeping costs down.
Gas Hydrates
No matter how carefully operators minimize their
costs, eventually traditional sources of hydrocarbons may no longer be enough to satisfy the
worlds demand for energy. With that in mind,

Gas Volume Units

In this issue, units of gas volume are presented
in standard cubic feet (scf) at 60F and 14.696
psia and standard cubic meters at 15C and
100 kPa, following the SPE standard, except
where otherwise noted. The conversion factor
used is 0.0286364 m3/scf.

several research groups in the USA and elsewhere

are examining the possibility of extracting gas
from naturally occurring hydrates.18 Hydrates are
hollow cage-like crystals of water molecules that
enclose a single gas molecule, but do so without
chemical bonding. The exploration and production industry has long been aware of hydrates as a
problem rather than as a resource. The ice-like
hydrates form in and block pipelines in deep
water or Arctic regions. Chemical inhibitors are
used to stop them from forming.
Scientists and engineers now believe that naturally occurring hydrates, which are found in
oceanic sediments and in sediments underlying
the Arctic permafrost zone, could become a major
source of hydrocarbons. If these hydrates can be
developed economically, the world would have an
enormous new source of energy. Deposits of
methane hydrate have been located in almost
every area of the world where water depths are
greater than 1000 ft, the temperature of the
seabed is below 10C [50F] and the area is gasprone. Large deposits of naturally occurring gas
hydrates have also been discovered in the Arctic
regions of Alaska, USA, Canada and Russia.
An estimate of world reserves suggests that
there may be as much as 20 thousand trillion m3
[700,000 Tcf] of gas locked up in hydrates.19 If only
a small proportion of the gas in hydrates were
recoverable, it would be enough to supply world
energy needs for hundreds of years. A substance
now regarded as a problem could end up being the
energy source that sustains society.
Fuel of the Future
Energy supply will continue to be dominated by
hydrocarbons for the foreseeable future. Within
the mix of energy sources, natural gas is likely to
play an increasing part. Sometime in the next
25 years, the world could begin to consume more
gas than oil. But realizing the full potential of gas
will require considerable technological ingenuity
and a constant effort to nd ways of cutting the
costs of production and transportation.
MB

Producing Natural Gas from Coal

Natural gas in coal formations is an important resource that is helping address the worlds growing energy
needs. In many areas, market conditions and technological advances have made the exploitation of this
resource a viable option. The unique characteristics of coalbed reservoirs demand novel approaches in well
construction, formation evaluation, completion and stimulation uids, modeling and reservoir development.

John Anderson
Mike Simpson
Nexen Canada Ltd
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
Paul Basinski
El Paso Production
Houston, Texas, USA
Andrew Beaton
Alberta Geological Survey
Edmonton, Alberta
Charles Boyer
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
Daren Bulat
Satyaki Ray
Don Reinheimer
Greg Schlachter
Calgary, Alberta
Leif Colson
Tom Olsen
Denver, Colorado, USA
Zachariah John
Perth, Western Australia, Australia
Riaz Khan
Houston, Texas
Nick Low
Clamart, France
Barry Ryan
British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines
Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
David Schoderbek
Burlington Resources
Calgary, Alberta

For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Valerie

Biran and Tommy Miller, Abingdon, England; Ian Bryant,
Leo Burdylo, Mo Cordes and Martin Isaacs, Sugar Land,
Texas, USA; Matthew Chadwick, Worland, Wyoming, USA;
Ned Clayton, Sacramento, California, USA; Andrew
Carnegie, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; Steve Holditch,
College Station, Texas; Lance Fielder, Cambridge, England;
Stephen Lambert and Mike Zuber, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
USA; Harjinder Rai, New Delhi, India; John Seidle, Sproule
Associates Inc., Denver, Colorado, USA; and Dick Zinno,
Houston, Texas. Thanks to Willem Langenberg, Alberta
Geological Survey, and Ken Childress, photographer,
for providing the outcrop and rig photographs,
respectively (above).
AIT (Array Induction Imager Tool), APS (Accelerator
Porosity Sonde), CemNET, ClearFRAC, CoilFRAC, DSI
(Dipole Shear Sonic Imager), ECLIPSE Ofce, ECS
(Elemental Capture Spectroscopy), ELANPlus, FMI (Fullbore

Formation MicroImager), LiteCRETE, MDT (Modular

Formation Dynamics Tester), OFA (Optical Fluid Analyzer),
Platform Express, RST (Reservoir Saturation Tool), SFL
(Spherically Focused Resistivity), SpectroLith and StimMAP
are marks of Schlumberger.
1. For more on the history of coal exploitation (July 1, 2003):
http://www.bydesign.com/fossilfuels/links/html/coal/coal
_history.html and http://www.pitwork.net/history1.htm
2. Leach WH Jr: New Technology for CBM Production,
Opportunities in Coalbed Methane: A Supplement to Oil
and Gas Investor, December 2002, Oil and Gas
Investor/Hart Publications, Houston, Texas, USA.
Schwochow SD: CBM: Coming to a Basin Near You,
Opportunities in Coalbed Methane: A Supplement to Oil
and Gas Investor, December 2002, Oil and Gas
Investor/Hart Publications, Houston, Texas, USA.

Oileld Review

Minds, Mines and Wellbores

Humans have appreciated the energy value of
coal for thousands of years. Early use of coal in
res, dating back to 200 BC, has been conrmed
in ancient Chinese records. There is even
evidence that Stone-Age inhabitants in Britain
collected coal; archeologists have found int
axes implanted in coal seams. The earliest coal
nds exploited by humans were used to supplement rewood supplies and were likely found at
the surface, along rock outcrops near stream
banks. The rst evidence that humans dug for
coal was found in regions where rewood was
scarce. Mining techniques evolved from the
primitive method of nding an exposed coal
seam along hillsides, then digging into the hill as

Autumn 2003

2000

20,000

1800

18,000

1600

16,000

1400

14,000

1200

12,000

1000

10,000

800

8000

600

6000

400

4000

200

2000

Producing CBM wells

Annual CBM production, Bcf

With global oil production moving from plateau

to decline, worldwide reserves of natural gas take
on added importance. Increasingly, gas is viewed
as a vital alternative energy source because it is
plentiful and burns cleaner than other fossil
fuels (see A Dynamic Global Gas Market,
page 4). In mature, high-demand markets, the
industry is looking at nonconventional gas
sources, such as shale gas, low-permeability
sandstones and coalbed methane. These unconventional gas accumulations cannot be exploited
in the same way as conventional reservoirs,
presenting challenges to both operators and
service companies.
Natural gas from coal seams is an important
part of the worlds natural gas resource.
Improved methods of evaluating coals are now
available from new logging measurements
and sampling devices. Lighter cements, with
the effective use of additives, minimize damage
to sensitive coalbed methane reservoirs.
Nondamaging fracture-stimulation fluids and
innovative hydraulic fracturing designs are being
used to improve gas and water ow to the wellbore. Optimized artificial-lift techniques are
achieved through the use of intelligent software
to promote quick and efcient dewatering of
coals. Advanced technologies and industry experience applied worldwide are having a positive
impact on coalbed methane (CBM) development.
This article discusses CBM reservoirs, also
known as coalbed natural gas (CBNG) or coal
seam methane (CSM) reservoirs. First, we review
the history of coal exploitation. Next, we discuss
the geologic processes that led to the formation
of coal, how coals generate and store natural gas,
and what makes CBM reservoirs so different from
traditional clastic and carbonate gas reservoirs.
Finally, case studies from around the world
demonstrate the industrys use of various technologies to evaluate and develop CBM reservoirs.

0
1981

1983

1985

1987

1989

1991

1993

1995

1997

1999

2001

Year

> US coalbed methane (CBM) production (blue) and number of producing wells (red).

far as possible to extract the coal. When the operation became too dangerous, these early coal diggers would move to another location along the
outcrop.1 From excavation sites in Britain, it has
been determined that as early as 50 AD, Romans
mined coal to fuel heating systems and smelting
operations. Eventually, pits were dug to access
the coal.
Modernization of mining methods, including
room and pillar, and longwall mining techniques,
enabled larger and deeper operations, exposing
mine workers to a variety of hazards. One signicant hazard in coal mining is methane gasa
by-product of the coal thermal maturation
process that becomes a serious problem in deeper
mines. Mine operators alleviated dangerous
conditions in the subsurface by using mineventilation techniques. Air pumped into a mine
through mineshafts and ventilation pipes
provided oxygen to workers and dissipated the
poisonous and explosive methane. Mining companies also drill coal-degasication wells into coal
seams to liberate methane gas prior to mining the
coal. Modern ventilation and degasification
techniques paved the way for a safer and more
productive mining industry. Coal mining in many
areas is still not completely safe, so degassing
the mines using wellbores ahead of mining
operations is an extremely important technique
to help reduce the number of mining accidents.
Coal became the energy behind the industrial
revolution in Western Europe and across the
world, and remains an important resource today.
However, there is more to the value of coal
than just burning it for heat and electricity; the
natural gas that once was merely a hazard can
be produced and distributed like conventional
natural gas, providing a clean-burning fuel.

Drilling for Coalbed Natural Gas

Coal degasication in mines was rst attempted
in England during the 1800s, and it is reported
that the coal gas was used for lighting the streets
of London. The rst CBM well to develop gas as a
resource was drilled in 1931 in West Virginia,
USA. For more than 50 years, CBM drilling activity remained low. In 1978, the US government
passed the Natural Gas Policy Act. This legislation allowed companies to receive higher prices
for natural gas produced from tight gas reservoirs,
gas shales and coal seams. In 1984, the US government offered tax credits for developing and
producing unconventional reservoirs. Originally
set to expire in 1990, the tax credits were
extended two more years because of their positive
impact on drilling activity. After the tax credits
expired in 1992, low gas prices caused concerns
about the economics of CBM development.
Gas price is not the only factor affecting the
viability of CBM production. Accessibility to gastransportation infrastructure and technical issues
related to CBM production, for example low initial
gas-production rates, high water-production rates
and disposal issues, must also be considered. The
positive impact of accessibility to adequate
pipeline capacity can be seen in portions of the
Rocky Mountains, USA, where the expansion of
the Kern River Pipeline in May 2003 has signicantly improved gas-production economics.
Today, CBM development is having an impact
on the North American gas market. Annual
production from 11 coal basins in the US now
exceeds 1.5 Tcf [42.9 billion m3], or 10% of the
annual US gas production (above).2 Proven
CBM reserves17.5 Tcf [501 billion m3]now
make up 9.5% of US total gas reserves, and the
total US CBM in place is estimated at 749 Tcf

[21.4 trillion m3]. About 100 Tcf [2.9 trillion m3]

are thought to be recoverable (below).3
Increased gas prices, the continued expansion of
the natural gas transportation system and recent
advances in oileld technologies have helped
make CBM wells more protable. Through the
years, operators and service companies have
gained valuable knowledge from mining
research, and practical experience from drilling
activity induced by the US tax credits.
As operators drilled and produced CBM reservoirs, it became clear that coal reservoirs behave
differently from basin to basin, and even within
basins. This behavior largely guides the application of different technologies within a basin or
eld. In many CBM areas, operators have reduced
total exploitation costs while increasing gas recovery by prudent application of new technology.
Canada has just started to produce gas from
CBM reservoirs and estimates its in-place
reserves to be 1287 Tcf [36.8 trillion m3].
Australia started producing CBM in 1998 and
places its total reserves at 300 to 500 Tcf [8.6 to
14.3 trillion m3]. Worldwide, the total CBM
in-place reserves are estimated to be between
3500 and 9500 Tcf [100 and 272 trillion m3].4 By
2001, 35 of the 69 coal-bearing countries had

investigated CBM development but, just as in

North America, the pace of future development
will depend on economics (next page, top).
From Peat to Coal
The formation of coal starts with the deposition of
organic material from plants, creating peat. Peat
is formed by continued subaqueous deposition of
plant-derived organic material in environments
where the interstitial waters are oxygen-poor.
Distinct environments allow the accumulation,
burial and preservation of peat, including swamps
and overbank areas that may or may not be
marine inuenced (next page, bottom). In the
geologic past, most peat is thought to have formed
in deltaic or marginal marine environments.
Coalication, or the conversion of peat into
coal, occurs at different rates in different environments. Biochemical degradation initiates the
coalication process, but with burial, increasing
overburden pressures and subsurface temperatures cause physicochemical processes that
continue coalication. As water, carbon dioxide
and methane are released, the coal increases
in rank, which is a measure of maturity.
Coals are divided into rank stages and include,
in order of increasing rank: sub-bituminous,

high-volatile bituminous, medium-volatile bituminous, low-volatile bituminous, semi-anthracite,

and anthracite coals. Although coals contain
some inorganic minerals, they are composed
largely of macerals, or vegetal compounds,
ranging from woody plants to resins.
The three general categories of macerals are
vitrinite, liptinite and inertinite. Vitrinite refers
to woody plant material, like trunks, roots,
branches and stems. Liptinite macerals correspond to the more resistant parts of the plant,
such as spores, pollen, waxes and resins.
Inertinite macerals represent altered plant
material and are less structured. These macerals
have a greater carbon content from oxidation
processes that occurred during deposition, for
example the burning of wood or peat in res.
Maceral data reect the basic makeup of coals
and therefore help geologists determine CBM
reservoir potential.
An Unconventional Reservoir
From the time of deposition, coal is different
from other kinds of reservoir rock. It is composed
of altered vegetative materialmaceralsthat
function as both hydrocarbon source and
reservoir. It is inherently fractured from the

Western
Washington
Coal Region
Northern
Appalachian

North Central
Coal Region

Bighorn
Wind River
Greater
Green River

Powder
River

Uinta

Hanna
Carbon

Piceance

Central
Appalachian

Forest City

Illinois
Richmond

Kaiparowits
Plateau

Denver
Raton

Cherokee
Arkoma

San Juan

Tertiary
Tertiary-Cretaceous
Cretaceous
Jurassic
Triassic

0
0

200

400

600

800 km

100 200 300 400 500 miles

Gulf Coast

Black
Warrior
Cahaba/Coose

Pennsylvanian and Permian

Mississippian

> US basins containing coalbed methane reserves. Major coal basins are shown with the associated periods of coal deposition.

10

Oileld Review

> Worldwide coalbed methane activity. By 2001, 35 (red dots) of the 69 coal-bearing countries had investigated CBM development.

coalification process, which forms vertical

fractures, or cleats. Coal cleats are classied geometrically with the primary, more continuous
cleats called face cleats and the secondary, less
continuous cleats called butt cleats.
Genetic classication of coal fractures is also
common. Endogenetic fractures, or classic cleats,
are created under tension as the coal matrix
shrinks due to dewatering and devolatilization during coal maturation. These cleat sets are orthogonal and nearly always perpendicular to bedding. In
contrast, exogenetic fractures form due to tectonism and therefore regional stress elds dictate
their orientation. Shear fractures, oriented 45 to
the bedding planes, also are observed.
In virtually all coalbed reservoirs, cleats are
the primary permeability mechanism. Like conventional reservoirs, coals can also be naturally
fractured. In deeper coal seams, higher overburden stresses can crush the coal structure and
close the cleats. In such locations, subsequent
natural fracturing tends to be the main permeability driver. Understanding the cleating and
3. Nuccio V: Coal-Bed Methane: Potential and Concerns,
U.S. Geological Survey, USGS Fact Sheet FS12300,
October 2000. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs123-00/fs12300.pdf
4. Olsen TN, Brenize G and Frenzel T: Improvement
Processes for Coalbed Natural Gas Completion and
Stimulation, paper SPE 84122, presented at the SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Denver,
Colorado, USA, October 58, 2003.

Autumn 2003

> Peat-forming environments. Peat is formed by continual subaqueous deposition of organic matter in
environments where waters are poorly oxygenated. The accumulation, burial and preservation of peat
occur in a range of environments that include swamps and overbank areas. These may or may not be
marine inuenced. (These photographs of the Loxahatchee River, Florida, USA, are from the South
Florida Water Management District Web site: www.sfwmd.gov/org/oee/vcd/photos/hires/hilist.html)

11

natural-fracture systems in coals is critical

during all facets of CBM reservoir development.
Methane generation is a function of maceral
type and the thermal maturation process.
As temperature and pressure increase, the rank
of the coal changes along with its ability to
generate and store methane (left).5 Also, each
maceral type stores, or adsorbs, different volumes of methane. In addition, coal can store
more gas as its rank increases.
Conventional sandstone and carbonate reservoirs store compressed gas in porosity systems.
Methane is stored in coal by adsorption, a process by which the individual gas molecules are
bound by weak electrical forces to the solid
organic molecules that make up the coal. To
assess how CBM wells might produce over time,
the sorptive capacity of crushed coal samples are
tested and desorption isotherms are constructed
(below). Desorption isotherms describe the relationship between pressure and adsorbed gas
content in the coal at static temperature and
moisture conditions. Coals ability to store
methane largely reduces the need for conventional reservoir-trapping mechanisms, making its
gas contentwhich is related to coal rankand
the degree of cleating or natural fracturing the
overriding considerations when assessing an
area for CBM production potential.

Increasing gas volume

Gas Generation as a Function of Coal Rank

Thermally-derived
methane

Volatile matter
driven off

Biogenic methane
Nitrogen
Carbon dioxide
Lignite

Sub-bituminous

Bituminous

Anthracite

Graphite

Increasing coal rank

> Gas generation in coal. As temperature and pressure increase, coal rank
changes along with its ability to generate and store methane. Through time,
dewatering and devolatization occur, causing shrinkage of the coal matrix
and creation of endogenetic cleats.

Stage l
Stage ll

Stage lll

Producing rate, Mscf/D or STB/D

Well dewatered
Gas

Water

Production time

> Coalbed production characteristics. During Stage I, production is dominated by water. Gas production increases during Stage II, as water in the
coal is produced and the relative permeability to gas increases. During
Stage III, both water and gas production decline.

600

1000

500

Coal versus SandstoneGas Content versus Pressure

Coal

Gas content, scf/ton (coal equivalent)

Absorbed gas content, scf/ton (dry, ash-free)

Methane Sorptive Capacity versus Coal Rank

1200

800

600

400

Anthracite
Medium-volatile bituminous
High-volatile bituminous A
High-volatile bituminous B

200

400

Coal isotherm
8% porosity to gas
6% porosity to gas
4% porosity to gas

300

200

Sandstones
100

0
0

200

400

Pressure, psia

600

800

1000

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

Pore pressure, psia

> Sorptive capacity of coal. As coal maturity increases from bituminous to anthracite, the sorptive capacity of coal increases. Tests conducted on coal
samples to relate adsorbed gas to pressureunder isothermal conditionsassess how CBM wells might produce over time. The plot shows
typical responses in bituminous and anthracite coals (left). The gas storage capacity of coal can be signicantly greater than that of sandstones (right).

12

Oileld Review

Autumn 2003

Production from 23 CBM Wells

175,000

150,000

Cumulative gas production, Mscf

This storing ability gives coals unique earlytime production behavior that is related to desorption, not pressure depletion. Coals may
contain water or gas, or both, in the cleat and
natural fracture systems, and gas sorbed onto the
internal surface of the coal matrix. Any water
present in the cleat system must be produced to
reduce the reservoir pressure in the cleat system
before signicant volumes of gas can be produced. Dewatering increases the permeability to
gas within the cleats and fractures, and causes
the gas in the matrix to desorb, diffuse through
the matrix and move into the cleat system, resulting in CBM production proles that are quite
unique (previous page, middle).
Initial production is dominated by water. As
the water moves out of the cleats and fractures,
gas saturation and production increase and water
production falls. When permeability to gas eventually stabilizes, the coal is considered dewatered
and gas production peaks. From this point, both
water and gas production slowly decline, with gas
being the dominant produced uid. The speed at
which the reservoir dewaters depends on several
factors, including original gas and water saturations, cleat porosity, relative and absolute permeability of the coal, and well spacing.
Some CBM wells produce dry gas from the
start. For example, some wells in Alberta and
British Columbia, Canada, and the underpressured portion of the San Juan basin are comparable to conventional reservoirs and produce
water-free at irreducible water saturation. Dry
gas coalbed production typically declines from
the start, exhibiting Stage III behavior.
As with all gas reservoirs, the permeability
controls production and largely dictates the
amount of gas reserves in coal seams. Local variations in cleat and natural-fracture conductivity
and densityhow closely cleats or fractures are
spacedlead to wide variations in well performance within some areas of development (above
right). For example, 23 wells in a eld in the
Black Warrior basin, USA, with similar coal thicknesses and original gas contents, were drilled and
completed identically, at equal well spacings, but
show diversity in production performance
because of the local variations in cleat conductivitypermeability. Also, in this basin, cleat and
natural-fracture conductivity are greatly affected
by the stress on the reservoir. Field-test data conrm the inverse relationship between closure
stress and coal permeability; increasing closure
stress from 1000 to 5000 psi [6.9 to 34.4 MPa]
decreased permeability from 10 to 1 mD.

125,000

100,000

75,000

50,000

25,000

0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Time, months

> Local well-performance variations in a group of 23 similar wells in a eld in the Black Warrior basin,
USA. In this area, the differences are attributed to local changes in cleat and natural-fracture permeabilities. The plot shows cumulative gas production through time for each of the 23 wells.

The unconventional properties and production performance of coalbed reservoirs, including

high initial water production and low initial gas
production, are largely responsible for the relatively slow uptake in CBM reservoir development
around the world. However, the collective
knowledge and experiences of the industry in
exploiting this resource are showing results in
increased CBM production.
Investigating a New Resource in India
After reviewing the major coal-bearing basins in
India, the Oil and Natural Gas Corporation
(ONGC) concluded that the Jharia basin, 250 km
[155 miles] northwest of Calcutta, had the best
potential for coalbed natural gas production.
Three pilot wells were drilled through the
Permian-age Barakar formation, which contains
up to 18 clearly identiable coal beds, each from
1 to 20 m [3 to 66 ft] thick. The second pilot hole
was cored and logged with high vertical resolution lithodensity, neutron and resistivity measurements from the Platform Express integrated
wireline logging tool, FMI Fullbore Formation
MicroImager, DSI Dipole Shear Sonic Imager and
ECS Elemental Capture Spectroscopy tools.
Fullbore cores were obtained in many of the
coals and were sent for proximate analysis, rank
determination and adsorbed gas content.6 The

logs were analyzed for these same parameters

and for cleat porosity.
The rst step was proximate analysis from the
lithodensity, neutron and gamma ray logs. These
log measurements have widely different
responses to the various coal components and
can resolve them well. The main uncertainty lies
in the response parameters of ash, since it may
contain varying amounts of quartz, clay, calcite,
pyrite and other minerals.7 The parameters of
volatile mattermainly organics, wax, carbon
dioxide [CO2] and sulfur dioxide [SO2]and
xed carbon are reasonably similar for the bituminous and anthracite coals of interest. In the
Jharia well, results of the log analysis were in
5. Zuber M and Boyer C: Evaluation of Coalbed Methane
Reservoirs, prepared for the University of Oviedo, Spain.
Holditch-Reservoir Technologies Consulting Services,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA, May 2425, 2001.
6. Proximate analysis is the term used for the identication
of the major fractions of the coal, taken as moisture,
volatiles, xed carbon and ash. These fractions have
usually been determined by progressively heating and
then burning crushed samples and observing the volume
of the different fractions removed at each stage until
nothing is left but ash. Proximate analysis is distinct from
ultimate analysis, in which the weight percent of different elements is determined.
7. Ash is the inorganic constituent, derived from mineral
matter, that remains after proximate analysis.

13

Moisture

Caliper > Bit Size

Hole Size
Depth, m

in.

16

Gamma Ray

Ash

Clay

Fixed Carbon

Quartz

Volatile Matter

Water

Core Coal Rank

Log Coal Rank

ELAN volumes
50

Low-volume
bituminous

Sub-bituminous

1 10

High-volume
bituminous

vol/vol

Medium-volume
bituminous

150 0

API

Semi-anthracite

X060

X070

17

24

36

40

% Volatile matter
Volatiles + fixed carbon

High Resolution

Photoelectric Effect
Capture Cross Section

Gamma
Ray

Density

Neutron

g/cm3

vol/vol

Ash

2.75

0.05

12

400

Fixed Carbon

1.35

0.45

0.2

20

Volatile Matter

0.90

1.00

0.5

Moisture

1.00

1.00

0.5

barn/cm3

API

> An example of proximate analysis and coal rank determination from logs in India. In Track 1, the
caliper indicates that the hole is moderately washed out but still smooth. Track 2 shows good agreement
between the log-derived proximate analysis, using the parameters given in the table, and core-derived
analyses. Track 3 compares coal rank from logs, after applying a vertical average, with coal rank from
core. Coal rank is determined by the proportion of volatile material in the dry, ash-free coal, using the
cutoffs shown (bottom).

good agreement with core data (above). The ECS

data added detailed information on the composition of the ash and improved the estimate of total
ash in washed-out coals, where the density and
other logs were more affected by the borehole

14

(see The Elements of Coal Analysis, page 16).

The next step was to estimate the volume of
adsorbed gas in each seam. Ideally, this would be
derived directly from logs. However, the effect of
adsorbed gas on the response parameters of coal

is small and there are not enough independent

measurements to solve reliably for gas.
Traditional coal-industry techniques determine
gas content from cores, and in their absence, by
estimating the rank of the coal from proximate
analysis and the gas content from rank, pressure,
temperature and a suitable adsorption isotherm.
The American Society of Testing and Materials
(ASTM) ranks coals by the percentage of volatile
material after normalizing to dry, ash-free coal.
Slightly different ranking criteria were used in
Jharia and were applied to both core and log data.
With logs providing information on intervals
where core data were missing, ONGC was able to
study the quality of the different coal seams. The
average coal rank increased with depth, but with
a probable change in trend half-way down the
section (next page, top). The change in trend is
most likely related to a major fault seen on the
FMI data at this depth. Coal rank and proximate
analysis can also be entered into a suitable sorptive capacity transform to determine the gas in
place within each coal seam.8
Cleat porosity was estimated by four different
methods: from the porosity seen by microresistivity measurements, by the separation of deep and
shallow laterolog curves, by the quantity and type
of mineralization seen by the ECS tool, and from
the shear-wave anisotropy measured by DSI data.
When the borehole is in gauge, the microresistivity measurement gives the most accurate results,
and is used to calibrate the ECS and DSI data. In
washed-out coals, the ECS log is least affected by
hole rugosity, while the DSI and microresistivity
logs can be affected more severely. The estimate
of cleat porosity adds information on ow capacity to that already obtained on gas volume. These
data helped ONGC decide which seams to test,
whether to develop this resource and how best to
accomplish this.
Huge Reserves and Progress in Canada
Canadas estimated 1287 Tcf of probable in-place
CBM reserves lie primarily in the provinces of
British Columbia and Alberta, and can be divided
into three main areas, the Alberta foothills, the
Alberta plains and the British Columbia foothills.
Coals from these areas vary in rank, gas content
and accessibility. Canadian coal experts maintain that coal permeability is the main driver of
CBM reservoir potential. For this reason, much of
the focus when assessing CBM reservoirs in
Canada is on understanding cleats and natural
fractures, both in outcrop and in wellbores.
Alberta contains vast amounts of coal distributed throughout the southern plains, foothills
and mountains. Originally deposited in relatively

Oileld Review

Orientation North
Depth, m

0 120 240 360

deg

90

X50

50

Fault

45

Volatile matter, wt % (dry, ash-free)

Bedding
True Dip

FMI Static Image

Res.
Cond.

40
35
X55
30

Fault location
25
20
15
10

100 m

Increasing log depth, m

> Percent of volatile materialdry and ash freeand coal rank versus depth for the Jharia well. Logderived data (red curves) and core-derived data (blue dots) are shown only in the coal seams. The
core-derived data, in particular, suggest a change in trend (blue line) probably associated with a fault
observed on the FMI image (inset) and in other data at that depth.

Coal Zones with

CBM Potential

Alberta

Distribution of Coal by Rank

Low- and mediumvolatile bituminous coals
High-volatile
bituminous coals

Mannville Group
Horseshoe Canyon
Group
Belly River Group

Sub-bituminous coal

Scollard Formation
Kootenay Group

Luscar Group

Lignite
200
100

400 km
200

300 miles

flat-lying peat swamps, organic matter was

buried by sediments derived from the west and
gradually coalied with increasing heat and pressure after burial. Coals were subsequently folded,
faulted, uplifted and partially eroded, resulting
in the present distribution of coal across the
plains. Coal-bearing strata gently dip westward
towards the mountains, where the coals are
folded and abruptly turn towards the surface to
be reexposed in the foothills.
Coal seams occur within distinctive horizons
of the upper Cretaceous Scollard, Horseshoe
Canyon and Belly River formations, and within
the lower Cretaceous Mannville group strata in
the Alberta plains. Coal is also found within the
Paleocene Coalspur formation and the Mist
Mountain formation of the Jurassic-Cretaceous
Luscar/Kootenay groups in the Alberta foothills
(below left). Individual coal seams vary in thickness from less than 1 meter [3 ft] to more than
6 meters [20 ft]. Groups of coal seams are separated by 10 to 50 m [30 to 160 ft] of rock. Most
coals at shallow depthsless than 1000 m
[3300 ft]in the plains are sub-bituminous to
high-volatile bituminous rank. Coals in the
Alberta foothills generally are more mature, with
ranks from high-volatile to low-volatile bituminous. Alberta plains coals have more predictable
cleat characteristics than foothills coals in
Alberta and British Columbia because of their
limited deformation.
Permeability, formation pressure and reservoir uid saturation are critical in identifying
areas suitable for CBM development. Common
methods used to measure permeability in coals,
such as injection and falloff testing, often yield
inconsistent results because the cleat permeability can be a function of injection pressure. Test
intervals may be disturbed by drilling uids and
can be damaged by cementing, breakdown and
stimulation uids, causing adverse effects on
test results. Ambiguities occur for a variety of
reasons, including ination of coal cleats and
fractures, two-phase permeability and wellborestorage effects.
(continued on page 20)

Edmonton

Calgary

Edmonton

Calgary

8. The theory of Langmuir relates the gas volume adsorbed

on ash-free coal to pressure at a given temperature and
to two factors that depend on temperature and coal
rank. Various researchers have correlated these factors
with the results of proximate analysis, so that the
adsorbed gas volume can be estimated from logs. See
Hawkins JM, Schraufnagel RA and Olszewski AJ:
Estimating Coalbed Gas Content and Sorption Isotherm
Using Well Log Data, paper SPE 24905, presented at the
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
Washington, DC, USA, October 47, 1992.

> Alberta coals. Maps show the distribution of major coal seams (left) and coal rank (right) in Alberta.

Autumn 2003

15

The Elements of Coal Analysis

In the simplest technique of proximate analysis from logs, the bulk density is interpreted
for ash content, which is then correlated with
the other proximates for each rank of coal.
Addition of the neutron, gamma ray and photoelectric logs makes the analysis more general
and less dependent on local correlations.
Unfortunately, some coals tend to wash out
while drilling, leading to oversize boreholes
and large borehole effects on the logs. In addition, the composition of the components, in
particular ash, can vary, creating some uncertainty in the parameters to be used
in interpretation.
An alternative technique is based on elemental analysis from neutron-induced gamma ray
spectroscopy. Both the ECS Elemental Capture
Spectroscopy sonde and the RST Reservoir
Saturation Tool device estimate the quantity of
minerals in the coal. The advantage of neutron-induced gamma ray spectroscopy is that
the majority of the signals of interest arise
from elements in the formation and are therefore unaffected by the borehole. In addition,
the components of the ash can be more precisely dened from the mineralogy.
Neutron-induced gamma ray spectroscopy
tools emit high-energy neutrons that are then
slowed down and captured by elements in the

borehole and the formation. During capture, a

gamma ray is emitted with an energy that is
characteristic of the element. A detector measures the gamma ray spectrum, or the number
of gamma rays received at the detector at each
energy level. This energy may be degraded by
scattering in the formation, but there is sufcient character in the nal spectrum to recognize the peaks caused by different elements.
The rst processing step is to calculate the
proportion, or relative yield, of gamma rays
from each element by comparing the measured
spectrum with the theoretical spectrum of
each individual element (next page). A mathematical inversion provides the percentage of
the principal contributors, such as silicon,
calcium, iron, sulfur and hydrogen.
The yields are only relative measures
because the total signal depends on the environment, which may vary throughout the
logged interval. To obtain the absolute elemental concentrations, additional information
is needed. The principle of oxide closure
states that a dry rock consists of a set of
oxides, the sum of whose concentrations must
be unity.1 Measuring the relative yield of all
the oxides allows the calculation of the total
yield and the factor needed to convert the
total to unity. This normalization factor will

India

80

80

70

70

60

Proximate component, wet weight %

Proximate component, wet weight %

San Juan Basin, USA

y = -0.834x + 75.471
R2 = 0.997

50
Fixed carbon
Volatiles
Moisture

40
30

y = -0.171x + 24.034
R2 = 0.944

20

then convert each relative yield to a dry

weight elemental concentration.
Finally, the SpectroLith lithology processing
technique transforms elemental concentrations into mineral concentrations using a set of
correlations based on the study of more than
400 core samples from different clastic environments.2 The results are expressed as the
dry weight percentage of clay, coal, accessory
minerals such as pyrite and siderite, and the
aggregate of quartz, feldspars and micas. While
there may be local variations in these correlations, the major advantage of this technique is
that it is automatic, with no user intervention.
This contrasts with standard methods for clay
determination that depend heavily on userselected parameters.
Coals are easily identied by their high
hydrogen concentration. Quantifying the
amount of xed carbon, volatile material and
moisture in coal is more difcult and requires
two assumptions. First, there are other sources
of hydrogen that must be considered, including
water in the cleats, clay water and moisture in
the formation, and in the borehole, unless the
well was drilled with air. Since these form a
consistent background, they can be subtracted
to give the hydrogen concentration in coal.
Second, different types of coal have different

10

60

y = -0.7762x + 75.575
R2 = 0.8662

50
Fixed carbon
Volatiles
Moisture

40
30

y = -0.2245x + 24.286
R2 = 0.3507

20
10

y = 0.005x + 0.495

0
0

10

20

30

40

Ash, wet weight %

y = -0.0014x + 0.1816

0
50

60

70

10

20

30

40

50

60

Ash, wet weight %

> Proximate analysis based on ash content. Excellent correlations have been found with data from three wells in the Fruitland coal interval in the
San Juan basin (left). The correlations from the Jharia well in India are satisfactory for xed carbon but poor for volatile matter (right).

16

Oileld Review

Induced Gamma Ray Spectra

Counts

Gd
H

Inversion (Spectral Stripping)

Fe

Si

Si

Cl

Ca

Fe

Ti

Gd

Cl

Inelastic
X00

Energy

X50

X00

Oxide Closure

Coal
Si

Ca

Fe

Ti

Gd
m

X50

SpectroLith Model
Pyrite (wt %)

Carbonate (wt %)

Sand (wt %)

Coal (wt %)
Clay (wt %)

> The interpretation steps for obtaining mineralogy from gamma rays. The
detector receives a spectrum of gamma rays that is compared with standards
for each element to obtain their relative yields. The yields are converted into
elemental concentrations by applying a normalization factor computed from
the oxide-closure model. Finally, the SpectroLith model estimates mineral
percentages from elements.

hydrogen contents. However, in a given area or

formation, this can be sufciently consistent to
allow a conversion from hydrogen concentration to coal percentage.
Data from the ECS tool allow a quick and
automatic proximate analysis at the wellsite.
The total ash content is simply obtained from
its components, namely quartz, clay, carbonates
and pyrite, while the amount of xed carbon
and volatile material can be estimated from
correlations with ash content (previous page).

Autumn 2003

1. In practice, the process is not so straightforward.

First, we measure elements, not oxides, but nature is
helpful since the most abundant elements exist in only
one common oxide, for example quartz [SiO2] for silicon [Si]. Thus for most elements there is an exact
association factor that converts the concentration of
the element to the concentration of the oxide. Second,
although the ECS tool measures a majority of the most
common elements, there are exceptions, the most

important being those of potassium and aluminum.

Luckily, the concentration of these elements is
strongly correlated to that of iron, so that they can be
included in the oxide association factor for iron.
2. Herron S and Herron M: Quantitative Lithology: An
Application for Open and Cased Hole Spectroscopy,
Transactions of the SPWLA 37th Annual Symposium,
New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, June 1619, 1996, paper E.

17

Bed Gas Content Range

Gas Content Range
Moisture
Gas Content (Hawkins Study)
Mineral Ash

scf/ton

500

Well Cleated

Min. Gas Content

Fixed Carbon
Volatiles

Core Moisture
Mineral Ash

wt %

0.4 0

Core Mineral Ash

0

wt %

wt %

wt %

scf/ton

Poorly Cleated

500

MMcf/acre

RST Cleat Porosity

ft3/ft3

50 0

Max. Bed Gas

1 0

Core Fixed Carbon

0.4 0

Partly Cleated

500

Min. Bed Gas

1 0

Core Fixed Carbon

Mineral Ash
0

wt %

scf/ton

Max. Gas Content

1 0

MMcf/acre

0.1

Openhole Resistivity
ft3/ft3

50 0

Core Desorbed Gas Content

SFL Resistivity

scf/ton

ohm-m

500 0.2

0.1

2000

> A typical coal evaluation using neutron-induced gamma ray spectroscopy from the RST Reservoir
Saturation Tool. Tracks 1 and 2 show proximate analyses from logs and core. Track 3 shows gas
content and cumulative gas content from core and from logs using two different transforms. One is
the Langmuir Rank equation developed by Hawkins et al, reference 8, main text. The other is a local
equation based on ash content, temperature and pressure. Track 4 indicates the cleat intensity.

Many such correlations have already been

established from core data for specic areas
or formations.3 Alternatively, the ECS mineralogy can be combined with other log data in
an ELANPlus computation. The resulting
proximate analysis is enhanced by the
detailed ash description from the ECS sonde,
and by the ability of lithodensity and neutron
data to distinguish between xed carbon and
volatile matter.
The more detailed ECS mineralogy also
helps identify the degree of cleating. The

18

presence of calcite and pyrite indicates a welldeveloped cleat system in which the ow of
water has caused secondary mineralization.
However, large quantities of calcite and pyrite
suggest that the cleats have been lled or that
the coal is of low grade. Quartz and clay have
also been observed in cleats, but large volumes of these minerals and a large total ash
volume indicate a lower-ranked coal. Such
coals will have lost less water and volatile
matter during coalication and will therefore
have fewer cleats.4 These observations can be

used to identify well-cleated coal by, for example, calcite percentages between 2 and 7%, and
pyrite percentages between 0.5 and 5%. Poorly
cleated coals have total ash percentages above
45%, clay percentages above 25% and quartz
percentages above 10%. Mineral percentages
that fall between those of well-cleated coals
and poorly cleated coals indicate partly cleated
coals.5 The rules and cutoffs can vary by area
and should be established locally from production data.

Oileld Review

Coal Indication from Openhole Density

Openhole Formation Density
g/cm3

Depth, ft

Gamma Ray
0

API

200 0

10

Caliper
6

Photoelectric Factor

Density Derived from Carbon/Oxygen Ratio

in.

g/cm3

16 1

Openhole bulk density

X450

2.0
1.8

R2 = 0.9025

1.6
1.4
1.2
1.8

2.0

2.2

2.4

2.6

2.8

Carbon/oxygen ratio
X500

> Comparison of density from an openhole log (red) and that derived from the RST carbon/oxygen ratio
(black), after making the best-t correlation shown in the plot (inset). The openhole density suggests a
coal at X447, but the carbon/oxygen data show this to be incorrect and to be caused instead by the
washout seen on the caliper.

The coal rank and gas content can be estimated based on proximate analysis. Cleat
intensity indicates permeability and hence
productivity. Thus, neutron-induced gamma
ray spectroscopy, in combination with other
logs, provides a continuous record of the
major factors needed to evaluate a coal seam
and any surrounding sands shortly after the
well has been drilled (previous page).
Elemental analysis has an additional role in
cased holes, where the RST carbon/oxygen
ratio is the most accurate logging method for

Autumn 2003

identifying coals. This technique is particularly

useful in wells drilled for deeper targets that
have been cased over the coal-bearing zones
without recording an openhole density log. The
carbon/oxygen ratio is calibrated to coal density, using data from other wells in the area
(above). The other elemental yields can be
interpreted as already described after allowing
for the effects of casing and cement on the
silicon and calcium concentrations.

3. Hawkins et al, reference 8, main text.

4. Law BE: The Relationship Between Coal Rank and
Spacing; The Implications for the Prediction of
Permeability in Coal, Proceedings of the International
Coalbed Methane Symposium, Vol. 2, Birmingham,
Alabama, USA, (May 1721, 1993): 435442.
5. Ahmed U, Johnston D and Colson L: An Advanced
and Integrated Approach to Coal Formation
Evaluation, paper SPE 22736, presented at the 66th
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
Dallas, Texas, USA, October 69, 1991.

19

Density

125 mm

375

0
375

Gamma Ray
0

API

2650

Orientation North

Bit Size
125 mm

kg/m3

1000
120

240

360

FMI Static Image

Resistive
Conductive

Depth, m

Caliper

Orientation North
0

120

240

360

Bedding
True Dip

FMI Dynamic Image

Resistive
Conductive

150

deg

90

X49.6

Coal unresolved by the

density log
X49.8

5-cm coal layer

X50.0

X50.2

Probable subvertical cleats

X50.4

X50.6

X50.8

X51.0

Pyrite inclusions affect

the density measurement
X51.2

> High-resolution measurements in thin-bedded coals. Many coals are thin-bedded and may not be
identied with standard measurements. The FMI Fullbore Formation MicroImager tool has a vertical
resolution of 0.2 in. [0.5 cm], which allows analysts to image thin coals. Track 1 contains gamma ray,
caliper and borehole orientation data. A comparison between the density log and the FMI static image
is displayed in Track 2. The FMI tool clearly identies the thin coal at X50.0 m, where the density log
does not. Pyrite inclusions that dramatically affect the density at X51.0 m appear as dark spots on the
FMI image. Track 3 contains the FMI dynamic image, and Track 4 displays dip information.

Nexen Canada Ltd. has run successful tests on

shallow plains coal seams using the MDT Modular
Formation Dynamics Tester device (next page).
After pumping out drilling uid, the MDT packer
module can withdraw reservoir uid from isolated
coal seams at near-virgin conditions. The tool
provides accurate ow rate and pressure information, and measures the properties of the recovered
uids in real time. Pressure-transient analysis can
be applied to the pressure response to determine
coal permeability. Bottomhole shut-in pressure
reduces the problem of wellbore storage that can
mask the formation response in pressuretransient analysis. Nexen Canada has found that

20

the MDT device is cost-effective and minimizes

uncertainties inherent in other coal-permeability
testing methods.
Some of the Mannville coals of the Alberta
plains are thin-bedded, as seen in a Burlington
Resources Canada well FMI image (above). Here,
the bulk density log seems to respond to heavy
minerals like pyrite in the coal matrix. These are
seen as conductive specks on FMI images, giving
anomalously high density peaks that cause some
potential errors in net-coal estimates. The higher
resolution of the FMI tool allows more reliable
net-coal thickness measurement.9

Abundant folds and thrust faults related to

Laramide deformation characterize the complex
structural geology of the British Columbia and
Alberta foothills. The present minimum horizontal
stress direction runs northwest-southeast
throughout much of the foothills area, roughly
parallel to the outcrops, although local stress
variations are indicated in borehole-breakout
studies. In the Alberta plains, recent studies by
(continued on page 23)
9. Schoderbek D and Ray S: Applications of Formation
MicroImage Interpretation to Canadian Coalbed
Methane Exploration, presented at the CSPGCSEG
Annual Convention, Calgary, Alberta, Canada,
June 26, 2003.

Oileld Review

Hydrostatic
Pressure Pressure
Hydrostatic
kPa

kPa

1500

Gamma Ray
Gamma Ray
0

API

150

API

Caliper Caliper
125

125

mm

mm

375

Bit Size Bit Size

125

125

mm

mm

375

Hydrostatic
Hydrostatic
gradient gradient

SphericalSpherical
Permeability
Permeability
15000.2

0.2

True vertical depth, m

1000

True vertical depth, m

1000

1500.2

3750.2

3750.2
XX15

mD

mD

FormationFormation
Pressure Pressure

2000 500 2000 500

AIT Resistivity
AIT Resistivity
10-in. 10-in.
0.2

ohm-m

ohm-m

AIT Resistivity
AIT Resistivity
30-in. 30-in.
0.2

ohm-m

ohm-m

0.2

ohm-m

ohm-m

kPa

1000

1000

Neutron Porosity
Neutron Porosity

2000 0.6 2000 0.6

m3/m3

m3/m3

0.15

0.15

Density Porosity
Density Porosity

2000 0.752000 0.75

AIT Resistivity
AIT Resistivity
90-in. 90-in.

kPa

m3/m3

m3/m3

Photoelectric
Photoelectric
Effect Effect

2000 0 2000 0

10

10

XX15

Test
Test
position #2position #2
Test
Test
position #1position #1

XX25

925

XX25

Test Position #2
Specialized Analysis PlotSpherical Flow Buildup

915
905

15157
15017
14877
14737

895

Pressure, kPa

Test Position
#2

k sph = 1.289 mD
p int = 916.9 kPa

885

14597
14457

875

14317

865

14177

855

14037
13897

845

13757

835

13617

825
0

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

Delta P & derivative groups, kPa

1e+03

13477
13337

Spherical time function

13197

Test Position #2
Flow Regime Identification PlotCBM Buildup

13057
12917
12777

1e+02

Pressure
Derivative

12637
12497
12357

1e+01

12217
12077
11937

1e+00

11797
11657
Time, s

1e- 01
1e- 01

1e + 00

1e + 01

Delta T, s

1e + 02

1e + 03

Pressure/Temperature/Resistivity
E 500
Pressure (kPa) - PASG
v
Temperature (C) - PAQT
e 13.00
n 0.00
Resistivity (ohm-m) t
Pump Out Volume (C3) - POPV
s 0

1500
15.00
0.00
80,000

E
v
e
n
t
s

Gas
Detection

Fluid
Fraction

High

Water

Medium

Oil

Low

Mud

OFA Fluid Density

Fluid Color

> Pressure and permeability from the MDT Modular Formation Dynamics Tester device. Nexen Canada Ltd. ran the MDT tool on
a well to test coal seams in the Alberta plains. The MDT test position 2 can be located on the log (top). Hydrostatic pressures are
plotted in Track 1, along with the gamma ray and caliper data. Results from the spherical ow buildup permeability analysis (middle
left) are plotted in Track 2, along with the resistivity data. Buildup data were also used to identify a spherical ow regime (bottom
left). Formation pressure determined from the buildup analysis is plotted in Track 3, along with porosity and lithology information.
The OFA Optical Fluid Analyzer plot (right) shows pressure, temperature and pumpout volume during sampling, and uid recovery changes during the test. Drilling mud was recovered initially (brown), then water (blue) with some possible small shows of
gas (white).

Autumn 2003

21

Bed Boundary
True Dip
0

mm

375

mm

deg

90

Drilling-Induced Fracture
True Dip

Caliper 1
125

90

Cross Bedding
True Dip

Bit Size
125

deg

375
0

deg

90

Caliper 2
125

mm

Partial Open Fracture

True Dip

375
Density

Gamma Ray

Measured depth, m

API

150

1000

deg
Gamma Ray
45 to 75 API
Gamma Ray
< 45 API

20

m3/m3

AIT Resistivity 90-in.

2650

Neutron Porosity

Borehole Drift
0

kg/m3

0.2

ohm-m

Resistive Fracture
True Dip

0.2

ohm-m

Orientation North
0

Photoelectric Factor

120

240

360

10
Coal

Fracture Aperture
2e-05

cm

After-Frac Survey

Resistive
0.2

deg

90

Unconformable
Bed Boundary
True Dip

2000
FMI Dynamic Image

90

2000

AIT Resistivity 10-in.

deg

Background

Background

Scandium
Coal

Coal
Scandium

Antimony

Antimony

Iridium

Iridium

Conductive
0

deg

90

Perfs

XX70

XX75

Fault drag
XX80

XX85

Fractures in coal

Perfs

> Analysis of Alberta plains coal seams. A fault was identied during the FMI image interpretation of this Burlington well at a depth of XX79.5 m
(Track 4). Faults and associated fracturing have a direct impact on the permeability of coal seams. Gamma ray and caliper data are displayed in
Track 1 with borehole orientation. Track 2 contains porosity and lithology information. Fracture apertures exceeding 0.01 cm [0.004 in.] were calculated from FMI data and are displayed with resistivity data in Track 3. Track 4 contains the dynamic FMI image from which bedding and fractures
planes were picked. Track 5 shows the dip plots from the interpretation of Track 4. An after-frac survey is included on the right to demonstrate the
vertical growth of hydraulic fractures from the perforated coals. The presence of radioactive tracers below the perforations indicates downward
fracture growth.

22

Oileld Review

Autumn 2003

Alberta Plains Coal

British Columbia Foothills Coal

Caliper
Face Cleat

125 mm 375

Orientation North

Bit Size
125 mm 375 0

Gamma
Ray
0 API 150

120

240

360 0

deg

90

Bedding True Dip

FMI Dynamic Image

Resistive
Conductive
0

deg

Measured depth, m

Caliper
Measured depth, m

the Alberta Energy and Utilities Board (AEUB)

using regional geological data, and drilling and
completion records indicate stress variation
between upper Cretaceous-Tertiary and lower
Cretaceous rock sequences.10 In addition, image
data from the FMI tool have shown faults in these
areas (previous page). After-fracture surveys were
run to evaluate how hydraulic fractures propagate
through the coals and surrounding rock.
In the foothills of northeast British Columbia,
the Cretaceous Gates and Gething formations
contain the thickest coal resources. Coals in
these formations are exposed in the Peace River
coal eld, along northwest-trending outcrops,
where they are mined. In the southeast corner of
British Columbia, coal is contained in the
Jurassic-Cretaceous Mist Mountain formation,
which outcrops in the front range of the Rocky
Mountains in the Elk Valley, Crowsnest and
Flathead coal elds.
The Gething formation contains over 20 m
[65 ft] of cumulative coal in the Pine River area.
The formation thins regionally southeastward
but maintains cumulative coal thicknesses of
about 6 m. A 1980 report of coal exploration in
the northern part of the Gething trend provides
information on gas contents from drill holes. The
data indicate high gas contentsup to
19.5 m3/tonne [620 scf/ton] at a depth of 459 m
[1506 ft] in at least one hole. Gething coal rank
generally decreases to the east and spans the
bituminous range.11 Face cleats within the
Gething coals in the north trend northwestsoutheast and, under the current stress regime,
may be closed.12
The Gates formation thins to the northwest
and its coal reserves are not as widespread as
those in the Gething formation. Where coal is
present in the Gates formation, it normally
contains four coal seams with an average total
thickness of 15 to 20 m [49 to 66 ft]. In 1996,
Phillips Petroleum drilled four wells to test the
Gates formation coals at a depth of 1300 to
1500 m [4270 to 4920 ft]. Gas contents measured
in these wells were promising and ranged from
6.3 to 29.2 m3/tonne [202 to 935 scf/ton],
although measured permeability was low. Face
cleats in Gates coal trend northeast-southwest
and may be perpendicular to the present
minimum stress direction. It is therefore reasonable to surmise that the face cleats in the Gates
formation may be open.
The outcrop exposures in the Peace River
coal field have given geologists insights
into the interrelationships between deformation, cleat development and present stress elds,
and their relationship to coal permeability. The

90

XX59

125 mm 375

Face Cleat

Bit Size

Orientation North

125 mm 375 0

Gamma
Ray

120

240

360 0

FMI Dynamic Image

Resistive
Conductive

0 API 150

deg

90

Bedding True Dip

0

deg

90

XX20
Shear
fractures

Face cleat

XX21

XX60
Butt cleat

Face cleat
XX22

Plains Coal

Foothills Coal

Face cleat
Butt cleat

Shear fracture
Bedding

> Comparison of FMI images from the Alberta plains coal and British Columbia foothills coal. The
image of a plains coal shows clear face- and butt-cleat development (top left). The images of the
foothills coal help geologists identify signicant shear fracturing (top right). Outcrop exposures of
Alberta plains and British Columbia foothills coals show bedding planes, face and butt cleats, and
shear fractures. Features are marked on the outcrop photographs. The foothills coal (bottom right)
shows extensive shear fractures, while the plains coal does not (bottom left). Shear fracturing
degrades coal permeability.

combination of depth and deformation may have

signicantly reduced the permeability in coal
seams in the Gething and Gates formations.
Intraseam shearing of these coals is thought to
have diminished coal permeability.
Coal outcrops provide extensive information
on stresses and coal-fracture systems. In the subsurface, many operators rely on borehole imaging
to determine the degree of cleating and natural
fracturing within the coals; in some wells, shear
fractures can be observed using borehole images
(above). Burlington Resources Canada and their

10. Bell JS and Bachu S: In Situ Stress Magnitude and

Orientation Estimates for Cretaceous Coal Bearing
Strata Beneath the Plains Area of Central and Southern
Alberta, Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology 51, no.
1 (2003): 128.
11. Marchioni D and Kalkreuth WD: Vitrinite Reectance
and Thermal Maturity in Cretaceous Strata of the Peace
River Arch Region, West-Central Alberta and Adjacent
British Columbia, Geological Survey of Canada, Open
File Report 2576, 1992.
12. Bachu S: In Situ Stress Regime in the Coal-Bearing
Strata of the Northeastern Plains Area of British
Columbia, Sigma H. Consultants Ltd. Invarmere BC,
Report for the Ministry of Energy and Mines, British
Columbia, 2002.

23

Depth, m

Orientation North
0
120
240
360
FMI Dynamic Image
Resistive
Conductive

Bedding
True Dip
0

Maximum horizontal
stress direction

Minimum horizontal
stress direction

Borehole
breakout

deg

90

Drilling-induced
fractures S45E

Induced
fracture
Borehole
breakout N45E
XX92

XX93

> In-situ stress determination from borehole images. During drilling operations, stress release around
the borehole causes induced fractures and borehole breakout (left). These phenomena indicate the
direction of in-situ stresses. The orientations of these features, interpreted from FMI data (right), are
used in hydraulic fracture treatment and deviated well designs.

Bed Boundary
True Dip

Bit Size
125

mm

375
0

Caliper 1
125

mm

Density

Caliper 2
Measured depth, m

125

mm

375 1000

API

Gamma Ray
45 to 75 API
Gamma Ray
< 45 API

2650

Neutron Porosity

Gamma Ray
0

kg/m3

150

m3/m3

Coal

ohm-m

2000

Orientation North

AIT Resistivity 10-in.

0.2

10

AIT Resistivity 90-in.

0.2

Photoelectric Factor
0

deg

90

Conductive Fracture
True Dip

375

ohm-m

2000

Fracture Aperture
2e-05

cm

0.2

120

240

deg

90

Drilling-Induced Fracture
True Dip
360 0

deg

90

Resistive Fracture
FMI Dynamic Image
True Dip
Resistive
Conductive
0

deg

90

XX16

XX18

Missing Core
XX20

XX22

XX24

> Montage of British Columbia foothills coal interval. The high degree of fracturing in the foothills
coals can make fullbore core recovery difcult. The interval shown was cored, but a short but crucial
section of core was lost from XX19 m to XX20 m. The FMI image, acquired across the interval, showed
that the missing core interval was heavily fractured. Gamma ray and caliper data are displayed in
Track 1 with borehole orientation. Track 2 contains porosity and lithology information. Fracture apertures calculated from FMI data are generally lower than in the plains coals and are displayed with
resistivity data in Track 3. Track 4 contains the dynamic FMI image from which bedding and fracture
planes were picked. Track 5 shows the dip plots from the interpretation of Track 4.

24

partners have acquired FMI data to determine

cleat and fracture directions, as well as presentday stress orientation. This information is used in
well planning and aids in the evaluation of
hydraulic fracture stimulation behavior and
effectiveness (left). Drilling-induced fractures
and borehole breakouts indicate orientation of
in-situ stresses. High-quality borehole images of
natural fractures facilitate interpretation of
paleostress orientations and fracture apertures.
Deviated wells are drilled perpendicular to the
dominant fracture set using FMI information
from nearby wellbores or uphole log data.
Borehole images also are used to orient and
depth-match cored intervals, particularly in
zones of poor core recovery (below left).
In addition to borehole imaging, shear and
compressional acoustic-velocity data have long
been used with other petrophysical measurements like bulk density, porosity and shale volume to derive rock elastic properties and to
determine closure-stress proles for input to
hydraulic fracture designs.13 Although these
methods have been routinely used in western
Canada for several years, their application in
coals is a recent phenomenon.
Multiarray induction logs can provide
invasion proles and qualitative comparisons
of cleating in coals. In Canada, geologists
and petrophysicists with Burlington and
Schlumberger are investigating a method to
assess coal permeability by examining drillinguid invasion using AIT Array Induction Imager
Tool data. The AIT device provides resistivity
measurements at ve depths of investigation,
ranging from 10 inches to 90 inches, and with
vertical resolutions of 1, 2 and 4 feet. The invasion prole is calculated using a model with a
fully ushed zone of diameter Di, followed by a
zone of transition to the uninvaded formation at
diameter Do. The model has been used to compute the invasion prole in two contrasting wells,
a low-permeability foothills CBM test well and a
higher permeability plains CBM well. Both wells
were drilled with fresh mud systems, providing a
good resistivity contrast between mud ltrate
and formation-water resistivity.
In the plains coals, the AIT analysis indicated
greater invasion where the FMI tool displayed
tensional fracturing (next page). The 1-ft [0.3-m]
resolution measurement was able to resolve the
effects of invasion in the vicinity of a fault seen on
13. Ali AHA, Brown T, Delgado R, Lee D, Plumb D, Smirnov
N, Marsden R, Prado-Velarde E, Ramsey L, Spooner D,
Stone T and Stouffer T: Watching Rocks Change
Mechanical Earth Modeling, Oileld Review 15, no. 2
(Summer 2003): 2239.

Oileld Review

Moved Water

AIT Resistivity 20-in.

0.2

Moved Hydrocarbon

ohm-m 2000

AIT Resistivity 60-in.

Density

Bit Size
125

mm

375

Measured depth, m

mm

375

Gamma Ray
0

API

Gamma Ray
45 to 75 API
Gamma Ray
< 45 API

150

Water

ohm-m 2000

Gas

1000 kg/m3 2650 AIT Resistivity 30-in.

Neutron Porosity

Caliper
125

0.2

0.2

0 AIT Resistivity 10-in.

Photoelectric Factor 0.2 ohm-m 2000

Quartz

m3/m3

Flushed Zone
Resistivity

20

Density Correction 0.2

900

Calcite

ohm-m 2000

kg/m3

Coal

ohm-m 2000

-100 AIT Resistivity 90-in.

0.2

Coal
Outer Invasion
Diameter
Inner Invasion
Diameter

ohm-m 2000 6000

mm
0

Static Youngs
Modulus
0

GPa

100

Poissons Ratio
6000 0

0.5 1

Bound Water
Illite
Volumetric
Analysis
vol/vol

XX70

XX75

XX80

XX85

> Invasion analysis in the Alberta plains coals. Using a ramp-style invasion model and AIT Array
Induction Imager Tool data, the plains coals show invasion up to 3.5 m [11.5 ft] in Track 4. Increased
invasion is associated with intervals showing tensional fracturing on the FMI images. The 1-ft resolution AIT measurement was able to resolve the effects of invasion near a fault seen on FMI images at
XX79.5 m. Log analysts use this information to gauge the amount of invasion, which may be related to
reservoir permeability. Track 1 displays gamma ray and caliper data. Track 2 contains porosity and
lithology information, and Track 3 contains resistivity data. Track 4 shows the invasion calculation, and
Track 5 contains mechanical properties data, which show a higher Poissons ratio and lower Youngs
modulus in the coals. Track 6 displays ELANPlus Elemental Log Analysis lithology results.

Autumn 2003

25

Moved Water

AIT Resistivity 20-in.

0.2

Moved Hydrocarbon

ohm-m 2000

AIT Resistivity 60-in.

Density

Bit Size
125

mm

375

Measured depth, m

mm

375

Gamma Ray
0

API

Gamma Ray
45 to 75 API
Gamma Ray
< 45 API

150

Water

ohm-m 2000

Gas

1000 kg/m3 2650 AIT Resistivity 30-in.

Neutron Porosity

Caliper
125

0.2

0.2

0 AIT Resistivity 10-in.

Photoelectric Factor 0.2 ohm-m 2000

Quartz

m3/m3

Flushed Zone
Resistivity

20

Density Correction 0.2

900

Calcite

ohm-m 2000

kg/m3

Coal

ohm-m 2000

-100 AIT Resistivity 90-in.

0.2

Coal
Outer Invasion
Diameter
Inner Invasion
Diameter

ohm-m 2000 6000

mm
0

Static Youngs
Modulus
0

GPa

100

Poissons Ratio
6000 0

0.5 1

Bound Water
Illite
Volumetric
Analysis
vol/vol

XX00

XX05

> Invasion analysis in British Columbia foothills coals. The foothills coals show relatively low invasion,
between 1 and 2 m [3 and 6 ft]. Shallow invasion proles are observed in zones where the FMI image
showed a high degree of shear fractures. Track 1 displays gamma ray and caliper data. Track 2
contains porosity and lithology information and Track 3 contains resistivity data. Track 4 shows the
invasion calculation, and Track 5 contains mechanical properties data, which show a higher Poissons
ratio and lower Youngs modulus in the coals. Track 6 displays ELANPlus lithology results.

the FMI image at XX79.5 m. Further investigation

is needed to establish correlations to producibility. In contrast, the shear fractures observed on
the FMI images in the foothills coals were associated with zones showing less invasion on the AIT
invasion analysis (above). The log analysts
believe this analysis provides a dependable way to
gauge the degree of invasion, which may correlate
to reservoir-scale permeability.
Information from logs, core and outcrop can
be used in well construction. Proper cementing
of Canadian CBM wells is a major challenge
because of the fractured state of coals.
Frequently, primary cementing jobs fail to obtain
or maintain cement returns to the surface,
resulting in low cement tops and greater risk of
gas migration. Historically, operators have relied
on increasing the amount of excess cement

26

pumped to combat low cement tops, but a novel

solution known as CemNET advanced fiber
cement has yielded excellent results.
The CemNET slurry contains silica bers that
bridge and plug lost-circulation areas, allowing
the slurry to return up the annulus. Operators
are beneting from this unique technology by
pumping less cement, significantly reducing
cement-disposal costs and potential damage to
the coals. The long-term benefit is better
cemented wells without remedial cementing
costs. In extremely problematic lost-circulation
areas, CemNET fibers, coupled with the
LiteCRETE slurry system, have proved successful
in CBM areas in Canada and in Wyoming, USA.14
The combination of these technologies in
LiteCRETE CBM cement minimizes lost circulation problems, providing better cement coverage

that has helped reduce screenouts during

fracture-stimulation treatments in some Rocky
Mountain areas. Additionally, operators can
cement a well with a single production-quality
cement back to surface, which no longer poses
any constraints on the completion strategy.
Properly cemented wells prepare the way for
subsequent completion challenges. In CBM production areas worldwide, typically coal seams
rst need to be dewatered to achieve maximum
gas production. This is also true in Canada,
although many dry coal seams have been found.
When stimulating coals that have minimal water
in their cleat systems, or low-pressure coals, a
compatible fracturing uid system minimizes
damage to the permeability network. In Canada,
fracturing uid selections have included pure
nitrogen only, guar-based systems or the
polymer-free ClearFRAC fracturing uid.15 These
uids have been foamed using either nitrogen or
carbon dioxide. The move to polymer-free
systems and foaming helps ensure improved
uid ow to the wellbore without damaging
coal permeability.
Another common characteristic of Canadian
CBM targets is that they consist of multiple thin
coal seams; it is not unusual to have more than
20 seams present. Schlumberger CoilFRAC stimulation through coiled tubing technology has
allowed operators to economically perforate and
fracture all of these zones individually in a oneday operation.16 In some areas, Schlumberger is
fracturing more than 30 zones per well and can
stimulate two wells per day in certain circumstances. Operators benet from reduced setup
costs, reduced gas flaring and significantly
reduced time from completion to gas sales.
CoilFRAC operations are suitable for environmentally sensitive areas since the equipment has
a smaller footprint than a service rig and most of
the equipment travels to the lease only once.
Efforts to exploit Canadas vast CBM resources
have just begun. Armed with the historical knowledge of the coal mining industry, Canadas CBM
operators continue to seek out optimal methods
for drilling, evaluating, completing and producing
coalbed reservoirs.
Development in the Raton Basin
The Raton basin is located in the southern Rocky
Mountains, along the boundary between New
Mexico and Colorado, USA. It was formed during
the late Cretaceous period and the early Tertiary
period. The Laramide uplift led to the erosion of
the ancestral Rocky Mountains and the creation
of an eastward prograding wedge of uviodeltaic
sedimentation, including the deposition of
numerous coal beds. The basin contains two

Oileld Review

Walsenburg
Ap

Basin axis

is

Ar

Colorado
New Mexico

Arc

Sa

ngr

e d
e

Las

C ri s t

A
Arc nimas
h

o Mou
ntains

ch

Autumn 2003

Holocene and
Alluvium, slopewash and
Quaternary
landslide material
Basalt flows
Huerfano formation
Middle Tertiary intrusives
Tertiary
Cuchara formation
Poison Canyon formation
Raton formation
Vermejo formation
Trinidad sandstone and
Cretaceous
Pierre shale undivided
Pierre shale/Niobrara undivided
Precambrian rock undivided
Raton basin boundary

14. LiteCRETE cement is a unique system based on the principle of trimodal particle sizes. At low cement densities,
it exhibits compressive strength similar to normal density
cements and maintains signicantly lower permeabilities. For more on LiteCRETE slurry:
Low N, Daccord G and Bedel J-P: Designing Fibered
Cement Slurries for Lost Circulation Applications: Case
Histories, paper SPE 84617, presented at the SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Denver,
Colorado, USA, October 58, 2003.
Junaidi E, Junaidi H, Abbas R and Malik BZ: Fibers In
Cement Form Network to Cure Lost Circulation, World
Oil (June 2003): 4850.
Walton D, Ward E, Frenzel T and Dearing H: Drilling
Fluid and Cementing Improvements Reduced Per-Ft
Drilling Costs by 10%, World Oil (April 2003): 3947.

Raton
basin

ap

rra

Gra

nde

Raton

Sie

coal reservoir systems: the primary production

target, the Vermejo formation coals, at an
average depth of approximately 2000 ft [610 m],
and the overlying Raton formation coals, the
secondary coal target.
The Vermejo coals are moderately continuous
because they were deposited in swamps and in
floodplains within a fluvial-dominated delta
plain. Vermejo coals reach a combined thickness
of up to 40 ft [12 m] and average 20 ft [6 m] in
combined thickness, with an average individual
seam thickness of 2.6 ft [0.8 m], over a 275-ft
[84-m] gross interval. By contrast, the Raton
coals are thinner and less continuous because
their deposition was typically overbank into the
backswamp environments associated with meandering river systems. Raton coals can exceed
75 ft [23 m] in gross thickness, but individual
seams average 1.5 ft [0.5 m] in thickness.
During the Miocene epoch, an igneous
complex called the Spanish Peaks intruded into
the basin.17 Igneous activity formed a complex
network of dikes, sills and fractures that have
inuenced the reservoir characteristics of both
coals and sandstones (right).18 The mid-Tertiary
burial and the late-Tertiary uplift and erosion in
the southern part of the basin, coupled with the
late-Tertiary intrusions and associated heating,
caused the overall uid pressure in the basin to
drop.19 This complicated geologic history has
made the Raton basin difcult to understand
and develop.
With CBM operations in several US basins
and over 1.9 Tcf [54.4 billion m3] in CBM
reserves, El Paso Production Corporation has
studied the Raton basin extensively since 1989.
El Paso has drilled more than 350 wells and has
recovered more than 42,000 ft [12,800 m] of fullbore core in the basin, making these coals some of
the most studied CBM reservoirs in the industry.
Vast amounts of lithologic, gas-content and
isotherm data from cores taken across El Pasos
acreage have been examined and used to model
the CBM reservoirs. These data have also been
instrumental in the calibration of log interpretation techniques, including ELANPlus Elemental

0
0

20 km
15 miles

> Surface geology of the Raton basin. The 2200-square mile [5700-km2] basin contains two coal reservoir systems: the primary production target, the Vermejo formation coals (pale yellow), at an average
depth of 2000 ft [610 m], and the overlying Raton formation coals (light brown), which is a secondary
coal target. Tertiary igneous sills and dikes of the Spanish Peaks intrusion (magenta) have altered
coals locally. (Adapted from Flores and Bader, reference 18.).

Log Analysis computations. Since 2001, El Paso

has acquired Platform Express and ECS data on
290 wells, and DSI and FMI data on strategically
located wells across the Vermejo Park Ranch.

Borehole images have been used along with outcrop and core data in a comprehensive effort to
model the basins fracture systems.20

Al-Suwaidi A, Hun C, Bustillos J, Guillot D, Rondeau J,

Vigneaux P, Helou H, Martnez Ramrez JA and Resndiz
Robles JL: Light as a Feather, Hard as a Rock, Oileld
Review 13, no. 2 (Summer 2001): 215.
15. Chase B, Chmilowski W, Marcinew R, Mitchell C, Dang Y,
Krauss K, Nelson E, Lantz T, Parham C and Plummer J:
Clear Fracturing Fluids for Increased Well Productivity,
Oileld Review 9, no. 3 (Autumn 1997): 2033.
16. Degenhardt KF, Stevenson J, Gale B, Gonzalez D, Hall S,
Marsh J and Zemlak W: Isolate and Stimulate Individual
Pay Zones, Oileld Review 13, no. 3 (Autumn 2001):
6077.
17. Rose PR, Everett JR and Merin IS: Potential BasinCentered Gas Accumulation in Cretaceous Trinidad
Sandstone, Raton Basin, Colorado, in Geology of Tight
Gas Reservoirs, AAPG Special Publication. Tulsa,
Oklahoma, USA: AAPG (1986): 111128.

18. Flores RM and Bader LR: A Summary of Tertiary Coal

Resources of the Raton Basin, Colorado and New
Mexico, in 1999 Resource Assessment of Selected
Tertiary Coal Beds and Zones in the Northern Rocky
Mountains and Great Plains Region, U.S. Geological
Survey Professional Paper 1625-A.
19. Stevens SH, Lombardi TE, Kelso BS and Coats JM: A
Geologic Assessment of Natural Gas from Coal Seams in
the Raton and Vermejo Formations, Raton Basin, Gas
Research Institute Topical Report, GRI 92/0345, Contract
No. 5091-214-2316, 1992.
20. Rautman CA, Cooper SP, Arnold BW, Basinski PM,
Mroz TH and Lorenz JC: Advantages and Limitations of
Different Methods for Assessing Natural Fractures in the
Raton Basin of Colorado and New Mexico, in Assessing
Natural Fractures in the Raton Basin, June 2002.

27

Ash
Fixed Carbon
Moved Water
Crossover

ohm-m

Density Porosity

2000

AIT Resistivity 20-in.

Depth, ft

Caliper > Bit Size

16

Gamma Ray < 75

API

ohm-m

2000

ohm-m

Epithermal Neutron
Porosity

Calcite

g/cm3

Quartz
1.7

Density 1-in.

ohm-m

g/cm3

2000 1

Pyrite

0.05

AIT Resistivity 90-in.

200 2

Carbonate
Dolomite

Density 2-in.

2000 1

Water

Effective Porosity

ft3/ft3

Hydrocarbon
Water

Gas
8

0.3

Flushed Zone Resistivity

Gamma Ray
0

0.05

Photoelectric Factor

2000

Formation Water
Resistivity

ECS Capture Hydrogen

1

ft3/ft3

Moisture

Irreducible Water

AIT Resistivity 60-in.

Caliper
in.

ohm-m

0.3

2000

AIT Resistivity 30-in.

Gas

ohm-m

Volatiles

Moved Hydrocarbon

AIT Resistivity 10-in.

Coal
Bound Water

1.7

Illite

Intrinsic Permeability

Water Saturation
ft3/ft3

Volume Water
0.25

ft3/ft3

Effective Porosity
0.25

ft3/ft3

Irreducible Water
Flushed Zone
0.25

ft3/ft3

Poorly
Cleated

XX00

10

mD

10

Permeablility to Gas
0.01

Well
Cleated

mD

Permeablility to Water
0.01

Partially
Cleated

mD

10

Hydrocarbon
Water

Irreducible Water

Water
Saturation
ft3/ft3

XX50

0.35

0.14

0.94

0.35

0.06

0.44

0.35

0.13
0.08

1.00

0.35
0.35

0.07
0.06

0.41
0.64

0.35
0.35

0.10

0.65

0.11

0.57

0.35

0.11

0.35

0.12

0.48
0.44

0.35

0.01

Integrated Coal
Footage

Estimated Gas
0

Mcf/day 300
Estimated Gas
Mcf/day

33.50

161.07

27.50

143.49

1.00

> Characterizing coal and noncoal resources. With ECS Elemental Capture Spectroscopy and Platform Express data, an
ELANPlus analysis is computed. Lithology is presented in Track 4. Proximate (Track 5) and cleat analysis (Track 6) provide
information on coal quality. Computed permeabilities are in Track 7 and estimated gas production is displayed in Track 8. El
Paso also uses the ELANPlus processing to calculate the reserves in the surrounding sandstones and siltstones.

Even with this extensive database, the Raton

basin remains a challenging area in which to
operate because of numerous complicating
factors. First, gas-content values in the Vermejo
and Raton formation coals vary across the basin,
ranging from 50 to more than 400 scf/ton [1.56 to
12.48 m3/tonne], on an in-situ basis. The deeper
Vermejo coals are typically gas-saturated and
lend themselves to log-based interpretation techniques. However, selected shallower Vermejo and
many Raton formation coals are undersaturated
to varying degrees because they have been
affected by the basins complex burial, thermal,
pressure and hydrological history. As a result,
variations in gas saturation relative to the
isotherm complicate efforts to model the coals
productive potential and make log-based
estimation of gas content and saturation proles
more difcult.

28

Another complicating factor is that the hot

intrusions locally altered the rank and the cleat
and fracture permeability of the coals. The alteration of coal to a higher rank directly affects its
productive potential. The intrusive bodies have
changed bituminous coal into higher rank coal,
so the impact on gas content is inconsistent and
not yet predictable.
El Pasos understanding of the reservoirs and
the basin as a whole has allowed the company to
improve its models and adopt strategies in
drilling, completion, stimulation and production
that maximize environmentally sound exploitation. For example, El Paso drills Raton basin
CBM wells using air as the drilling uid, thereby
minimizing the damage to the coals cleat and
natural-fracturing systems. Wireline logging is
accomplished with air in the borehole by acquiring epithermal neutron data in combination with
the Platform Express tool.21

The Platform Express tool is designed to

minimize the adverse borehole-rugosity effects
on the density measurement commonly observed
in coals and in air-lled boreholes. Detailed
lithology of both the coals and the surrounding
low-permeability gas sandstone is computed
using the ECS tool, and SpectroLith and
ELANPlus processing. Log-based proximate
analysis is also performed in the coals to determine the percentages of volatile matter, xed
carbon, moisture and ash, based on benchmarking to voluminous core data. From these percentages, coal rank and adsorbed gas volume can be
estimated (above). In addition, the logs provide a
qualitative estimate of the degree of cleating.
The DSI tool also provides El Paso with valuable information on fractures and in-situ stress
fields by measuring shear wave anisotropy.
Anisotropy causes shear waves to split into two
components, one polarized along the direction of

Oileld Review

Autumn 2003

Fast Shear Slowness

s/ ft

950

50

Slow Shear Slowness

API

in.
20
Minimum 5
Cross
Tool
Azimuth
Energy
0

100

deg

50

AnisotropySlowness

150

Energy
Difference Hole Diameter Quality

s/ ft

950

Gamma Ray

100

Anisotropy Time
Fast Shear Azimuth

100

Anisotropy

360

Azimuth Uncertainty
Hole Azimuth
Maximum
Cross 0
deg
360
Fast Shear Azimuth
Energy
Gamma Ray
<
75 API
-90
deg
90 Slowness
0
100

>16
8-16
4- 8
2- 4
0- 2

< Understanding the

stress elds. Anisotropy
data from the DSI tool
are used to compute
the fast shear direction
that corresponds with
the maximum horizontal in-situ stress direction. Here, the fast
shear direction is oriented NNE to NNW
(Track 2). The abrupt
shift in fast shear
azimuth in the coal at a
depth of X060 ft is not
fully understood.

Time

NW 8

Depth, ft

maximum velocity, and the other along the direction of minimum velocity. With two transmitters
and two sets of receivers oriented perpendicular
to one another, the DSI tool can measure both
the in-line waveforms from receivers oriented in
the same azimuth as the transmitter, and
crossline waveforms from receivers oriented 90
from the transmitter.22
During the DSI measurement, there is no way
to know how the signals are oriented with
respect to anisotropy. However, with both in-line
and crossline waveforms, it is possible to perform
a mathematical rotation to nd the azimuth of
the fast shear wave, and to determine the velocities of both fast and slow shear waves. This rotation relies on the fact that the crossline
waveforms should vanish when the measurement
axis is aligned with the anisotropy axis. The processing also computes the energy in the crossline
waveforms as a percentage of the total waveform
energy. When the two axes are aligned, the result
is known as the minimum energy and is zero if
the rotation model is correct. The maximum
energy is the energy at 90. The difference
between minimum and maximum is known as
energy anisotropy and is the principal measure of
anisotropy from DSI data.
The polytectonic history of the Raton basin has
introduced other complications. For example,
late-Tertiary changes in the regional stresses from
compression to tension, thought to be caused by
Rio Grande rifting to the west, have major implications for eld development, especially in terms
of well placement and stimulation practices. Prior
to acquisition of key log data by El Paso, the Raton
basins maximum principal stress direction was
believed to be east-west, consistent with a
compressional basin model. FMI images and DSI
anisotropy data have shown that the maximum
principal stress direction is actually north-south
(above right). This change has signicant implications for planning eld development and well
stimulations (see Refracturing Works, page 38).
Fracture stimulation will tend to propagate in this
north-south direction and, given an east-west
Laramide-age open natural-fracture system,
optimal drainage aspect ratios are anticipated. As
a result, where possible, development wells are
not positioned due north-south or east-west of one
another; this maximizes ultimate drainage areas
and gas recovery.
Currently, El Paso is assessing two different
hydraulic fracture stimulation treatments in the
Raton basin. The rst is a low-polymer borate
fracturing uid and higher concentrations of
proppant, delivered using coiled tubing and

NW 2
NW 5
NW 6
NW 7

X050

NW 41
NW 61
NE 15
NE 4
NE 11
NE 13
NE 0
NW 17
NE 18
NE 11

X100

NE 23
NE 21
NE 20
NE 11
NE 32

straddle packers. This technique has been benecial in wells where six to eight different coalbed
layers have been identied for stimulation. These
polymer-base uids have been more successful in
areas that initially produce large amounts of
water, and where cleat- and fracture-system
damage is of less concern. However, in areas
where the coals initially produce low volumes of
water, degrading the permeability to gas within
the cleats and fractures is likely with polymer
liquids. In these areas, El Paso is evaluating a
second technique of pumping foamed nitrogen
down casing to hydraulically fracture the coals
and place smaller proppant concentrations.
The complexity and variability in the Raton
basin make it extremely difcult to gauge the
success of fracture stimulation treatments in
well-performance terms. The search for the ideal
treatment continues, but it is generally agreed
that more information is needed on hydraulic
fracture propagation in and around coals.

Coalbed Completion Strategies

Coals often are adjacent to productive sands that
have dramatically different mechanical properties. Coal has a higher Poissons ratio and a lower
Youngs modulus than sand, so coals tend to
transfer overburden stress laterally and maintain
higher fracture gradients. Cleating and natural
fracturing in coals create complex hydraulic
fracturing scenarios that are extremely difcult
to model.23
21. The epithermal neutron measurement is based on the
slowing down of neutrons between a source and one or
more detectors that measure neutrons at the epithermal
level, where their energy is above that of the surrounding matter. In air-lled boreholes, the lack of hydrogen
dramatically changes the thermal neutron population
near the detectors, invalidating the response of a standard thermal neutron log. The epithermal measurement
is less affected by the borehole and by using an array of
back-shielded detectors, as in the APS Accelerator
Porosity Sonde device, can be calibrated to give porosity. Also, by measuring neutrons at the epithermal level,
the effects of thermal neutron absorbers are avoided.
22. Armstrong P, Ireson D, Chmela B, Dodds K, Esmersoy C,
Miller D, Hornby B, Sayers C, Schoenberg M, Leaney S
and Lynn H: The Promise of Elastic Anisotropy, Oileld
Review 6, no. 4 (October 1994): 3647.
23. Olsen et al, reference 4.

29

Flushed Zone
Resistivity
2

ohm-m

Pore Pressure
Gradient

2000

psi/ft

AIT Resistivity 90-in.

2

Caliper
6

in.

Depth, ft

mV

16 2

API

ohm-m

2000

AIT Resistivity 20-in.

20 2

Gamma Ray
0

2000

Water

ohm-m

2000

Sand
Coal

106 psi

ohm-m

2000

psi/ft

10

106 psi

Poissons Ratio
Static

Fracture Pressure

Youngs Modulus
Dynamic

Poissons Ratio
Dynamic

psi

Closure Stress

10

Bound Water Youngs Modulus

AIT Resistivity 10-in.
Static
Shale
106 psi

200 2

Fracture Gradient

Youngs Modulus
Dynamic

AIT Resistivity 60-in. Hydrocarbon 0

Spontaneous
Potential
-80

ohm-m

980

10 980

psi

2380

Closure Stress Averaged

psi

0.5

Poissons Ratio
Static

2380 0

0.5

X350

Stress in coal
is higher than in
surrounding layers

X400

> Stress contrast. Coals are typically more stressed than surrounding rocks (blue arrows). This
contrast inhibits fracture growth within the coals and promotes fracture growth in surrounding sands
and siltstones. Multiple fractures of limited length can also be created in the coals, causing damage to
coal permeability, slower dewatering and reduced gas production. Where adjacent sandstones have
productive potential, a technique called indirect vertical fracturing (IVF) initiates the fracture in the
less-stressed sands above or below the coal. This creates fractures of greater half-length, which
contact and drain the coal more effectively. Gamma ray and caliper data are shown in Track 1 and
resistivity data are displayed in Track 2. Lithology and volumetric information is shown in Track 3.
Track 4 contains Youngs modulus and pore pressure gradient data and Track 5 displays closure stress
and fracture pressure data zoned for input into hydraulic fracture design programs. Poissons ratio
data are presented in Track 6.

24. Almaguer J, Manrique J, Wickramasuriya S, Habbtar A,

Lpez-de-Crdenas J, May D, McNally AC and
Sulbarn A: Orienting Perforations in the Right Direction,
Oileld Review 14, no. 1 (Spring 2002): 1631.
Manrique JF, Poe BD Jr and England K: Production
Optimization and Practical Reservoir Management of
Coal Bed Methane Reservoirs, paper SPE 67315, presented at the SPE Production Operations Symposium,
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA, March 2629, 2001.
25. Palmer ID, Puri R and King GE: Damage to Coal
Permeability During Hydraulic Fracturing, paper SPE
21813, presented at the SPE Rocky Mountain Regional
Meeting and Low-Permeability Reservoirs Symposium,
Denver, Colorado, USA, April 1517, 1991.
26. Olsen et al, reference 4.
27. Gas lock is a condition sometimes encountered in a
pumping well when dissolved gas, released from solution
during the upstroke of the plunger, appears as free gas
between the valves. On the downstroke, pressure inside

30

a barrel completely lled with gas may never reach the

pressure needed to open the traveling valve. In the
upstroke, the pressure inside the barrel never decreases
enough for the standing valve to open and allow liquid to
enter the pump. Thus no uid enters or leaves the pump,
and the pump is locked. It does not cause equipment
failure, but with a nonfunctional pump, the pumping
system is useless. A decrease in pumping rate is accompanied by an increase of bottomhole pressure (or uid
level in the annulus). In many cases of gas lock, this
increase in bottomhole pressure can exceed the pressure
in the barrel and liquid can enter through the standing
valve. After a few strokes, enough liquid enters the pump
to break the gas lock, and the pump functions normally.
28. Schwochow, reference 2.
29. Albright J, Cassell B, Dangereld J, Deandre J-P,
Johnstad S and Withers R: Seismic Surveillance for
Monitoring Reservoir Changes, Oileld Review 6, no. 1
(January 1994): 414.

Devices such as the DSI tool help determine

accurate in-situ stress magnitudes and directions
to improve hydraulic fracturing designs. In addition, borehole images allow determination of the
preferred fracture plane, which reflects the
current stress conditions at the wellbore. This
information is used to devise perforation
strategies that maximize the efficiency of
hydraulic fracturing operations by reducing nearwellbore tortuosity effects that lead to early
screenout.24 The relationship between coal cleats
and horizontal stresses is equally important and
can help explain CBM production variations
between wells and between production areas.
The effectiveness of hydraulically fracturing
individual coals has been debated because of
these inherent complexities. Proppant volumes
used in coal stimulations can be as high as
12,000 lbm/ft [17,700 kg/m] of coal, but the
effective hydraulic fracture half-lengths are disappointingly lowrarely documented over 200 ft
[60 m]. Hydraulic fractures can grow out of zone
or develop into complex fracture networks within
the coal, often damaging coal permeability when
polymer-base fracturing uids are used.25
Some experts believe that CBM reserves
would triple if fracturing coals were as effective
as fracturing sandstones. Mechanical properties
from DSI data show the stress contrast between
coals and surrounding layers, enabling engineers to predict fracture height and improve
stimulation treatments (left). In areas where
adjacent sandstones have productive potential,
operators are reexamining their perforating and
stimulation strategies in coals and sandstones. A
technique called indirect vertical fracturing
(IVF) initiates the fracture in the less-stressed
sandstones above or below the coal to ensure
adequate fracture propagation.26 In coals, this
technique succeeds because the vertical
permeability of coal is frequently greater than its
horizontal permeability, reducing the need for a
hydraulic fracture to completely pass through
the coal to effectively drain it. Another reason for
the success of this technique in coals is due to
the contrast in fracture gradient between the
surrounding clastic rocks and the coal. This
difference helps ensure fracture connection with
the coal seam along the length of the hydraulic
fracture. This technique was rst demonstrated
in the Fruitland coal and Picture Cliff sands
of the San Juan basin in New Mexico and is
currently being employed successfully in the
central Rocky Mountains.

Oileld Review

Dewatering Methods
In a majority of CBM wells, water production is
crucial to the gas-production process. Successful
dewatering requires uninterrupted pumping
operations to decrease the bottomhole pressure
so gas will desorb from the matrix and diffuse
into the cleat systems as quickly as possible.
Pumping methods vary according to area lift
requirements and economics. Pumps must
handle large volumes of water and be resistant to
coal nes, proppant damage and gas lock.27 These
requirements have made progressing cavity
pump deployment one of the more attractive lift
methods for CBM applications. The selection and
design of an appropriate lift method often are not
straightforward and should focus on capacity,
efciency and dependability.
Schlumberger engineers and scientists at the
Abingdon Technology Center and Cambridge
Research Center in England are developing software to aid in articial-lift selection specic to
gas-well dewatering. The Gas Well Dewatering
Selection Tool (GDST) brings consistency to
this critical selection process by utilizing the
available well information to select the most
appropriate lift method. This software helps
Schlumberger eld engineers, interacting with
the clients, use a selection process based on
sound engineering practice. The tool provides a
case-based reasoning engine and sensitivity
analysis to obtain recommendations with
dened condence levels.
The economic drivers for CBM wells differ
from conventional gas wells in that most wells
will not require indenite or increased dewatering through time. The GDST program enables
the engineer to make several iterations to determine the best lift method. The program does not
provide for comparative economics of lift methods, although economic limitations of the proposed lift methods are considered in the
selection process. The tool is designed to aid in
the selection of lift methods, including those that
may not have been considered previously. (above
right). An optimal dewatering strategy, coupled
with nondamaging cementing and stimulation
techniques, helps expedite water movement out
of the coals fracture permeability network,
thereby increasing well productivity.
Gas for the Future
The exploitation of CBM resources is progressing
steadily. In the USA, natural gas prices have
made many areasfor example the Green River
region, Piceance basin, Arkoma basin and
Cherokee basinmore attractive for CBM
drilling, although some are not yet producing

Autumn 2003

Reservoir Information
Bottom Hole Flowing Pressure

270 psi

Bottom Hole Static Pressure

1,000 psi

Reservoir Temperature
Liquid Composition

275 F

Plunger Lift

>30% Condensates
Wellhead Compression

Production Information
Current Liquid Rate

250 bbl/D

Current Gas Rate (MMscfd)

>600

Production Tubing Size (OD in inches)

Up to 2-7/8

SandProduction

No

Velocity Strings
Siphon Strings
Foaming
Continuous Gas Lift

Well Head Pressure

150 psi

Intermittent GL Plunger

Sales Line Pressure

140 psi

Intermittent Chamber Lift

Well Depth

2,500 ft

Casing Size (OD in inches)

>4-1/2

Well Deviation

High

Requires Packer

Yes

Rod Pump
Hydraulic Jet Pump
ESP
PCP

Site Information
Electricity Available

No

Injection/compressed Gas Available

No

Comments
Sufficient Information entered
Confidence

> The Gas Well Dewatering Selection Tool (GDST) software. The GDST helps
Schlumberger eld engineers and clients select the most appropriate lift
method, using a consistent selection process. Length of dark blue bars on the
right indicates preferred dewatering methods.

signicant volumes of natural gas. Tremendous

CBM reserves in the US Gulf Coast region have
yet to be tapped, but CBM activity has started in
the Cook Inlet, Alaska, USA.28 Worldwide, many
countries have just started investigating their
CBM resources. Local activity will grow out of
necessity and out of the knowledge of how these
reservoirs behave.
Formation-evaluation methods, together with
fullbore core data, are helping the industry
understand coal reservoirs. Log processing techniques yield detailed lithology, and proximate
and permeability data. Cleat and fracture
systems are studied along with important
local stress information through the use of borehole imaging techniques to more thoroughly
appreciate coal-seam permeability.
Coal-seam permeability, controlled by events
that occurred during deposition, maturation and
tectonism, has surfaced as the most important
factor in CBM production. Coal fracture systems
must be connected successfully to the wellbore
through nondamaging stimulation methods.
However, complex stress profiles and coal
fracture systems make hydraulic fracture propagation in and around coals difcult to simulate.
New fracture-monitoring technology promises
real-time images of hydraulic fracture creation.
Early passive-seismic technologies performed
primitive hydraulic fracture monitoring, but

processing these data was tedious and timeconsuming, and did not provide real-time
information during fracturing operations.29 The
StimMAP hydraulic fracture stimulation diagnostics software allows real-time, onsite imaging of
hydraulic fracture seismic events, resulting in
improved job placement, enhanced well productivity and a better understanding of fracture
geometry for future eld-development decisions.
Although the industrys knowledge of coal is
vast and growing, modeling CBM reservoir behavior has been a challenging task. Schlumberger
has improved coal reservoir modeling capabilities in ECLIPSE Ofce integrated simulation
manager and case builder software. This new
software incorporates isotherm data and handles
uncertainties, and will have the capability to
manage multiple gas types.
The nature of CBM development demands
careful economic consideration. Low-cost solutions can help, but technological advances in
drilling, formation evaluation, completion, stimulation, production and reservoir modeling will
have a far greater impact. With immense worldwide reserves and a growing infrastructure to
exploit them economically, coal ranks high on
the short list of unconventional fuels awaiting
future development.
MG, JS

31

Turning Natural Gas to Liquid

Until recently, there were only two practical ways of transporting natural gas: ow it through a pipeline in
gaseous form or chill and transport it as liqueed natural gas (LNG). A third alternative, gas-to-liquid technology,
chemically converts natural gas into clean-burning liquid products that can be easily shipped to market.

> Sasol Synthetic Fuels, Secunda, South Africa. Sasol operates two such plants, applying gas-to-liquid (GTL) technology to convert
coal-derived natural gas to liquid fuels. (Photograph copyright of Sasol Limited.)

When it comes to describing natural gas, the numbers give new meaning to the word big. The worlds
proven gas reserves are estimated at an average of
5500 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) [156 trillion m3].1
Factoring in potential reserves brings the total to
about 13,000 Tcf [372 trillion m3].2 Adding reserves
from unconventional sources, like coalbed
methane, and highly speculative sources, like naturally occurring gas hydrates, gives a dizzying grand
total of about 700,000 Tcf [20,000 trillion m3].3

32

Of the proven and potential conventional gas

reserves, up to 80% are too far from large markets
to be transported by pipeline.4 Examples are the
large gas reserves in Qatar, Iran, the United Arab
Emirates, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Canada and
Alaska, USA, that await development of new transport technology to bring their reserves to market.
Some remote gas reserves are produced and
sent by pipeline to liqueed natural gas (LNG)

plants, where they are cooled to 162C

[259F], transferred to expensive insulated and
pressurized LNG vessels, and shipped to terminals where they are returned to their natural
gaseous state. From these terminals, the gas is
used to generate electricity or distributed by
pipeline for cooking, heating or industrial use.
Economic viability of the LNG method of
transportation depends on low-priced incoming

Oileld Review

30,000 B/D [4800 m3/d] at a third plant.8 It is this

aspect of GTL technology, the production of easily transportable liquid fuels from conventional
natural gas, that intrigues the worlds large oil
and gas companies.

> Shell GTL plant in Bintulu, Malaysia, in operation since 1993. Using a patented Shell process, the
Bintulu plant converts natural gas piped in from Sarawak to 12,500 B/D [1990 m3/d] of clean diesel,
kerosene and naphtha. (Photograph courtesy of Shell Chemicals Singapore.)

natural gas, cost-effective installation and

operation of liquefaction and condensation
infrastructure, affordable eets of specialized
vessels for transport, and high-priced gas at the
end market.
A different kind of technology for converting
hydrocarbon gas to hydrocarbon liquidcalled
gas-to-liquid (GTL)is on the verge of changing
the world of natural-gas transport and usage.
Many large oil and gas companies are developing
expertise in this promising business; a few
already have commercially operating plants, and
many have initiated pilot programs. This article
describes the GTL process, the way companies
are using it, and its potential benets.
Invention of Necessity
The GTL process, in which a chemical reaction
converts natural gas to liquid hydrocarbon
products, is not a new invention. Following
World War I, economic sanctions drove German
scientists to explore ways to synthesize liquid
petroleum from the countrys abundant coal
supplies. One of the successful methods, the
Fischer-Tropsch process, developed in 1923 by
Franz Fischer and Hans Tropsch at the KaiserWilhelm Institute for Coal Research in Mlheim,
Germany, converted methane obtained from
heated coal into high-quality diesel fuel,
lubricating oil and waxes (see Gas-to-Liquid
Chemistry, page 34). The diesel fuel burned
cleanly, producing emissions with negligible

Autumn 2003

particulates and sulfur content. By 1945, German

chemical companies had constructed nine
Fischer-Tropsch plants for generating clean,
synthetic liquid fuels.5
After World War II, several countries began
investigating the generation of synthetic fuels
based on the Fischer-Tropsch technique. The
German plants were disassembled and moved to
Russia, where they formed the foundation for
industrial efforts to produce waxes and chemicals.6 Amid concerns about future security of
hydrocarbon imports, work was begun in the USA
and South Africa to assess the efciency of the
Fischer-Tropsch reaction at different pressures
and temperatures, with different catalysts
iron, cobalt or nickel, and with different methods
for owing the gases and liquids through the
reactor. By 1953, one concept was put into
operation in South Africa, and since then, largely
driven by restrictions on oil imports, FischerTropsch fuels have met 36% of that countrys liquid-fuel needs.7
Today, South Africa is the worlds leading
producer of liquid fuel from natural gas. Sasol,
the countrys synthetic-fuel company, produces
about 160,000 B/D [25,400 m3/d] from coalderived gas at two huge plants near
Johannesburg, South Africa (previous page).
(For more information on coalbed methane, see
Producing Natural Gas from Coal, page 8.)
Using conventional natural gas piped in from
Mozambique, PetroSA produces an additional

Worldwide Interest in GTL

After the South African companies, Shell was the
rst, and so far, the only other oil and gas
company to operate a GTL plant to produce commercial fuels. After investigating the subject for
nearly 20 years, Shell opened a GTL plant in 1993
in Bintulu, Malaysia (left). With gas from elds
offshore Sarawak, the Bintulu plant produces
12,500 B/D [1990 m3/d] of clean diesel, kerosene
and naphtha using the patented Shell Middle
Distillate Synthesis (SMDS) process.9 Shell committed to test operations at the Bintulu plant
knowing that it would not be economic, but hoping to establish an early lead in GTL technology.
Today, service stations in Bangkok, Thailand, sell
synthetic diesel supplied by the Shell GTL plant
in Bintulu. In the summer of 2003, Volkswagen
launched a ve-month test of Shell GTL fuel in
Berlin, Germany. Further trials are planned in
the state of California, USA, and in London,
England and Tokyo, Japan.10
Shell has learned from its early investments in
Malaysia, and is considering several locations
Argentina, Australia, Egypt, Indonesia, Iran,
Malaysia, Qatar and Trinidadfor its rst large1. BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2003. London,
England: BP (June 2003): 20.
2. US Energy Information Administration, International
Energy Outlook, Report no. DOE/EIA-0484 (May 1, 2003),
http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/nat_gas.html
3. Kvenvolden K: Gas HydratesGeological Perspective
and Global Change, Reviews of Geophysics 31, no.2
(May 1993): 173187.
4. Estimates on the volume of stranded gas vary between
30% and 80% of proven and potential natural gas
reserves. For one estimate see: Thackeray F and Leckie G:
Stranded Gas: A Vital Resource, Petroleum Economist
(May 2002): 10.
5. Stranges AN: Germanys Synthetic Fuel Industry,
192745, presented at the American Institute of
Chemical Engineers Spring National Meeting, New
Orleans, Louisiana, USA, April 2, 2003.
6. Jager B: The Development of Commercial FischerTropsch Reactors, presented at the American Institute
of Chemical Engineers Spring National Meeting,
New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, April 2, 2003.
7. Energy Industry Critical to SA, http://www.safrica.info/
doing_business/economy/key_sectors/energy.htm
8. Cottrill A: Gas-to-Liquids Makes Move to Step Up a
League: World-Scale Proposals Start to Drive Forward,
Upstream (March 8, 2002): 26.
9. Stepping on the Gas, Shell Chemicals Magazine
(Spring 2003) http://www.shellchemicals.com/chemicals/
magazine/article/1,1261,116-gen_page_id=856,00.html
10. Watts P: Building BridgesFullling the Potential for
Gas in the 21st Century, speech delivered at the World
Gas Conference, Tokyo, Japan, June 3, 2003,
www.shell.com/static/mediaen/downloads/speeches/PBWwgc03062003.pdf

33

scale plant.11 The current plan is to build a plant

capable of producing 75,000 B/D [11,900 m3/d]
from 600,000 scf/D [17,200 m3] of gas feedstock
by 2007, and to commit to four such plants by the
end of 2010. Each plant could cost $1.5 billion.
Other companies have invested years of
research into gas-to-liquid technology, and may
complete their rst large-scale GTL plants before
Shell constructs its second-generation plants.
ChevronTexaco and Sasol have created a joint
venture to build a plant in Escravos, Nigeria,
with GTL production scheduled to begin in 2005
(right).12 Initial production will total 34,000 B/D
[5400 m3/d], but the plant may be expanded to
output 120,000 B/D [19,000 m3/d]. The joint venture expects to spend about $5 billion by 2010 on a
total of four GTL projects around the world.

> Visualization of GTL plant near the ChevronTexaco oil and gas facility at
Escravos, Nigeria, planned by the ChevronTexaco-Sasol joint venture.
Initial production of 34,000 B/D [5400 m3/d] is scheduled to begin in 2005
and may be expanded to 120,000 B/D [19,000 m3/d]. (Photograph copyright
of Sasol Limited.)

Gas-To-Liquid Chemistry

Converting gas to liquid using the FischerTropsch method is a multistep, energy-consuming process that takes apart molecules of
natural gas, predominantly methane, and
reassembles them into long-chain molecules.
The rst step requires input of oxygen [O2]
separated from air. The oxygen is blown into a
reactor to strip hydrogen atoms from the
methane [CH4]. The products are synthetic
hydrogen gas [H2] and carbon monoxide [CO],
sometimes called syngas (right).
The second step uses a catalyst to recombine the hydrogen and carbon monoxide into
liquid hydrocarbons.1 In the last stage, the
liquid hydrocarbons are converted and fractionated into products that can be used
immediately or blended with others. The most
well-known product is extremely pure diesel,
sometimes known as gasoil. Diesel from the
Fischer-Tropsch process, unlike diesel derived
from distillation of crude oil, has near-zero
sulfur- and nitrogen-oxide content, contains
virtually no aromatics, burns with little or no
particulate emissions, and has high cetane
value.2 Kerosene, ethanol and dimethyl ether

34

Air

Natural gas

Separation

Gas processing

Oxygen

Liquified petroleum gas (LPG)

Methane
O2

CH4
Diesel
CO

Gas synthesis

Fischer-Tropsch process
H2

Long-chain
liquid hydrocarbons

Cracking

Naphtha
Waxes

> Converting natural gas to liquid fuels. In the rst step, oxygen [O2] separated from air is blown
into a reactor with methane [CH4]. The products are synthetic gaseshydrogen [H2] and carbon
monoxide [CO]. These pass into a Fischer-Tropsch reactor where catalysts help reform the gases
into long-chain hydrocarbon molecules. The long-chain hydrocarbons are fed into a cracking unit
and fractionated into diesel or other liquid fuels, naphtha and waxes. Cracking uses heat and
pressure to decompose long-chain hydrocarbons and produce lighter hydrocarbons.

(DME) can also be produced. Another product

of the reaction is naphtha that is high in
parafn content. Waxes derived from GTL processes can be pure enough to use for food
packaging and cosmetics.
The GTL processes in operation today
convert 10,000 cubic feet [286 m3] of gas into
slightly more than 1 barrel [0.16 m3] of liquid
synthetic fuel.

1. A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a

reaction. The Fischer-Tropsch process typically uses
iron, cobalt or nickel catalysts.
2. Cetane is the diesel equivalent of octane, a measure
that quanties combustion in gasoline. Cetane index
measures the ignition qualities of diesel. A high number indicates higher quality and a cleaner burning fuel.
GTL diesels have a cetane index around 75, while
most diesels derived from distilled petroleum have a
cetane index between 42 and 51.

Oileld Review

Country

Company

Capacity, B/D

Australia

Sasol, ChevronTexaco

50,000

Australia

Shell

75,000

Bolivia

GTL Bolivia

Bolivia

Repsol YPF, Syntroleum

Egypt

Shell, EGPC

75,000

Indonesia

Pertamina, Rentech

16,000

Indonesia

Shell

75,000

Iran

Shell

75,000

Iran

Sasol

110,000

Nigeria

ChevronTexaco, Sasol, NNPC

34,000

Malaysia

Shell

12,500

Peru

Syntroleum

40,000

Qatar

Shell, QPC

Qatar

ExxonMobil, QPC

Qatar

Sasol, QPC

34,000

South Africa

PetroSA

30,000

United States

ANGTL

50,000

Venezuela

PDVSA

Total

10,000
103,500

75,000
100,000

15,000

> The ConocoPhillips GTL demonstration plant in Ponca City, Oklahoma, USA.
The plant was completed in March 2003, and is designed to convert 4 MMcf
[114,600 m3] per day of natural gas into 400 B/D [64 m3/d] of sulfur-free diesel
and naphtha. (Photograph copyright of ConocoPhillips.)

980,000

> Locations and estimated capacities of existing and potential

commercial GTL plants in operation by 2010. Pilot plants and
plants that convert coal-derived gas are not included. (Adapted
from LNG Center data at http://gmaiso.free.fr/lng/index.php3?
suj=gtl&page=gtlsearch and from Thackeray, reference 26.)

Leveraging catalyst and reactor research conducted by Conoco parent company DuPont,
ConocoPhillips has made rapid advances in GTL
technology. Since 1997, ConocoPhillips has
designed, manufactured and tested more than
5000 catalysts for gas-synthesis Fischer-Tropsch
processes. The company completed a GTL demonstration plant in 2003 in Ponca City, Oklahoma,
USA (above right). The plant will convert 4 MMcf
[114,600 m3] per day of natural gas into 400 B/D
[64 m3/d] of sulfur-free diesel and naphtha.13
BP has produced its rst synthetic oil from an
$86 million GTL test plant in Nikiski, near Kenai,
Alaska, USA (right).14 The BP plant, designed to
produce 250 B/D [40 m3/d], is testing a more
compact gas-reformer design than the designs
Sasol and Shell are currently operating in South
Africa and Malaysia. The new reformer is about
one-fortieth the size of reformers in use at other
GTL plants. If the compact GTL technologies
being tested in Alaska are successful, BP will
consider using them to develop stranded natural
gas reserves worldwide.
ExxonMobil Corp. has invested $400 million in
GTL research since 1981 and has a commercial
test plant at the ExxonMobil renery in Baton
Rouge, Louisiana, USA.15 The company is carrying
out a technical feasibility study for a large-scale
plant in Qatar that could convert the reserves of

Autumn 2003

> BP GTL test plant in Nikiski, near Kenai, Alaska, USA. The plant produced
its rst synthetic oil in July 2003. BP plans to produce about 250 barrels per
day [40 m3/d] in a program that is planned to last 6 to 12 months. (Photograph
courtesy of Eagle Eye Helicopter.)

the North eld at a rate of 75,000 B/D. The North

eld is the largest natural-gas eld in the world,
and ExxonMobil is one of several companies interested in developing GTL plants to help exploit it.
Qatar could soon become home to several plants
capable of generating more than 200,000 B/D
[31,800 m3/d] of synthetic fuels (above left).
Japan, lacking domestic petroleum
resources, has long had an interest in synthetic
fuels. Japanese research on synthetic fuels began
in the 1920s, only a few years after Fischer and
Tropsch invented their successful technique. The
Japanese conducted laboratory research on the
Fischer-Tropsch conversion processes, but in
their haste to construct large synthetic-fuel

11. Cottrill A: GTL Seeking Its Big Break into Stardom,

Upstream (March 8, 2002): 24.
Snieckus D: Shell Considers Gas-to-Liquid Plant in
Egypt, Middle East Times, http://www.metimes.com/
2K/issue2000-41/bus/shell_considers_gas.htm
12. NNPC and Chevron Sign Agreements on Escravos Gas
Project-3 and Escravos Gas-to-Liquids Project,
http://www.chevrontexaco.com/news/archive/chevron_
press/2001/2001-08-22.asp (August 22, 2001).
13. Conoco Gas Solutions Offers New GTL Technology for
Economic Development of Stranded Gas Reserves,
http://www.conoco.com/pa/special/gtl.asp (2002).
14. Bradner T: BPs GTL Test Plant Begins Production,
Alaska Oil and Gas Reporter (August 12, 2003).
Font Freide J, Gamlin T and Ashley M: The Ultimate
Clean FuelGas-to-Liquid Products, Hydrocarbon
Processing (February 2003): 5258.
15. Qatar Petroleum and ExxonMobil Sign Letter of Intent
for GTL Project, June 15, 2001, http://www.exxonmobil.
com/Corporate/Newsroom/Newsreleases/corp_xom_nr_
150601.asp
Cottrill, reference 11: 24.
Bradner, reference 14.

35

> Flaring during well testing of a discovery well in the Gulf of Mexico (inset). Worldwide, the industry ares
or vents 2 Tcf [57 billion m3] of gas per year. GTL technology may offer ways to bring to market gas that is
currently ared or vented. (Photographs courtesy of Energy Data Solutions, LLC, www.ocsbbs.com)

plants, they bypassed the pilot-plant stage, and

were unable to advance to large-scale production
in those early years.16
Early failure has been replaced by recent success. The Japan National Oil Corporation (JNOC)
announced late in 2002 that its venture with ve
private Japanese companies successfully produced the countrys first manufactured GTL
products at their pilot plant in Yufutsu,
Tomakomai-City, Hokkaido, Japan.17 The construction of the pilot plant began in July 2001
and nished in March 2002; the rst GTL products were produced in November 2002. Pilotplant operation, with a maximum liquid-fuel
production capacity of 1.1 m3/d [6.9 B/D] will
continue through 2003, allowing engineers to
evaluate the basic design for commercialization.
JNOC and Pertamina, an Indonesia state oil and
gas enterprise, have been conducting a joint
feasibility study on the applicability of the
Japanese GTL technology to development of gas
elds in Indonesia.
The Russian Federation has discovered natural-gas reserves of around 48.5 trillion m3
[1690 Tcf].18 However, production from their
major gas elds is declining, and the remaining
90% of reserves lie in East and West Siberia, the
Arctic shelf and the Russian Far East. These

36

regions are too remote to access existing Russian

gas-transmission networks.
After searching over the last decade for gastransportation alternatives to pipelines, Russias
Gazprom, the worlds largest gas company,
announced in March 2003 that it would begin
preliminary analysis into building a GTL industry
in Russia.19 An agreement between the Gazprom
research and development afliate, VNIIGAZ,
and Syntroleum Corporation, based in Tulsa,
Oklahoma, outlines a study of 12 locations
16. Stranges AN: Synthetic Fuel Production in Prewar and
World War II Japan: A Case Study in Technological
Failure, presented at the American Institute of Chemical
Engineers Spring National Meeting, New Orleans,
Louisiana, USA, April 2, 2003.
17. Japan National Oil Corporation Succeeded in
Producing First GTL Products in Japan, Press release
November 29, 2002, http://www.jnoc.go.jp/english/
news/pdf/2002/021129.pdf
18. US Energy Information Administration, International
Energy Outlook (May 1, 2003),
http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/nat_gas.html
19. Syntroleum to Support Effort to Build GTL Industry
in Russia, Press release March 27, 2003,
www.syntroleum.com
20. ICRC Leads Gas-to-Liquid Ultra-Clean Fuels Project
Team, June 1, 2001, http://www.icrc-hq.com/prnetl.htm
21. Freerks R: Early Efforts to Upgrade Fischer-Tropsch
Reaction Products into Fuels, Lubricants, and Useful
Materials, presented at the American Institute of
Chemical Engineers Spring National Meeting,
New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, April 2, 2003.

throughout the Russian Federation as potential

GTL sites. The GTL plants would use Syntroleum
technology to produce low-viscosity arctic-grade
diesel, petrochemical feedstock and specialty
lubricants. Plant capacities designed by
Syntroleum could handle gas input rates from
1 billion m3 [34.9 Bcf] per year to 10 billion m3
[349 Bcf] per year.
Another project involving Syntroleum
Corporations GTL technology was recently
announced by the United States Department of
Energy (DOE) to tap stranded gas reserves on
the North Slope of Alaska, USA.20 Converted gas
from Alaskas North Slope could be transported
through the underutilized Trans-Alaska Pipeline
System. The pipeline currently carries crude oil
from the giant Prudhoe Bay eld on the North
Slope to Valdez, Alaska, for tanker shipment.
Production from Prudhoe Bay eld is declining at
a rate of about 10 to 12% per year. Even with additional oil from new elds, pipeline ow will eventually fall below the minimum volume needed for
economic operation.
The focus of the DOE project is to demonstrate the feasibility of using a compact GTL
plant to convert natural gas into ultraclean
diesel fuel for use in vehicles. The project
team will include experts from Syntroleum
Corporation, Marathon, the University of Alaska,
Daimler-Chrysler Corporation, West Virginia
University, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Sloan Automotive Laboratory and
A.D. Little. After building and operating a GTL
plant of sufcient size to prove the technology on
a commercial scale, the team will then evaluate
the produced fuel in existing and next-generation diesel engines, and in laboratory research
engines focused on future engine and emissioncontrol technologies.
22. For more on the greenhouse effect: Cannell M, Filas J,
Harries J, Jenkins G, Parry M, Rutter P, Sonneland L and
Walker J: "Global Warming and the E&P Industry,"
Oileld Review 13, no. 3 (Autumn 2001): 4459.
23. US Environmental Protection Agency press release
(February 28, 2001),
http://www.epa.gov/otaq/regs/hd2007/frm/nal-pr.pdf
24. Browne J: The Strategic Role of Gas, speech delivered
at the World Gas Conference Tokyo, Japan, June 2, 2003,
http://www.bp.com
25. Global Gas Flaring Reduction,
http://www.worldbank.org/ogmc/global_gas.htm
26. Thackeray F: GTL in 2007, Petroleum Review (January
2003): 1819.
27. Thackeray, reference 26: 1819.
28. Bradner T: BP to Produce Its First Barrels of GTL by
April, Alaska Oil & Gas Reporter (March 6, 2002),
http://www.oilandgasreporter.com/stories/030602/
nat_gtl_april.shtml

Oileld Review

GTL Benets the Environment

Converting natural gas to liquid fuel benets the
environment in two ways. First, the resulting
liquid hydrocarbons are pure and burn cleanly.
They are colorless, odorless and low in toxicity.
Second, converting gas to liquid allows producers
to transport and market associated gas that
would otherwise be ared into the atmosphere.
The clean-burning properties of diesel
derived from converted natural gas were recognized as soon as Fischer and Tropsch tested their
synthesized liquid fuel. Their synthetic diesel
burned with negligible emissions and was preferred over petroleum-based diesels for powering
underground motors.21 Liquid fuels distilled from
crude petroleum typically contain sulfur, nitrogen, aromatic compounds and other impurities.
When burned, these crude-based fuels emit
carbon monoxide, sulfur- and nitrogen-oxides
and particulates, all of which contribute to air
pollution and the greenhouse effect.22
Concerns over the environmental effects of
fossil-fuel combustion have led global organizations to encourage efforts to reduce industry- and
transportation-related emissions. Several countries now have legislated goals to improve the
quality of fuel used for transportation. For example, the US Environmental Protection Agency has
implemented rules that require reneries to
reduce sulfur content in diesel fuel by 97% [from
500 parts per million (ppm) to 15 ppm].23 These
regulations will be phased in starting in 2006 and
will be fully required by 2009. Japan, Australia
and the European Union are also introducing
stricter standards to take effect in 2006.
The high purity and low sulfur content of GTL
synthetic fuels surpass the stringent requirements set for sulfur standards of the future.
Products of GTL conversion can be blended with
crude distillates of higher sulfur content to yield
fuels that comply with current and future environmental specications.
Further environmental benets of GTL conversion come from facilitating production and
transportation of associated gas that is normally
ared (previous page). Worldwide, the industry
ares or vents 2 Tcf [57 billion m3] of gas per
year.24 When allowed, operators are produced
gas if their elds surface facilities are designed
solely for oil production or if the gas cannot be
reinjected. However, flaring wastes natural
resources and contributes to air pollution.

Autumn 2003

Reducing the amount of gas ared requires

curbing gas production, which is linked to oil
production. For many elds with associated gas,
strict limits on gas production translate into
limits on oil production that can eventually make
oil production uneconomic.
The World Bank has formed the Global Gas
Flaring Reduction (GGFR) Partnership to
encourage flaring-reduction initiatives.25 The
partnership, made up of the Bank, oil companies
and governments, includes Shell, BP,
ChevronTexaco, Total, Sonatrach of Algeria, and
the governments of Angola, Cameroon, Ecuador,
Nigeria, Norway and the USA. Several other organizations are considering becoming members.
The GGFR works with countries and company
stakeholders to identify activities that could
overcome the barriers that currently inhibit aring-reduction investments.
To reduce aring of associated gas without
jeopardizing oil production requires solutions for
transporting gas from remote, and usually, offshore, locations. This is where GTL conversion
promises to make a big difference, once the industry can build conversion plants that are small
enough to install on oating platforms or vessels.
Challenges in Size and Cost
Before GTL conversion can become more
widespread, certain technological challenges
must be overcome, such as the size, cost and
efciency of GTL plants. The few gas-to-liquid
plants in operation today are colossal facilities
that cover large areas and require input gas
reserves of about 1.3 Tcf [37.2 billion m3] at a low
cost over the course of 20 years of operation to
remain economically attractive. The reforming
units that are the basis of plant operations are
massive and need to be constructed on site.
Companies are testing concepts of smaller
plants in the hopes of developing compact
facilities that can be installed in remote locations or placed on oating structures to exploit
stranded and associated gas reserves offshore.
One company, Rentech, is concentrating on
developing technology aimed at small-scale
projects from 5000 to 16,000 B/D [800 to
2500 m3/d]. The company has announced studies
for two such projects, one in Bolivia for
10,000 B/D [1580 m3/d] and one with Pertamina
in Indonesia for 16,000 B/D.26 Rentech has also
announced interest in applying its GTL technology to oating production systems, but no such
systems have yet been built. Some companies are

investigating even more compact systems that

generate as little as 25 B/D [4 m3/d] of liquids.
Physical size is not the only factor limiting the
construction of new GTL plants. Capital investment for installation of new plants comparable to
that of the large operations in South Africa is
prohibitively high, ranging from $27,000 to
$50,000 per B/D of liquid fuel produced. Smaller
scale plants are less expensive to build. The
34,000-B/D Sasol plant planned for Qatar is
estimated to cost between $20,000 and $25,000
per B/D.27 BP hopes the compact reformer being
tested in Alaska will reduce costs to about
$20,000 per barrel of daily production, and then
with further improvements, to $17,000low
enough to compete with new LNG projects.28 At
around $11,000 per B/D, GTL projects could
compete with new crude-oil reneries.
Compact reformers may be one way to cut
GTL costs, but other efforts also are underway to
make the conversion process more efcient. The
rst step in the current process requires oxygen
to combine with natural gas. Separating oxygen
from air is one of the more costly steps in the
GTL process. Scientists are exploring new
avenues in air-oxygen separation, including new
ceramic membranes. Preliminary research
shows that some ceramic membranes selectively
allow oxygen ions to pass while excluding other
air components. Costs of GTL conversion could
be reduced by as much as 25% with ceramicmembrane technology, depending upon conversion plant conguration.
Improving upon the Fischer-Tropsch process
itself is one more focus of current GTL research.
The multistep Fischer-Tropsch process first
converts methane to synthetic gas, then converts
the synthetic gas into liquid hydrocarbons.
Scientists at Petroleum Energy and
Environmental Research (PEER) and at the
Molecular Process and Simulation Center
(MSC), both at the California Institute of
Technology (CalTech), Pasadena, California, are
trying to nd a single-step process that will convert natural gas directly into liquid hydrocarbons. They propose to combine theory, modeling
and experiments to devise a direct conversion
process. A single-step process could solve many
of the problems that currently keep GTL from
being economically viable.
LS

37

Refracturing Works

Applicable in gas or oil wells, fracture restimulations bypass near-wellbore damage, reestablish good
connectivity with the reservoir and tap areas with higher pore pressure. An initial period of production
also can alter formation stresses, resulting in better vertical containment and more lateral extension
during hydraulic fracturing, and may even allow the new fracture to reorient along a different azimuth.
As a result, refracturing often restores well productivity to near original or even higher rates.

George Dozier
Houston, Texas, USA
Jack Elbel
Consultant
Dallas, Texas
Eugene Fielder
Devon Energy
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA
Ren Hoover
Fort Worth, Texas
Stephen Lemp
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
Scott Reeves
Advanced Resources International
Houston, Texas
Eduard Siebrits
Sugar Land, Texas
Del Wisler
Kerr-McGee Corporation
Houston, Texas
Steve Wolhart
Pinnacle Technologies
Houston, Texas

38

The potential benefits of refracturing have

intrigued oil and gas operators for more than
50 years. Most intriguing is that, under certain
conditions, this technique restores or increases
well productivity, often yielding additional
reserves by improving hydrocarbon recovery. The
approximately 70,000 new wells that are drilled
annually represent only about 7 to 8% of the
total number of producing wells worldwide.1
Therefore, getting the most output from the
more than 830,000 previously completed wells is
essential for field development, production
enhancement and reservoir management. Even
modest production increases from a portion of
the vast number of existing wells represent significant incremental reserve volumes. Refracturing
is one means of accomplishing this objective.
More than 30% of fracturing treatments are
performed on older wells. Many are completions
of new intervals; others represent treatments on
producing zones that were not fractured initially
or a combination of new intervals and previously
understimulated or unstimulated zones. An
increasing number of jobs, however, involve
refracturing previously stimulated intervals after
an initial period of production, reservoir-pressure
drawdown and partial depletion. These types of
restimulations are effective in low-permeability,
naturally fractured, laminated and heterogeneous formations, especially gas reservoirs.

If an original fracturing treatment was inadequate or an existing proppant pack becomes

damaged or deteriorates over time, fracturing
the well again reestablishes linear ow into the
wellbore. Refracturing can generate higher conductivity propped fractures that may penetrate
deeper into a formation than the initial treatment. But not all restimulations are remedial
treatments to restore productivity; some wells
that produce at relatively high rates also may be
good candidates for refracturing. In fact, the
better wells in a field often have the highest
restimulation potential.2
Wells with an effective initial treatment also
can be retreated to create a new fracture that
propagates along a different azimuth than the
original fracture. In formations with lower
permeability in a direction perpendicular to the
original fracture, a reoriented fracture exposes
more of the higher matrix permeability. In these
cases, refracturing significantly improves well
production, and supplements infill drilling.
For this reason, operators should consider
restimulation during the field-development
planning process.
Many companies, however, are reluctant to
retreat wells that produce at reasonably economic rates. The tendency is not to refracture
any wells, or to restimulate only poorly performing wells. This lack of condence and the negative

For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Curtis Boney,

Leo Burdylo, Chris Hopkins and Lee Ramsey, Sugar Land,
Texas, USA; Phil Duda, Midland, Texas; Chad Gutor, formerly
with Enerplus, Calgary, Alberta, Canada; Stephen Holditch
and Valerie Jochen, College Station, Texas; and Jim Troyer,
Enerplus, Calgary, Canada.

CoilFRAC, DSI (Dipole Shear Sonic Imager), FMI (Fullbore

Formation MicroImager), FracCADE, InterACT, Moving
Domain, NODAL, ProCADE and StimMAP are marks of
Schlumberger.

Oileld Review

2003

1993

preconceptions about refracturing are changing

because of a better understanding of refracturing
mechanics and the favorable results reported by
companies that apply this technique regularly.
To be successful, refracturing treatments
must create a longer or more conductive
propped fracture, or expose more net pay to the
wellbore compared with existing well conditions
prior to restimulation. Accomplishing these
objectives requires knowledge of reservoir and
well conditions to understand why restimulations succeed and to improve future treatments
based on experience. Quantifying average reservoir pressure, permeability-thickness product,
and effective fracture length and conductivity
both before and after refracturing allows engineers to determine the reasons for poor well
performance before new treatments and the
causes of restimulation success or failure.

Autumn 2003

Improved diagnostic techniques, such as

short shut-in time well tests, help determine the
current stimulation condition of a well and
verify refracturing potential. Advances in
fracture modeling, design and analysis software
also have contributed signicantly to restimulation success during the past ten years, as have
better candidate selection, innovative stimulation fluids, improved proppants and proppant
owback control.
This article presents results from a twoyear refracturing study and subsequent field
trials. We also discuss reasons for restimulation
success, including candidate-selection methods
and criteria, causes of underperformance in
fracture-stimulated wells, formation-stress reorientation and treatment-design considerations.
Recent examples from the USA and Canada
demonstrate refracturing implementation and
productivity improvement.

1. International Outlook: World Trends, World Oil 224,

no. 8 (August 2003): 2325.
2. Niemeyer BL and Reinart MR: Hydraulic Fracturing of a
Moderate Permeability Reservoir, Kuparuk River Unit,
paper SPE 15507, presented at the SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA,
October 58, 1986.
Pearson CM, Bond AJ, Eck ME and Lynch KW: Optimal
Fracture Stimulation of a Moderate Permeability
Reservoir, Kuparuk River Unit, Alaska, paper SPE 20707,
presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference
and Exhibition, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA,
September 2326, 1990.
Reimers DR and Clausen RA: High-Permeability
Fracturing at Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, paper SPE 22835,
presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition, Dallas, Texas, USA, October 69, 1991.

39

reservoirs in the Michigan and Appalachian

regions as well as conventional sandstone (CS)
and conventional carbonate (CC) formations
in the San Juan basin and areas of the midcontinent and Texas.
The 1996 GTI work concluded that documented refracturing treatments had yielded
incremental reserves at about $0.10/Mcf to
$0.20/Mcf, much less than the average costs for
acquiring or for finding and developing gas
reserves of $0.54/Mcf and $0.75/Mcf, respectively. Despite the potential economic benets,
operators remained reluctant to refracture
wells. Poor candidate selections appeared to be
the main reason for lack of restimulation
success and acceptance among operators.
In response, GTI funded another project in
1998 to develop specialized restimulation technology and analysis techniques. The need for
this project was underscored by anecdotal observations from the 1996 investigation that 85% of
refracturing potential in a given field exists in
about 15% of the wells. Identifying these top
candidates is crucial to restimulation success.
However, operators often perceive comprehensive eld-wide studies to be too costly in terms
of money and manpower for companies operating unconventional reservoirs, especially when
gas prices are low.

A Multiple-Basin Evaluation
Some operators report disappointing results
when refracturing previously stimulated wells,
despite documented successes in individual
wells and several field-wide restimulation
efforts.3 However, recent research, subsequent
field trials and the ongoing refracturing
programs of a few operators still attract
considerable interest and attention within the
oil and gas industry.
In 1996, the Gas Research Institute (GRI),
now Gas Technology Institute (GTI), began
investigating fracture restimulation as a low-cost
means of enhancing gas production and adding
recoverable reserves. This preliminary evaluation identified significant onshore gas
potentialconservatively more than 10 Tcf
[286.4 billion m3] of incremental reservesin
the USA, excluding Alaska (below).
These additional gas reserves are located in
the Rocky Mountain, Midcontinent, East Texas
and South Texas regions, primary in lowpermeability, or tight-gas, sandstones (TGS)
and in other unconventional reservoirs that
include gas shales (GS) and coalbed methane
(CBM) deposits (see Producing Natural Gas
from Coal, page 8). Other areas of the USA with
refracturing potential include unconventional

Michigan

Green River

GS

Denver-Julesburg
TGS
TGS

San Juan
CS, TGS, CBM

CS
Hugoton
TGS
CC
Permian
Delaware

Conventional sands (CS)

Conventional carbonates (CC)
Tight-gas sands (TGS)
Coalbed methane (CBM)
Gas shales (GS)

CC

Appalachian

USA

Piceance
TGS

CC

Val Verde
TGS

TGS
GS

Anadarko
Barnett Shale
GS

Black Warrior
CBM

CS East Texas
TGS

South Texas
TGS

400

800

1200

250

500

750

1600 km
1000 miles

> Areas with refracturing potential in the USA. The 1996 Gas Technology Institute (GTI) restimulation
investigation evaluated a wide range of gas reservoirs, including conventional sandstone and carbonate formations, tight-gas sands, gas shales and coalbed methane deposits. This evaluation focused
on conventional gas-producing provinces with cumulative production greater than 5 Tcf [143.2 billion
m3] for further evaluation. Higher production implied high numbers of older wells and more refracturing opportunities. The study also identied tight-gas sand areas with an estimated ultimate recovery
(EUR) greater than 1 Tcf [28.6 billion m3] and the largest gas shale and coalbed methane developments, but did not include offshore developments with limited production and recovery information.

40

3. Parrot DI and Long MG: A Case History of Massive

Hydraulic Refracturing in the Tight Muddy J
Formation, paper SPE 7936, presented at the SPE
Symposium on Low-Permeability Gas Reservoirs,
Denver, Colorado, USA, May 2022, 1979.
Conway MW, McMechan DE, McGowen JM,
Brown D, Chisholm PT and Venditto JJ: Expanding
Recoverable Reserves Through Refracturing, paper
SPE 14376, presented at the SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA,
September 2225, 1985.
Hunter JC: A Case History of Refracs in the Oak Hill
(Cotton Valley) Field, paper SPE 14655, presented at the
SPE East Texas Regional Meeting, Tyler, Texas, USA,
April 2122, 1986.
Olson KE: A Case Study of Hydraulically Refractured
Wells in the Devonian Formation, Crane County, Texas,
paper SPE 22834, presented at the SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, Texas, USA,
October 69, 1991.
Fleming ME: Successful Refracturing in the North
Westbrook Unit, paper SPE 24011, presented at the
SPE Permian Basin Oil and Gas Recovery Conference,
Midland, Texas, USA, March 1820, 1992.
Hejl KA: High-Rate Refracturing: Optimization and
Performance in a CO2 Flood, paper SPE 24346, presented
at the SPE Rocky Mountain Regional Meeting, Casper,
Wyoming, USA, May 1821, 1992.
Pospisil G, Lynch KW, Pearson CM and Rugen JA:
Results of a Large-Scale Refracture Stimulation
Program, Kuparuk River Unit, Alaska, paper SPE 24857,
presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition, Washington, DC, USA, October 47, 1992.
Hunter JL, Leonard RS, Andrus DG, Tschirhart LR and
Daigle JA: Cotton Valley Production Enhancement Team
Points Way to Full Gas Production Potential, paper
SPE 24887, presented at the SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, Washington, DC, USA,
October 47, 1992.
Reese JL, Britt LK and Jones JR: Selecting Economic
Refracturing Candidates, paper SPE 28490, presented at
the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, September 2528, 1994.
Fengjiang W, Yunhong D and Yong L: A Study of
Refracturing in Low Permeability Reservoirs, paper
SPE 50912, presented at the SPE International Oil &
Gas Conference and Exhibition, Beijing, China,
November 26, 1998.
4. Type curves help interpret transient-pressure buildup
tests that differ from conventional semilog, or Horner,
analysis radial-ow behavior. Type curves are groups of
paired pressure changes and their derivatives generated
from analytical solutions of the diffusion equation with
strategically dened boundary conditions. Near-well
boundary conditions include constant or variable wellbore storage, partial reservoir penetration, composite
radial damage or altered permeability, and propped
hydraulic fractures. Borehole trajectory can be vertical,
angled, or horizontal. Distant boundary conditions include
sealing or partially sealing faults, intersecting faults and
sealing or constant-pressure rectangular boundaries.
The diffusion equation can be adjusted to accommodate
reservoir heterogeneity, such as dual porosity or layering. Commercial software generates type-curve families
that account for superposition in time due to ow-rate
variations before and even during transient-pressure
data acquisition. Automated regression analysis can
match acquired data with a specic type curve.
5. Reeves SR, Hill DG, Tiner RL, Bastian PA, Conway MW
and Mohaghegh S: Restimulation of Tight Gas Sand
Wells in the Rocky Mountain Region, paper SPE 55627,
presented at the SPE Rocky Mountain Regional Meeting,
Gillette, Wyoming, USA, May 1518, 1999.
Reeves SR, Hill DG, Hopkins CW, Conway MW, Tiner RL
and Mohaghegh S: Restimulation Technology for Tight
Gas Sand Wells, paper SPE 56482, presented at the SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Houston,
Texas, USA, October 36, 1999.

Oileld Review

High
Type curves
Interpretation requirements

Project participants, including Advanced

Resources International, Schlumberger,
Intelligent Solutions, Ely and Associates,
Stim-Lab and Pinnacle Technologies, believed
that developing an effective methodology to
identify wells with restimulation potential was
one way to expand refracturing applications.
There were three other objectives: demonstrate
productivity enhancement and recovery
improvement from refracturing, identify reasons
for underperformance in previously fractured
wells, and evaluate new fracturing techniques
and technology.
The 1998 GTI study evaluated three methods
for identifying refracturing potential that were
then tested in different types of reservoirs.
These candidate-selection methods included
production statistics, pattern-recognition technologyspecifically neural networks, virtual
intelligence and fuzzy logicand production
type curves (right).4
All three methods were used to select restimulation candidates at eld locations with at least
200 to 300 wells.5 Three sites in the USAGreen
River basin, Wyoming, USA; East Texas basin,
Texas; and Piceance basin, Colorado, USA
were chosen and actively evaluated (below): A
fourth site in South Texas was identied, but not
pursued during the GTI project. Subsequent

e
Tim

and

t
cos

se

rea

inc

Virtual intelligence
Production statistics

Low
Low

Data requirements

High

> Candidate-selection methods. The GTI project developed a methodology for

identifying wells with restimulation potential that used production statistics,
virtual intelligence and production type curves. By design, these techniques
progressed from a simple, nonanalytical statistical approach with minimal
data requirements to detailed engineering analyses requiring increasingly
comprehensive data.

reservoir studies, however, have generated

recent refracturing activity in this area (see
Production-Enhancement Evaluation, page 52).
Of the nine wells eventually treated at the
three active project sites, eight were refracturing

treatments and one was an attempted damageremoval treatment. As the project

progressed, treatment designs trended away
from high-viscosity polymer-base systems to
fracturing fluids with lower and lower gel concentrations, or slick water. Most treatments

Green River basin GTI site

East Texas basin GTI site

Piceance basin GTI site

Operator:
Enron Oil and Gas, now EOG resources.

Operator:
Union Pacific Resources Company (UPRC), now
Anadarko Petroleum Corporation.

Operator:
Barrett Resources, now Williams Company.

Formation:
Upper Cretaceous Frontier.

Formation:
Cotton Valley.

Formation:
Mesaverde group, Upper Cretaceous Williams Fork.

Location:
Big Piney/LaBarge complex, northern Moxa Arch area,
southwestern Wyoming, USA.

Location:
Carthage Gas Unit (CGU) field near
Carthage, Panola County, Texas, USA.

Location:
Parachute and Grand Valley fields near Rulison,
Garfield County, Colorado, USA.

Deposition:
Marine sandstones, primarily rivers and streams, or
fluvial and distal shore zones.

Deposition:
Complex marine sandstones, primarily barrier reef and
tidal zone.

Deposition:
Marine sandstones, primarily fluvial and marsh,
or paludal.

Reservoir:
Tight-gas sands with permeability of 0.0005 to 0.1 mD
in up to four productive horizons, consisting of as many
as eight separate intervals, or benches.

Reservoir:
Heterogeneous, highly laminated and compartmentalized
tight-gas sands with permeability of 0.05 to 0.2 mD.

Reservoir:
Compartmentalized tight-gas sands with permeability
of 0.1 to 2 mD. Because of natural fractures, effective
permeability is 10 to 50 mD.

Initial completions:
One to three stages of a crosslinked guar fluid and
nitrogen foam with 100,000 to 500,000 lbm [45,359 to
226,796 kg] of proppant sand.

Initial completions:
Three to four stages of a crosslinked fluid and proppant
volumes of 1 to 4 million lbm [453,592 to 1,814,370 kg]
for an entire well; 1996 to present, UPR and Anadarko
used slick-water fluids with less than 250,000 lbm
[113,398 kg] of proppant.

Initial completions:
Two to five stages with proppant volumes of 50,000
to 650,000 lbm [22,680 to 294,835 kg] per stage.

GTI restimulations:
Three refracturing treatments and one gel-cleanup
treatment.

GTI restimulations:
Three refracturing treatments.

GTI restimulations:
Two refracturing treatments.

> The 1998 GTI restimulation study to evaluate refracturing candidate-selection methods at three USA test sites.

Autumn 2003

41

Site
field/basin

Well

Date

Incremental
recovery, MMcf

Treatment
cost, $

Reserve
cost, $/Mcf

Success/
failure

Big Piney
and LaBarge/
Green River

GRB 45-12
GRB 27-14
NLB 57-33
WSC 20-09

Jan. 1999
Jan. 1999
Apr. 1999
Jun. 2000

602
(186)
0
302

87,000
87,000
20,000
120,000

0.14
NA
NA
0.40

S
F
F
S

Rulison/
Piceance

Langstaff 1
RMV 55-20

Jun. 2000
Jun. 2000

282
75

50,000
70,000

0.18
0.93

S
F

Carthage/
East Texas

CGU 15-8
CGU 10-7
CGU 3-8

Nov. 1999
Jan. 2000
Jan. 2000

270
407
1100

100,000
100,000
100,000

0.37
0.25
0.09

S
S
S

2852

734,000

317

82,000

Total
Average
2864 m3/d

5727 m3/d

0.26
8590 m3/d

11,455 m3/d

450
CGU 3-8
RMV 55-20

Post-restimulation rate, Mcf/D

400

CGU 10-7

CGU 15-8

350
GRB 45-12
300
250
Langstaff 1

200

WSC 20-09
NLB 57-33

150
100
50

GRB 27-14
0
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Pre-restimulation rate, Mcf/D

> GTI eld-test results. Two of the four wells in the Frontier formation (Green River basin), all three of
the wells in the Cotton Valley formation (East Texas basin), and one of the two wells in the Williams
Fork formation (Piceance basin) were successful. Of the three unsuccessful treatments, one added
incremental reserves at a cost of $0.93/Mcf and two had mechanical or design problems. Of the latter
two, in one, the damage-removal treatment could not be pumped at the injection rate required to uidize the original proppant pack and remove suspected residual gel damage from the initial treatment;
the other failed to clean up because energized uids were not used as recommended in the GTI design.

included nitrogen [N2] or carbon dioxide [CO2]

to assist in post-stimulation cleanup, singlestage pumping schedules and ball sealers for
fluid diversion to reduce cost compared with
multistage treatments.
Standard decline-curve analysis determined
estimated ultimate recovery (EUR) for each
well; estimated treatment cost provided an
undiscounted cost of incremental reserve
additions. Costs for diagnostic tests conducted
for research purposes only were not included,

42

Excluding the damage-removal treatment

and the poorly designed treatment that did not
ow back, the six successful restimulations and
one uneconomic treatment added incremental
reserves at about $0.20/Mcf. This cost is closer to
the $0.10 to 0.20/Mcf range of past restimulations, even though post-treatment evaluations
indicated that a few pay zones in some of the
wells were not stimulated effectively. Even when
the three unsuccessful treatments are included,
this field trial was highly successful, yielding
additional reserves of 300 MMcf/well [8.6 million
m3/well] at an average cost of $81,600 per well.
There are about 200,000 unconventional gas
wells in low-permeability sands, coalbed
methane deposits and gas shales in the 48 contiguous states of the USA. At least 20%, or about
40,000 wells, could be potential restimulation
candidates. Extrapolating GTI results using the
average incremental recovery of 300 MMcf/well
yields 12 Tcf [343.6 billion m 3] of additional
reserves from refracturing. Companies operating
in the Green River and East Texas formations
continued to perform restimulation treatments
using knowledge gained from this study.

only actual expenses for treatment

implementation. The project team analyzed all
nine wells to better understand each candidateselection method.6
The team considered treatments generating
incremental reserves at a cost of less than
$0.50/Mcf as economic successes. On this basis,
six of the nine wells restimulated at the three
sites were successful (above). All nine wells
combined added 2.9 Bcf [83 million m3] of incremental reserves at a total cost of $734,000, or an
average reserve cost of $0.26/Mcf.

Candidate-Selection Methods
Overall, the GTI refracturing tests were successful, but did not definitively identify a single
candidate-selection method as most effective.
Each technique tends to select different wells
for different reasons that may all be valid,
depending on specific reservoir characteristics
(next page, top). Production statistics worked
reasonably well in the Piceance basin. Virtual
intelligence and pattern recognition worked
best in the Green River basin. Type curves were
most effective in the East Texas basin. Clearly,
additional evaluations were needed to validate
the effectiveness of each technique and to
advance refracturing acceptance.
A reservoir simulation of a hypothetical
tight-gas field was designed for this purpose.7
The objective of this study was to independently
test and validate candidate-selection methods
against the simulation model. Results from this
simulation confirmed that each candidateselection method being studied tended to yield
different candidates. And like the 1998 GTI
restimulation study, some wells were selected by
more than one of the methods. The virtual-intelligence method was generally most effective,
followed closely by type curves. With less efficiency than random selections, production
statistics alone were the least effective method.

Oileld Review

Site,
field/basin

Top 50 candidate-well ranking

Production
Virtual
statistics
intelligence

Success/
failure

Well

Type
curves

Big Piney
and LaBarge/
Green River

GRB 45-12
GRB 27-14
NLB 57-33
WSC 20-09

S
F
F
S

>50
>50
4
38

*15
*39
*>50
*2

>50
32
20
1

Rulison/
Piceance

Langstaff 1
RMV 55-20

S
F

1
43

>50
>50

>50
17

Carthage/
East Texas

CGU 15-8
CGU 3-8
CGU 10-7

S
S
S

>50
>50
4

>50
>50
26

11
7
40

*Revised analysis
Note: Bold italic numbers indicate correct classifications (true positive or true negative)

> Candidate-selection performance. Based on the economic criterion of adding incremental reserves
at less than $0.5/Mcf, the GTI study evaluated the capability of each candidate-selection method to
correctly select successful refracturing candidates or to not select unsuccessful candidates. This
determination was based on whether each method ranked a well among the top 50 candidates or
not. The three methodsproduction statistics, virtual intelligence and pattern recognition, and type
curvesidentied successful refracturing candidates or noncandidates in at least four of the nine
test wells, ve in the case of virtual intelligence. The three methods combined identied only two of
the ve successful treatments and none of the three unsuccessful wells.

Production statistics

Virtual intelligence

14
15
7

50
10

5
103
89

45

53

49
4
93
71

52

120

83

Type curves

6. Ely JW, Tiner R, Rothenberg M, Krupa A, McDougal F,

Conway M and Reeves S: Restimulation Program
Finds Success in Enhancing Recoverable Reserves,
paper SPE 63241, presented at the SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, Texas, USA,
October 14, 2000.
7. Reeves SR, Bastian PA, Spivey JP, Flumerfelt RW,
Mohaghegh S and Koperna GJ: Benchmarking of
Restimulation Candidate Selection Techniques in
Layered, Tight Gas Sand Formations Using Reservoir
Simulation, paper SPE 63096, presented at the SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas,
Texas, USA, October 14, 2000.

Autumn 2003

< Candidate selection from the GTI

reservoir-simulation study. The top
18 refracturing candidates represent 15% of the wells from the
reservoir stimulation. Virtual intelligence independently selected 10
of the 13 true candidate wells, the
most of any method. These 10
wells consisted of ve that were
uniquely selected by virtual intelligence, one well that was also
selected by production statistics,
two wells that were also selected
by type curves, and two wells that
were selected by all three techniques. The type-curve method
added three true candidate wells
to the combined selections, making the combined number of
correct selections between the virtual intelligence and type-curve
methods 13 out of 13. In practice,
however, no one knows in advance
which wells are true candidates.

8. Emrich C, Shaw D, Reasoner S and Ponto D: Codell

Restimulations Evolve to 200% Rate of Return, paper
SPE 67211, presented at the SPE Production and
Operations Symposium, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA,
March 2427, 2001.
Shaefer MT and Lytle DM: Fracturing Fluid Evolution
Plays a Major Role in Codell Refracturing Success,
paper SPE 71044, presented at the SPE Rocky Mountain
Petroleum Technology Conference, Keystone, Colorado,
USA, May 2123, 2001.
Sencenbaugh RN, Lytle DM, Birmingham TJ,
Simmons JC and Shaefer MT: Restimulating Tight Gas
Sand: Case Study of the Codell Formation, paper SPE
71045, presented at the SPE Rocky Mountain Petroleum
Technology Conference, Keystone, Colorado, USA,
May 2123, 2001.

The first stage of the 1998 GTI study and

results from this simulation provided valuable
insights into the effectiveness of each candidateselection methodology, but each technique
needed to be tested using real eld data. Rather
than establish a new database of restimulation
cases for this purpose, as was the original overall
project objective, participants in the 1998 GTI
study sought a eld with a history of restimulation activity and results. With an existing
dataset, the approach used for the simulator
study could be repeated in an actual eld setting
to evaluate each candidate-selection method.
As follow-up to the reservoir simulation, GTI
selected the Wattenburg eld to further evaluate
candidate selection methods using actual field
data. This tight-gas development, located north
of Denver, Colorado, on the western edge of the
Denver-Julesburg basin, was attractive because
more than 1500 area wells had been refractured
since 1977. Most of these treatments were economically successful.8
Patina Oil & Gas Corporation, a leading
operator in this basin, had performed about
400 fracture restimulations from 1997 through
2000, and agreed to participate. This allowed a
candidate-selection algorithm developed
independently by Patina to be used in addition to
the three GTI candidate-selection methods.
The methods were evaluated without disclosing beforehand those wells that had actually
responded favorably to restimulation. Afterward,
candidate selections were compared with actual
well performance. This approach allowed the
effectiveness of each method to be assessed.
Candidate selection using actual Wattenburg
field data confirmed previous GTI study and
reservoir-simulation results.
Prioritizing refracturing candidates provides
considerable value during restimulation
programs. In the absence of prior restimulation
results, both pattern recognition and type curves
are useful for selecting restimulation candidates; production statistics are less effective.
Virtual intelligence and other patternrecognition techniques, which use prior
refracturing data and results to learn from,
can further improve candidate selection and
restimulation success. The GTI field trials,
reservoir simulation and Wattenburg field
evaluation confirmed that the performance of
each candidate-selection method appeared to be
reservoir specic (bottom left).

43

Analysis of production statistics tends to

identify completions that underperform
compared with offset wells. Substandard performance could result from a poor quality reservoir,
but this method should be valid in fields with
relatively uniform reservoir quality and fairly
stable production.
Virtual-intelligence methods tend to select
wells that have less than optimal original
completions or stimulation procedures. Patternrecognition technologies should be applied
when reservoir, completion and stimulation
complexity is high.
Type curves tend to identify candidate wells
based solely on incremental production potential, and therefore, weights the better producing
wells in a eld more heavily. This method should
be used when production data quality is good and
petrophysical information is readily available.
The applicability of any candidate-selection
process should be assessed for each specific
area being evaluated. In effect, an ideal
methodology may combine several techniques.
The three efforts to evaluate candidate-selection
methods also indicated that nonanalytical
analyses, such as evaluating current producing
rate and estimated ultimate recovery to identify
underperforming wells, could be useful for
candidate selection in the absence of
other approaches.
A Field-Wide Evaluation
Prior to 1999, refracturing by Patina Oil & Gas
Corporation in the Wattenburg eld had primarily targeted underperforming wells and
completions that screened out prematurely or

had mechanical failures during the initial stimulation. When other operators began restimulating
their better producers with varying, but generally
encouraging results, Patina initiated a eld-wide
evaluation of refracturing potential.
The Wattenburg field produces mainly from
the Codell interval. This ne-grained sandstone,
deposited in a marine-shelf environment, is a
member of the Upper Cretaceous Carlisle shale.
The Codell reservoir contains 15 to 25% clay by
volume in mixed layers of illite and smectite
that ll and line the pore spaces.
The pay interval is 14 to 35 ft [4.3 to 10.7 m]
thick, 6800 to 7700 ft [2073 to 2347 m] deep and
continuous across the field. Permeability is
less than 0.1 mD. Porosity from density logs is
8 to 20%. Initially, the reservoir was overpressured with a gradient of about 0.6 psi/ft
[13.5 kPa/m]. Bottomhole temperature is 230 to
250F [110 to 121C]. Wells are drilled on a
40-acre [162,000-m2] spacing.
During 1998, Patina compiled a database of
250 fracture restimulations on both operated
and nonoperated properties. After eliminating
wells treated with borate crosslinked fluids,
which were 20% less productive than other
wells, company engineers focused on the
remaining 200 wells. These wells had been restimulated with carboxymethyl hydropropyl guar
(CMHPG) or hydropropyl guar (HPG) uids.
Further evaluation identified 35 discrete
geologic, completion and production parameters
related to well performance. Linear-regression
analysis helped determine those parameters
that correlated with peak incremental production after refracturing. Two technical

improvements from this field-wide evaluation

provided an order-of-magnitude improvement in
restimulation results.
The first was application of carboxymethylate guar (CMG) fluids with lower polymer
loadings, which maintain proppant transport
and minimize residual proppant-pack damage
from unbroken and unrecovered gel. Nondamaging fluids are particularly important in the
refracturing of low-permeability formations
where long-term gas saturation has been established and reservoir pressure may be depleted.
The second improvement was a candidateselection method developed by Patina that uses
historical restimulation results in the basin.
Together with CMG fluids, this statistically
based algorithm achieved significant improvements in selection of the best refracturing
candidates (below). Average peak incremental
production rate almost doubled from just over
1000 to about 2000 barrels of oil equivalent
(BOE)/well/month [159 to 318 m3/well/month],
which equaled about 80% of the average initial
production rate. The associated rate-of-return
on refracturing investments increased from 66%
to more than 200% at $2.50/Mcf. Estimated
incremental recoveries increased from 25 to 38
million BOE per well [4 to 6 million m3/well].
Only about 3% of refracturing treatments
resulted in economic failures, primarily because
the propped fractures communicated with the
overlying Niobrara formation or an offset well.
This failure rate may become higher as refracturing density increases. The overall success of
this program resulted from stringent
well-selection criteria, strict quality-control

2500

Peak production, BOE/well/month

Development and application of genetic

algorithm for candidate selection
2000

1500

1000
Patina
500
Others
CMG fluids
0
1997

1998

1999

2000

> Historical refracturing performance in the Wattenburg eld, Colorado. The combined applications of CMG stimulation uids and
the candidate-selection algorithm developed by Patina Oil & Gas signicantly improved restimulation results in Patina-operated wells.

44

Oileld Review

Description

Statistical
significance

Rank

Parameter

Hydrocarbon volume,
porosity-feet

Net pay for Codell above a

10% density porosity cutoff

38%

Cumulative
recovery factor

Cumulative gas recovered divided

by original gas in place (OGIP) for
40-acre drainage area

17%

Initial completion

Peak rate premium assigned

if well was originally completed
limited entry in Codell-Niobrara

9%

Estimated ultimate
recovery (EUR) factor

EUR divided by OGIP for 40-acre

drainage area

11%

Gas/oil ratio

Projected ultimate gas/oil ratio

20%

Maximum differential
recovery, million BOE

EUR difference between subject

well and best offset well within
one mile of subject well

5%

> Patina Oil & Gas statistical algorithm. Of the ve statistically signicant
variables of the candidate-selection algorithm for Wattenburg eld, hydrocarbon volume in porosity-feet represents reservoir quality, initial
completion represents the initial completion, and the other threecumulative recovery factor, estimated ultimate recovery factor and gas/oil
ratiorepresent well performance. Well location is not signicant because
of the relatively uniform reservoir quality. However, higher, and therefore better, gas/oil ratios do tend to occur in the center of the eld. The sixth variable
maximum differential recovery in BOE helps predict restimulation potential
for economic evaluations.

guidelines for treatment fluids and effective

operational practices in the eld.
Other area operators have reported similar
improvements in productivity, economic results
and recovery from refracturing.9 Based on these
results, more than 4000 other wells in the
Piceance basin may be candidates for restimulation. Patina engineers continue to expand their
already extensive refracturing database and netune the candidate-selection algorithm. In some
wells, Patina and other area operators are now
successfully fracturing wells for a third time.
Candidate-Selection Criteria
The Patina Oil & Gas linear-regression analysis
identified five statistically significant variables
that were incorporated into the Wattenburg eld
candidate-selection algorithm (above). Although
statistically less significant, a sixth variable
maximum differential recovery in BOE, was
added to help predict restimulation results for
economic evaluation purposes.
Hydrocarbon pore volume, or porosity-feet,
the most statistically significant parameter, is
incorporated in the cumulative and ultimate

Autumn 2003

recovery factors. Gas/oil ratio, which varies

from about 5000 to 35,000 scf/bbl [900 to
6304 m3/m3], correlates to higher recovery wells
from original and refractured completions
primarily in and around central areas of the
eld. This is indicative of greater relative permeability to gas because formation thickness and
reservoir permeability are relatively uniform
across the eld.
Well completions that used limited-entry
perforating across both the Codell and Niobrara
formations resulted in shorter effective fracture
lengths in the Codell than those completed only
in the Codell. Cumulative and ultimate recovery
factors determined from individual well and
reservoir parameters coupled with decline-curve
analysis indirectly represented the extent of
depletion and the capability of the reservoir to
ow back and clean up treatment uids. These
factors also provided an indication of whether
new hydraulic fractures might reorient with
respect to the original propped fracture (see
Fracture Reorientation, page 47).
The maximum differential BOE is the difference in ultimate recovery between the subject

well and the best well within 1 mile [1.6 km].

This parameter gives an indication of upside
reserve potential in the immediate vicinity of a
subject well. Engineers eliminated some variables, such as faulting, treatment size and
perforated interval, which were statistically
insignificant. Well location is not significant in
this field because of the relatively uniform
reservoir quality.
Post-refracturing performance continues to
support added reserves above baseline projections for the original completions because the
initial completion in most of the wells was not
effectively draining the 40 acres allotted to each
well in the development pattern. A reevaluation
of 1000 refracturing treatments indicated good
correlation with the best t of actual results. To
some extent, these variables can be quantified
for individual wells by analyzing actual production in terms of long-term pressure drawdown
using production type-curve analysis techniques.
Production type-curve analysis requires more
analysis time, but effectively forecasts restimulation results with a higher degree of accuracy
than do other statistical techniques.
Variations still existed, but overall the Patina
algorithm successfully ranked restimulation
potential on a eld-wide basis. The variability in
refractured well performance appears to result
from an inability of statistical methods to
differentiate between actual drainage areas,
differences in matrix permeability, effective
fracture lengths from the original stimulation
and the impact of liquid condensate loading, or
banking, around these wellbores using only
production and completion parameters.10
The fundamental objective of refracturing is
to enhance well productivity. However, restimulation is viable only if wells are underperforming
because of completion-related problems, not
because of poor reservoir quality. Neither fracturing nor refracturing can turn marginal
producers in poor reservoirs into good wells. To
prioritize and select refracturing candidates,
engineers must understand the reasons for poor
performance in previously fractured wells.
9. Shaefer and Lytle, reference 8.
Sencenbaugh et al, reference 8.
10. Barnum RS, Brinkman FP, Richardson TW and
Spillette AG: Gas Condensate Reservoir Behaviour:
Productivity and Recovery Reduction Due to
Condensation, paper SPE 30767, presented at the SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas,
Texas, USA, October 2225, 1995.

45

Ineffective or problematic
initial completions
. Unstimulated horizons
. Low fracture conductivity
. Short fracture length
. High skin, or damage

Gradual formation damage

during production
. Scale and fines
. Workover frequency
. Well age

Well
underperformance

Technology evolution
. Advanced stimulation technology
. New completion techniques
. Well age

> Potential causes of underperformance in previously stimulated wells. The

GTI restimulation project team established a classication framework to help
diagnose problems in hydraulically fractured wells that perform below operator
expectations. At the highest level, there are three broad categories: ineffective
or problematic initial completions, gradual production damage and advances
in technology or evolving techniques compared with past practices.

Completion-Related Underperformance
To aid in problem diagnosis, the 1998 GTI
project established a framework to classify
well-performance problems (above). For tightgas wells, three specific problems, ranked in
order of highest perceived restimulation potential were identied:
Unstimulated or bypassed pay
Insufcient fracture conductivity
Insufcient fracture length.
Ineffective or problematic initial completions are the most common type of problem.
Examples include lack of quality control during
initial fracture treatments, residual polymer
damage from stimulation fluids, inappropriate
proppant selection, premature screenout, underdesigned fracturing treatments, incompatible
fluids and single-stage treatments that leave
some pay intervals unstimulated.
Hydraulic fractures can lose effectiveness in
the years after an initial stimulation treatment
because of gradual damage that occurs over the
life of a well. Examples include loss of fracture
conductivity from proppant crushing or embedding in the formation and plugging of the pack
by formation nes or scale deposition. Proppant
owback from the near-well area can allow the
hydraulic fractures to close. Typically, little
information is available to identify these
specic mechanisms.
Wells with these types of problems have the
greatest potential for remediation by refracturing. In older wells that have a higher occurrence
of these problems, reservoir pressure must be
sufcient to justify refracturing, both in terms of

46

remaining reserves and adequate flowback of

treatment uids. Well age may be the best indicator of gradual damage and the possibility of
applying new stimulation technology.
Diagnosing production damage, a second
major category of problems, often is difficult.
Proppant owback, uid damage and high skin
factors, frequent remedial workovers, and nes
or scale deposits during the onset of multiphase
flow or water breakthrough are manifestations
of problems that develop over time. Any
combination of these may indicate that well productivity has deteriorated over time.
A third category, advances in completion and
stimulation technology, also provides opportunities to restimulate wells originally completed
using older technology. New treatment designs,
advanced computer models, less damaging
fracturing fluids, improved fluid additives and
proppants help create longer, wider, more
conductive fractures. In some sense, this
category is a subset of the previous two because
older technology often is synonymous with less
effective initial completions where more gradual
damage has occurred.
It is important to determine what types of
productivity problems correlate with the best
refracturing candidates in a eld, area or basin.
Engineers can gain information about specific
well-completion problems and how to remediate
them by reviewing individual well records.
Unstimulated zones typically result from
using limited-entry diversion or from fracturing
multiple pay horizons in a single-stage treatment. This well-completion problem may

represent the greatest restimulation potential for

two reasons. First, tight-gas wells are frequently
multiple-zone completions. The tendency is to
treat multiple intervals in fewer stages to reduce
treatment cost. Second, enhanced well productivity from stimulation of new zones almost
always represents an incremental reserve addition, not just an increase in production rate and
accelerated reserve recovery.
A low ratio of fracture-treatment stages
and proppant volume to the number and distribution of net-pay intervals is an indicator of
potentially understimulated or unstimulated
zones. Radioactive tracer surveys, well tests,
production-decline curves and production logs
also help diagnose unstimulated or poorly
performing intervals.
Insufficient conductivity of an initial
propped fracture probably represents the next
highest restimulation potential. However, the
distinction between rate acceleration and true
incremental reserve addition from increased
conductivity after refracturing is often blurred.
Examples include insufcient proppant strength
for the fracture-closure pressure at reservoir
depth, proppant settling, low proppant concentrations and damage to proppant packs by
partially broken and unbroken gel.
Capturing incremental reserves at the outer
margin of a drainage area by increasing fracture
length is difficult. A relatively small treatment
compared with the higher net-pay thickness is
generally indicative of limited fracture length.
Generating longer hydraulic fractures can be
expensive unless the initial treatment was
extremely small. However, if restimulation
achieves additional fracture length and expands
the drainage area of a well, incremental production should represent a true reserve addition.
A review of the initial fracturing treatment
and flowback helps identify possible limited
fracture conductivity and length. Well-test
and production-decline analyses also help diagnose these conditions. A short period of linear
flow followed by radial flow after fracturing
indicates insufficient fracture conductivity or
inadequate length.
Refracturing opportunities also exist as a
result of eld development and well production
provided wells have enough pressure to flow
back and produce, even if energized treatment
uids or articial lift is required. In addition to
lower pore pressure, pressure depletion also
implies higher effective stress, which results in
less hydraulic fracture width and longer lateral
extension for the same volumes of treatment
uid and proppant.

Oileld Review

In addition, depletion of pay intervals

increases the stress contrast between pay intervals and bounding shales, which improves
vertical containment and allows generation
of longer fractures. Alteration of horizontal
in-situ stress around a wellbore and an existing
fracture also may contribute to fracture reorientation during restimulation.
Fracture Reorientation
Historically, refracturing has been a remedial
measure performed on poorly producing wells
with short or low-conductivity initial fractures.
However, there are numerous examples of
successful restimulations on previously fractured wells, especially tight-gas wells, that still
exhibit linear flowa negative 0.5 slope on
log-log production-rate plots indicative of deeply
penetrating, highly conductive fractures. Production tests and history matching using a
numerical simulator that accommodated orthogonal fractures and horizontal permeability
anisotropy indicate a strong probability of
refracture reorientation in many of these wells.
This concept of fracture reorientation is not
new and has been modeled in full-scale
laboratory experiments. In addition, fracture
reorientation has been observed in soft, shallow
formations.11 After an initial period of production, stress changes around existing wells with
effective initial fracture treatments may allow
new fractures to reorient and contact areas of
higher pore pressure.
Laboratory tests have also shown that matrix
pore-pressure changes inuence hydraulic fracture orientation in the reservoir volume between
injectors and producers in a waterflood.12 The
fractures orient normal, or perpendicular, to the
higher stress gradient. Fractures initiated from
producing wells orient towards and intersect
the injection well if the stress gradient is
high enough and the in-situ stress anisotropy is
not dominant.
Pressure changes around a deeply penetrating, highly conductive fracture also create high
stress gradients normal to the initial fracture
that may cause fracture reorientation during
restimulation treatments. Stress changes reach
a maximum and then diminish with further
depletion. An optimal window of time during
which to perform refracturing treatments can be
determined.13 Horizontal permeability anisotropy
further increases these stress changes. Similarly,
a separate study showed that initial fracture
orientation is influenced by production in
unfractured formations that have large horizontal permeability anisotropy.14

Autumn 2003

GTI provided funding for Schlumberger to

investigate these concepts in greater detail.15
Numerical simulations during this investigation
provided evidence that new fractures can form
at angles up to 90 from the initial propped
fracture azimuth (below). Fracture reorientation bypasses damage caused by drilling and
completion activities, and avoids zones of
reduced permeability caused by compaction and
other flow restrictions, including hydrocarbon
liquid dropout, or condensate banking, around
a well.
The horizontal stress component parallel to
an initial fracture is reduced more quickly as a
function of time than the perpendicular component. If these induced stress changes overcome
the original stress differential, then a new fracture will initiate and propagate along a different

azimuthal plane than the initial fracture until it

reaches the boundary of the elliptical stressreversal region. The fracture may continue along
the new azimuth for some distance beyond this
point, depending on formation toughness.
Many factors contribute to the location of
the stress-reversal boundary, including production history, reservoir permeability, fracture
dimensions, pay-zone height, elastic properties
of the pay and bounding barrier zones, and the
initial horizontal stress contrast. These parameters can be modeled and should be considered
when selecting refracturing candidates.
Computer simulations can determine the
optimal time window for refracturing and
fracture reorientation. Wells with long initial
fractures in low-permeability formations have a
longer time window. Production shut-in periods

y
New fracture
Isotropic point
Stress-reversal
region
Maximum
horizontal
stress

Wellbore
x

Initial fracture
Isotropic point

New fracture

Minimum
horizontal
stress

> Stress reorientation and orthogonal fracture extension. This horizontal section through a vertical wellbore depicts an original hydraulic fracture in the
x direction and a second reoriented fracture in the y direction. Fluid production after placement of the initial fracture can cause a local redistribution
of pore pressure in an expanding elliptical region around the wellbore and
initial fracture. The stress-reversal boundary is dened by isotropic points of
equal primary horizontal stresses. Stress reorientation and fracture extension
in a direction away from the initial propped fracture help explain pressure
responses during refracturing treatments and unanticipated production
increases from refractured wells known to have effective initial fractures.

11. Wright CA, Stewart DW, Emanuel MA and Wright WW:

Reorientation of Propped Refracture Treatments in the
Lost Hills Field, paper SPE 27896, presented at the SPE
Western Regional Meeting, Long Beach, California, USA,
March 2325, 1994.
Wright CA, Conant RA, Stewart DW and Byerly PM:
Reorientation of Propped Refracture Treatments,
paper SPE 28078, presented at the SPE/ISRM Rock
Mechanics in Petroleum Engineering Conference,
Delft, The Netherlands, August 2931, 1994.
Wright CA and Conant RA: Hydraulic Fracture
Reorientation in Primary and Secondary Recovery from
Low-Permeability Reservoirs, paper SPE 30484, presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition, Dallas, Texas, USA, October 2225, 1995.
12. Bruno MS and Nakagawa FM: Pore Pressure
Inuence on Tensile Propagation in Sedimentary Rock,
International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining
Sciences and Geomechanics Abstracts 28, no. 4
(July 1991): 261273.

13. Elbel JL and Mack MG: Refracturing: Observations

and Theories, paper SPE 25464, presented at the SPE
Production Operations Symposium, Oklahoma City,
Oklahoma, USA, March 2123, 1993.
14. Hidayati DT, Chen H-Y and Teufel LW: Flow-Induced
Stress Reorientation in a Multiple-Well Reservoir,
paper SPE 71091, presented at the SPE Rocky Mountain
Petroleum Technology Conference, Keystone, Colorado,
USA, May 2123, 2001.
15. Siebrits E, Elbel JL, Detournay F, Detournay-Piette C,
Christianson M, Robinson BM and Diyashev IR:
Parameters Affecting Azimuth and Length of a
Secondary Fracture During a Refracture Treatment,
paper SPE 48928, presented at the SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans, Louisiana,
USA, September 2730, 1998.

47

should be minimized to maintain a high porepressure gradient normal to the initial fracture.
Aside from this, standard fracture design considerations should be used.
Fracture restimulations in the naturally fractured Barnett Shale, north of Fort Worth, Texas,
USA, are an example of fracture reorientation.
These treatments were monitored with an
array of surface and subsurface tiltmeters
(below).16 The results suggested signicant fracture reorientation in one well and oblique
reorientation in the other well. Post-treatment
production increased substantially in both wells.
Other refractured wells in the area had similar
increases. Reservoir depletion combined with
natural fractures can cause complex fracture
networks to develop during initial treatments
and restimulations.

A Gas-Shale Restimulation Program

In 1997, Mitchell Energy, now Devon Energy,
began using greatly reduced polymer concentrations in treatment fluidscurrently only
surfactant-base friction-reducing agents are
usedand much lower volumes of proppant in
the Barnett Shale formation. These slick-water
fracturing treatments have been extremely
successful and are similar to designs used by
operators for Cotton Valley sandstone stimulation treatments in the nearby East Texas basin.
Additional gas-shale development efforts are
currently under way in other areas of North and
West Texas. The Barnett Shale, for example, is
present in wells from the Fort Worth basin to
the Permian Basin of West Texas, so lessons
learned in North Texas can be applied in thousands of wells.

Initial fracture azimuth

W

E
Initial injection
1st 83 minutes
2nd 83 minutes
3rd 83 minutes
Final 83 minutes
S

Fracture-induced
surface trough

Depth

Surface tiltmeters

Fracture

Downhole
tiltmeters in
offset well

> Formation displacement around a vertical hydraulic fracture. Extremely

sensitive tiltmeters placed in a radial pattern on the surface around a stimulation well candidate (bottom) can monitor fracture azimuth during stimulation
treatments (top). Fracture geometry is inferred by measuring induced rock
deformations. The deformation eld, which radiates in all directions, can also
be measured downhole by wireline-conveyed tiltmeter arrays in offset wells.

48

Deposited in a deep marine environment, the

Barnett Shale consists of layered mudstone, siltstone and some interbedded limestone with
open and calcite-lled natural fractures. Matrix
permeability in this rich organic, fine-grained,
Mississippian-age shale formation is extremely
low, about 0.0001 to 0.001 mD. Estimated
ultimate recovery for a typical Barnett Shale
well is 0.5 to 1 Bcf [14.3 to 28.6 million m3]. This
represents a calculated recovery of 8 to 10 % of
the gas in place. Achieving economic production
requires large fracturing treatments.
The Barnett Shale typically lies between the
upper Marble Falls limestone and the lower Viola
limestone. In some areas, the Viola formation is
replaced by the Ellenburger dolomite, which is
not as competent as the Viola for confining
hydraulic fractures. The Barnett Shale is 200 to
1000 ft [61 to 305 m] thick, averaging about
500 ft [152 m] in the main area of the eld.
In 1999, analysis of near- and far-stress elds
in the Barnett determined that new fractures
created during restimulation followed the
original fracture plane for a short distance
before taking a new direction.17 Recent microseismic surveys conducted during refracturing
treatments confirm that new fractures propagate initially in the original northeast-southwest
direction before diverging along a new northwest-southeast azimuth (next page, top).18 In
addition to fracture reorientation, microseismic
mapping, such as StimMAP hydraulic fracture
stimulation diagnostics, also provide evidence of
complex fractures that contribute further to
increased well productivity from the Barnett
Shale (next page, bottom).
Infill wells drilled on a spacing as close as
27 acres [109,300 m2] indicated long elliptical
drainage patterns. Refracturing, therefore,
offers significant potential for increased well
productivity and improved gas recovery by creating new fractures that contact other areas of the
reservoir as a result of fracture reorientation
and creation of complex hydraulic fracture
networks. Restimulations also address
underperformance caused by ineffective well
completionsprimarily early termination of the
initial treatmentbypassed or unstimulated
zones and gradual production damage in this
naturally fractured formation.
Barnett Shale completions date back to the
1980s, when acid breakdown and fracturing
treatments used high polymer concentrations,
crosslinked-gel fluids and moderate proppant
concentrations with minimal external gel
breaker because of high formation temperatureabout 200F [93C]. Some of the initial

Oileld Review

Microseism

Receivers

Reservoir
Fracture
Wellbore

Offset
wellbore

> Microseismic fracture mapping. Microseismic imaging relies on detection

of microearthquakes or acoustic emissions associated with hydraulic fracturing or induced movement of preexisting fractures. This technique uses
three-component sensors, typically 5 to 12 geophones or accelerometers, in
an offset observation well to detect these extremely small events, or microseisms. Normally, perforating operations in the well being monitored are used
to calibrate and orient the sensors. As a treatment proceeds, the microseisms
generated by fracture propagation are detected, oriented and located with
the reservoir to develop a fracture map.

Simple fracture

Complex fractures

Extremely complex fractures

> Complex fracture networks. The simple classical description of a hydraulic fracture is a single,
biwing, planar crack with the wellbore at the
center of the two wings (top). In some formations,
however, complex (middle) and very complex
(bottom) hydraulic fractures may also develop, as
appears to be the case in the naturally fractured
Barnett Shale.

16. Siebrits E, Elbel JL, Hoover RS, Diyashev IR, Grifn LG,
Demetrius SL, Wright CA, Davidson BM, Steinsberger NP
and Hill DG: Refracture Reorientation Enhances
Gas Production in Barnett Shale Tight Gas Wells, paper
SPE 63030, presented at the SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, Texas, USA,
October 14, 2000.
Fisher MK, Wright CA, Davidson BM, Goodwin AK,
Fielder EO, Buckler WS and Steinsberger NP: Integrated Fracture Mapping Technologies to Optimize
Stimulations in the Barnett Shale, paper SPE 77441,
presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference
and Exhibition, San Antonio, Texas, USA,
September 29October 2, 2002.

Autumn 2003

Maxwell SC, Urbancic TI, Steinsberger N and Zinno R:

Microseismic Imaging of Hydraulic Fracture Complexity
in the Barnett Shale, paper SPE 77440, presented at the
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, San
Antonio, Texas, USA, September 29October 2, 2002.
17. Siebrits et al, reference 16.
18. Fisher et al, reference 16.
Maxwell et al, reference 16.
19. Willberg DM, Steinsberger N, Hoover R, Card RJ and
Queen J: Optimization of Fracture Cleanup Using
Flowback Analysis, paper SPE 39920, presented at
the SPE Rocky Mountain Regional/Low-Permeability
Reservoirs Symposium and Exhibition, Denver, Colorado,
USA, April 58, 1998.

treatments also included CO 2 or N 2 . Initial

post-treatment production increases were
encouraging, but short-lived. These practices
continued through 1990.
Early treatments yielded poor fracture
conductivity because of damage caused by
incomplete treatment-uid cleanup and polymer
degradation, and by the ne silica our used as
a fluid-loss additive, which remained in the
proppant pack. Shorter fracture length resulted
from small treatment volumes. Data from
production logs indicated that some sections of
the Barnett remained untreated or understimulated and provided little or no gas production
after initial fracturing treatments.
Gradual completion damage and productivity
degradation potentially result from insufficient
initial fracture length, incomplete treatmentfluid cleanup and relative-permeability
restrictions caused by water influx from lower
formations. In some wells, there is evidence of
scale deposition when water from incompatible
sources is used in stimulation treatments. Productivity degradation also occurs as reservoir
energy decreases. NODAL production system
analysis indicates that below about 400 Mcf/D
[11,455 m3/d], high fluid levels in the wellbore
restrict gas production. Artificial-lift methods
help increase gas output.
After 1990, operators began reducing polymer concentrations, using N 2 for flowback
assistance, increasing overall uid and proppant
volumes, and pumping maximum sand concentrations of three pounds of proppant added
(ppa) per 1000 gal [360 kg of proppant added
(kgpa) per m3]. These changes were in response
to earlier limited well productivity and disappointing stimulation results. Engineers increased
the use of external breaker systems, eventually
eliminating N 2 and solid fluid-loss additives,
such as ne silica our. Incremental production
from fracture stimulations continued to improve
as a result of these trends in treatment optimization, which culminated in the advent of
slick-water treatments in 1997.
Operators also began to focus on improving
post-treatment cleanup. Previous procedures
were conservative, with limited flowback rates
and treatment cleanup periods that lasted 7 to
10 days. The new procedures reflected a more
aggressive attempt to force fracture closure and
recover as much treatment uid as possible in 2
to 3 days.19
The evolution of fracturing practices from
crosslinked gels to slick water and improved
procedures for treatment-fluid recovery significantly enhanced gas production from the

49

100,000

Typical Barnett Shale

restimulation results
Gas rate, Mcf/month

Barnett Shale. Refracturing with large fluid

volumes and lower volumes of proppant yielded
well productivities that, in some cases, are the
highest ever in these wells (right).
It appears that reduction and eventual elimination of solids in fracturing uids generate better
production results in tight-gas formations. Slickwater treatments are currently the accepted
practice for completing new wells and refracturing existing completions in the Barnett Shale. The
reasons for success of this method are not fully
understood and are still under study. One possibility may be that fracture facies do not heal, or
close, completely once displaced or may be etched
and eroded by large stimulation treatments.
Advanced well logs from tools, such as the
FMI Fullbore Formation MicroImager and DSI
Dipole Shear Sonic Imager tools, used in conjunction with standard well-logging suites
provide more detailed formation evaluation and
reservoir characterization. Stress profiles from
sonic logs assist in design and implementation
of multistage treatments to ensure complete
zonal stimulation coverage. The higher level of
detail resulted in additional improvement in
Barnett Shale completions, including more accurate perforation placement across intervals with
identied open natural fractures.

10,000
Refractured

1000

100
1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996 1997
Year

50

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

> Typical restimulation results for a Barnett Shale well. The use of substantial volumes of slick water
and low quantities of proppant sand to refracture the Barnett Shale resulted in well productivities as
good as or better than the original completion. In some cases, the well productivities after refracturing
were the highest ever recorded in this eld.

R14

A Shallow-Gas Restimulation Program

Enerplus Resources Fund realized an average
sixfold increase in production from refracturing
shallow-gas wells in the Medicine Hat and Milk
River formations of southeastern Alberta,
Canada. These results were obtained in a 15-well
stimulation program during the second half of
2002. Ten treatments were performed using the
CoilFRAC stimulation through coiled tubing
service. 20 The CoilFRAC technique utilized a
straddle isolation tool that allowed individual
perforated intervals to be selectively isolated
and stimulated. Jointed pipe and a snubbing
unit were used in place of coiled tubing (CT) on
the other five wells. These CT-conveyed and
snubbing-conveyed stimulations helped optimize
fracture treatments and facilitated completion
and stimulation of bypassed zones.
Initially completed in the 1970s, vertical
wells in the Medicine Hat and Milk River formations produce from depths of 300 to 500 m [984
to 1640 ft]. Producing intervals consist of layered
sandstones with high shale content that fracture
easily. These wells were originally fractured by
pumping uids and proppants down casing in a
single-stage operation with ball sealers to divert
the treatment across multiple sets of perforations. To select restimulation candidates,
engineers sought a relationship between initialfracture effectiveness and current production.

1998

R13W4

50.8

223.9

137.3

T20

397.4

570.0

743.1

310.4 483.5 656.6

Cumulative gas, MMscf

916.2

829.6

T20

T19

T19

T18

T18

R14

R13W4

> Shallow-gas restimulation criteria. Because pressure-transient testing and

analysis were too expensive and not economically practical for this project,
Enerplus Resources Fund chose production data as the best relative indicator
of gradual damage, connectivity and initial stimulation effectiveness. Cumulative gas production data were contoured and color-coded using gas-mapping
software. This allowed engineers to easily identify and select refracturing
candidates in areas with lower recovery factors (blue).

Oileld Review

casing scraper was run on all wells to clear the

wellbore of restrictions and to verify the minimum internal diameter.
Intervals targeted for restimulation were
reperforated to ensure injectivity and improve
treatment effectiveness. Because of a lack of upto-date logs, existing intervals were reperforated
at the same depths and lengths as the initial
perforations. Pretreatment well evaluations confirmed interval lengths and sand quality from
gamma ray logs. In four wells stimulated through
coiled tubing, additional net-pay intervals were
perforated based on existing logs.
Cumulative production and current producing rates proved effective in selecting
restimulation candidates. Refracturing resulted
in an average per-well production increase of
about six times the prestimulation rate. Six of
the 15 wells had higher average post-fracture

Average production rate for CoilFRAC restimulations

rates than at the time of initial completion; four

wells produced within 25% of their original
three-month completion rates in the 1970s.
This substantial level of productivity increase
is even more impressive when viewed in the
context of almost 30 years of production and
more than 100 psi [689 kPa] of pressure depletion (below).
These results are consistent with documented
evaluations of other CoilFRAC treatments
performed in the area since 1997. 21 Average
production from wells fractured through coiled
tubing was slightly higher than treatments
performed with a snubbing unit. This further
confirms that fracturing many small intervals
yields better production rates than fracturing a
few larger intervals. In addition, coiled tubingconveyed fracturing costs about 10% less than
snubbing-unit treatments.

Average production rate for snubbing-unit restimulations

140

450 psi

120

335 psi

100

Pressure depletion
over 30 years

80
60
40

335 psi

20

Average production rate, Mcf/D

140

Average production rate, Mcf/D

These wells were completed initially within a

two-year period, so cumulative production is
normalized over 30 years. Analysis indicated
that average production in the first three
months after initial completion was directly
proportional to the 30-year cumulative gas
production. Furthermore, gas rates and stimulation effectiveness are related, so stimulation
effectiveness is directly proportional to cumulative production.
Completions with lower cumulative gas production than nearby wells were identified as
candidates for refracturing (previous page, bottom). Other considerations included average
production in the rst three months after initial
completion, productive interval lengths, vertical
distance between perforated intervals and current production rate. Wells producing at
currently economical rates of more than 25
Mcf/D [716 m3/d] were eliminated as refracturing candidates.
Intervals greater than 7 m [23 ft] were eliminated as CoilFRAC candidates. Snubbing-unit
operations allowed longer straddle-tool isolation
lengths up to about 15 m [49 ft]. Additionally,
because of the risk of fractures growing vertically
into adjacent intervals, intervals closer together
than about 10 m [33 ft] also were eliminated.
The length of individually perforated zones
fractured with coiled tubing varied from 0.9 m to
6.1 m [3 to 20 ft] with four to seven zones
treated in each well. Zones fractured using the
snubbing technique varied from 3 m to 14 m [9.8
to 45.9 ft] in perforated length. The number of
zones treated ranged from two to four zones
per well.
Because of the age of these wellbores,
precautions were taken to avoid potential
mechanical failures. Surface casing vent flows
were checked; any indication of gas migration to
surface eliminated the well as a candidate. A

120

450 psi
335 psi

100

Pressure depletion
over 30 years

80
60
40

335 psi

20
0

0
Well life
Initial

Well life
Before refracturing

After refracturing

Field production
5.0
6 new wells

4.5

Coiled tubing cleanout

of new wells

Autumn 2003

Production, MMscf/D

4.0
20. Degenhardt KF, Stevenson J, Gale B, Gonzalez D, Hall S,
Marsh J and Zemlak W: Isolate and Stimulate
Individual Pay Zones, Oileld Review 13, no. 3
(Autumn 2001): 6077.
21. Lemp S, Zemlak W and McCollum R: An Economical
Shallow-Gas Fracturing Technique Utilizing a Coiled
Tubing Conduit, paper SPE 46031, presented at the
SPE/ICoTA Coiled Tubing Roundtable, Houston, Texas,
USA, April 1516, 1998.
Zemlak W, Lemp S and McCollum R: Selective
Hydraulic Fracturing of Multiple Perforated Intervals
with a Coiled Tubing Conduit: A Case History of the
Unique Process, Economic Impact and Related
Production Improvements, paper SPE 54474, presented
at the SPE/ICoTA Coiled Tubing Roundtable, Houston,
Texas, USA, May 2526. 1999.
Marsh J, Zemlak WM and Pipchuk P: Economic
Fracturing of Bypassed Pay: A Direct Comparison of
Conventional and Coiled Tubing Placement Techniques,
paper SPE 60313, presented at the SPE Rocky Mountain
Regional/Low Permeability Reservoirs Symposium,
Denver, Colorado, USA, March 1215, 2000.

Two out of five

snubbing-unit
refractured wells
on-line

3.5
3.0

13 new
wells

2.5
2.0
Last well to be CT
fractured (only 10 of
15 wells have been
fractured at this point
and all through CT)

1.5
1.0
Gas compressor
shutdown

0.5
0.0
2001

2002

> Shallow-gas restimulation results. Refracturing shallow wells in the gas-bearing Medicine Hat and
Milk River formations resulted in signicant production increases, even after the wells had produced
for more than 30 years. Enerplus Resources Fund used both coiled tubing and snubbing-unit tubingconveyed stimulation techniques.

51

52

100,000
Average during the first month for all
12 wells: 6.6 MMcf/D after refracturing
Projected decline
after refracturing

10,000

Total average gas rate, Mcf/D

Short Shut-In Time Well-Test Analysis

Determining how a well should respond to
refracturing requires knowledge about the original fracturing treatment and the current state of
well stimulationfracture length and conductivity. Another objective of the 1998 GTI
restimulation project was to develop a welltesting method to verify restimulation potential
in tight-gas wells.
In low-permeability reservoirs, long shut-in
timessometimes several days, weeks or even
monthsare required to obtain a unique reservoir and fracture characterization from a
pressure-transient well-test analysis, typically a
pressure-buildup test. Consequently, many
operators nd the high costs of performing these
tests and associated production downtime unacceptable. However, if the objective is only to
verify that a well requires stimulation, a unique
well-test solution may not be needed.
Schlumberger developed the short shut-in
time interpretation (SSTI) method to obtain
interpretable well-test data in low-permeability
gas wells.22 This new technique, applicable in
new or depleted reservoirs, uses early-time pressure-transient data to estimate probable ranges
of reservoir permeability and fracture length.
The SSTI method is especially effective in lowpermeability formations, tight-gas reservoirs and
in wells with large wellbore-storage volumes.
This approach is not a quantitative determination of reservoir properties and stimulation
effectiveness, but it is not entirely qualitative
either. The SSTI method defines lower and
upper values for both reservoir permeability
and fracture length at critical points during a
well test. By providing a range of results rather
than multiple sets of nonunique solutions, this
quick and simple determination reduces
uncertainty and nonuniqueness compared with
conventional interpretations.
Reasonably good estimates of reservoir
properties are usually obtained in as little as a
few hours, and generally fewer than three days.
This significantly reduces well-test cost, in
terms of equipment, services and delayed
production. Identifying radial or linear ow into
a well gives a good indication of whether the
current propped fracture is effective or ineffective. The SSTI approach suffers from limitations
in multilayered reservoirs, but engineers can
often use these results to determine if a well
should be restimulated.
The GTI project included a well-testing
program in the Frontier formation of the
North Labarge Unit in Sublette and Lincoln
Counties, Wyoming, USA, to validate restimulation candidates selected by the three GTI

1000
Rate for all 12 wells: 1.5
MMcf/D before refracturing
Projected decline had the
wells not been refractured
100

12 wells refractured at time 0

10
-96

-84

-72

-60

-48

-36

-24

-12

12

24

36

48

60

Normalized time, months

> Kerr-McGee South Texas refracturing results.

methodsproduction statistics, pattern recognition and type curves. The SSTI method was
applied to determine initial hydraulic fracturing
treatment effectiveness in wells at this test site.
Successful application in several Frontier area
gas wells demonstrated the potential of the SSTI
method, but data quality and acquisition
difficulties hampered complete analysis of the
well-test data.
Interpretations using the SSTI method
require high-quality, precise data. Downhole
measurements with precise electronic gauges
and frequent data sampling help capture the
required level of detail. Downhole shut-in
devices reduce wellbore storage effects and
accelerate the onset of linear flow. Using test
times that fall between the start and end of
linear ow, the SSTI method is also applicable in
conventional well tests.

Production-Enhancement Evaluation
Kerr-McGee Corporation and Schlumberger
began working collaboratively to enhance
production from mature, or browneld, South
Texas gas properties in March 2002. These
efforts are the result of a comprehensive reservoir evaluation performed by Schlumberger to
develop a better understanding of completion
and production trends in the Vicksburg basin.
Initiated in the fall of 2001, this proactive study
concentrated on areas where application of new
technologies and techniques would have the
most impact and, in turn, help operators
produce gas more economically.
The objective was to understand how geological, petrophysical and well-completion practices
impact well performance. This Vicksburg study
identified underperforming wells and specific
technologies, such as advanced formationevaluation tools, improved well-completion

22. Bastian P: Short Shut-in Well Test Analysis for

Verifying Restimulation Potential, presented at the
GRI/Restimulation Workshop, Denver, Colorado, USA,
March 15, 1999.
Huang H, Bastian PA and Hopkins CW: A New Short
Shut-In Time Testing Method for Determining Stimulation
Effectiveness in Low Permeability Gas Reservoirs,
Topical Report, Contract No. 5097-210-4090, Gas
Research Institute, Chicago, Illinois, USA
(November 2000).
23. Bradley HB: Petroleum Engineering Handbook.
Richardson, Texas, USA: Society of Petroleum Engineers
(1992): 55-155-12.
Economides MJ and Nolte KG: Reservoir Stimulation,
Third Edition, West Sussex, England: John Wiley & Sons
Ltd. (2000): 5-15-28.

Duda JR, Boyer II CM, Delozier D, Merriam GR,

Frantz Jr JH and Zuber MD: Hydraulic Fracturing: The
Forgotten Key to Natural Gas Supply, paper SPE 75712,
presented at the SPE Gas Technology Symposium,
Calgary, Alberta, Canada, April 30May 2, 2002.
24. Pospisil et al, reference 3.
Olson, reference 3.
Wright and Conant, reference 11.
Marquardt MB, van Batenburg D and Belhaouas R:
Production Gains from Re-Fracturing Treatments in
Hassi Messaoud, Algeria, paper SPE 65186, presented
at the SPE European Petroleum Conference, Paris,
France, October 2425, 2000.
25. Oberwinkler C and Economides MJ: The Denitive
Identication of Candidate Wells for Refracturing,
paper SPE 84211, presented at the SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, Denver, Colorado, USA,
October 58, 2003.

Oileld Review

practices and restimulation techniques, which

could have the most impact on well productivity.
The study team gathered and interpreted key
information, including well logs and data related
to fracture stimulation practices. They then
combined elements of both routine and
advanced proprietary processes into an integrated workflow that identified numerous
refracture opportunities.
Key elements of this workflow included the
Moving Domain technique for rapid assessment
of producing properties, development of
a specific petrophysical model to identify
bypassed gas zones and techniques to assess and
mitigate risk. Moving Domain analysis provides a
statistically based analysis of production data to
identify areas with potential for infill development, recompletion and restimulation.
As a result of the project teams efforts,
Kerr-McGee refractured 12 wells during 2002.
Initially, this refracturing campaign added
5.5 Bcf [157.5 million m3] of incremental recoverable gas reserves (previous page). This
equates to $600,000 of revenue per month at
$4/Mcf gas, which increased Kerr-McGee gross
cash ow by an estimated $8.5 million in 2002.
To date, the program has been even more successful in 2003 with an additional 3.6 Bcf
[103.1 million m3] of recoverable gas for the rst
four wells alone. From 2002 to 2003, development costs also were reduced by more than 40%
through improved risk assessment and mitigation.
Schlumberger works with Kerr-McGee across
several geographic locations to facilitate project
execution. Results from the work performed on
each well are published in an Informed Decision
Report (IDR) that includes reservoir properties
derived from the Vicksburg-specific petrophysical model, FracCADE fracturing design and
analysis software, ProCADE well analysis software rate predictions and key production
characteristics from the Moving Domain analysis.
These results are then posted electronically
using InterACT real-time monitoring and data
delivery and made available to Schlumberger and
Kerr-McGee staff participating in the project.
Current teleconference capabilities and collaboration tools, such as InterACT software that
allows review and evaluation of project results as
they become available, facilitate this interaction
and collaboration by the project team.
A Schlumberger project manager located in
the Kerr-McGee office coordinates operations
that range from initial diagnostic work
pressure-buildup tests and production logsto
actual refracturing designs, execution, real-time
monitoring and post-treatment evaluations.

Autumn 2003

160
140
120
100
80

Drill and complete

Coiled tubing
restimulation
Snubbing-unit
restimulation

60
40
20
0

Average cost per well,

$1000

Average production
increase, Mcf/D

> Refracturing economics. In shallow-gas wells like those in the Medicine

Hat and Milk River formations of southeastern Alberta, Canada, restimulating
existing wells costs less (left) and provides incremental production at a lower
unit cost (right) than drilling and completing new wells. To some greater
degree, the same holds true for currently producing wells in many other
elds, especially those in deeper low-permeability reservoirs.

Recognizing the value of a collaborative relationship with Schlumberger, including an extended

staff of experts for the duration of a project,
Kerr-McGee recently identied other browneld
opportunities for joint evaluation.
Restimulations Work
With world demand for petroleum growing daily,
well restimulations are increasingly important.
High productivity improvements for a relatively
low investment make hydraulic fracturing,
either as initial treatments or restimulations,
one of the most economically attractive
production-enhancement techniques.23
Fracture stimulation during initial completion or later in the life of a well bypasses
near-wellbore damage and increases connectivity with the reservoir. The practice of
refracturing began soon after the introduction of
hydraulic fracturing in about 1947, but early
applications required considerable effort to
diagnose problems and select well candidates,
and yielded mixed results. From the 1996 and
1998 GTI studies and associated field trials to
continuing restimulation success in North
America and other areas, including China,
Algeria, Brazil and Russia, it is clear that signicant refracturing potential exists worldwide,
even in mature oil elds.24
In many cases, refracturing is much less
expensive than a new development well and can
inexpensively supplement infill drilling, especially in deep, low-permeability reservoirs. This
is clearly evident even in the shallow-gas wells of
Canada (above). However, restimulation economics are most sensitive to proper candidate
selection. Relatively minor miscalculations can

turn a potentially profitable project into an

unsuccessful venture.
Basically, refracturing candidates are selected
the same way as initial fracturing candidates,
except there may be considerably more data to
work with. Several emerging methodologies,
including multidimensional crossplots and
self-organizing maps, offer operators large
databases that contain hundreds of different
wells, input parameters and fracturing criteria.
In general, these techniques fall into the category of data mining and knowledge discovery.25
Schlumberger also continues to develop and
refine methods for selecting fracturing candidates. Using Moving Domain analysis, for
example, Schlumberger is evaluating ways to use
offset-well production histories as a means of
selecting high-potential refracturing candidates.
When applied judiciously, refracturing has
proved effective for capturing incremental
reserves and the financial benefits they
represent, particularly in todays challenging
business climate. These types of well restimulations are a viable and economically attractive
means of improving economic returns for operators willing to apply new methods and
technologies related to candidate selection and
treatment design.
MET

53

Analyzing Hydrocarbons in the Borehole

A rapid evaluation of hydrocarbon uid composition is now available with a new

uid-sampling tool. The quality of samples taken for later analysis can be determined
before lling the sampling cylinder. The tool is sufciently sensitive to determine
compositional gradients within a formation.

Soraya Betancourt
Go Fujisawa
Oliver C. Mullins
Ridgeeld, Connecticut, USA

Near-infrared radiation

Andrew Carnegie
Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates (UAE)
Chengli Dong
Andrew Kurkjian
Sugar Land, Texas, USA
Kre Otto Eriksen
Statoil
Stavanger, Norway
Mostafa Haggag
Antonio R. Jaramillo
Abu Dhabi Company for Onshore Oil
Operations
Abu Dhabi, UAE

Absorption
and
excitation

Harry Terabayashi
Fuchinobe, Kanagawa, Japan
CFA (Composition Fluid Analyzer), LFA (Live Fluid Analyzer
for MDT tool), MDT (Modular Formation Dynamics Tester)
and PVT Express are marks of Schlumberger.
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Sylvain
Jayawardane and Jiasen Tan, Edmonton, Alberta,
Canada; Sudhir Pai, Rosharon, Texas, USA; Ibrahim
Shawky, Abu Dhabi, UAE; and Tsutomu Yamate,
Fuchinobe, Kanagawa, Japan.

54

Understanding crude oil composition early in the

development process helps optimize resource
exploitation. Such information is now available
from a wireline tool, giving results in real time
that allow optimization of uid sampling based
on the measured in-situ composition.

An early determination of gas composition

and gas/oil ratio (GOR) may be necessary to
decide whether to complete a well, or even
whether to develop a eld at all. For example, the
economics of developing elds that contain a
rich hydrocarbon gas and those that contain a

Oileld Review

Analyzing Oil and Gas

The terms gas and oil describe the state of a
hydrocarbon as vapor or liquid, but do not
specify the chemical composition. A detailed
measurement of the constituents of a hydrocarbon, as determined in a surface laboratory,
can be used to predict the constituents of the gas
and oil phasesas well as other physical
properties like density and viscosityat various
temperatures and pressures. These detailed
laboratory measurements can take a long time to
obtain. The new CFA tool, in conjunction with
other modules on an MDT assembly, provides a
quick determination of some of the components
and indicates the degree of drilling-mud
contamination before samples are taken for
further analysis.
Hydrocarbon uids comprise a multitude of
constituents ranging from single-carbon methane
to very long-chain carbon compounds, as well as
cyclic, aromatic and other complex molecules
such as asphaltenes and waxes. These constituents determine the phase behavior of a given
reservoir uid, which is often indicated using a
pressure-volume-temperature (PVT) phase diagram (above right).3 A hydrocarbon uid is in single phase if the pressure and temperature are
outside the phase envelope. At conditions within
this envelope, two phases coexist. However, the
phase composition changes within this two-phase
region. Near the bubblepoint curve, the gas phase

Autumn 2003

Reservoir depletion
Dewpoint curve
Critical point

Pressure

high percentage of carbon dioxide [CO2] in the

gas are markedly different. CO2 is highly corrosive, so its presence can change requirements for
owlines and surface equipment. In addition,
commingling prospects with incompatible
compositions may need to be avoided. Flow
assurance also is impacted by problems with
asphaltene, wax, hydrate and organic scale
buildup in owlines.1 The uid composition can
restrict allowable drawdown pressures and ow
rates to prevent uid dropout.
This article update presents recent developments in uid analysis available with the MDT
Modular Formation Dynamics Tester.2 A new
module, the CFA Composition Fluid Analyzer,
provides a measurement of uid composition
from samples drawn directly from the formation.
It discriminates the fractions of methane, light
hydrocarbons, heavy hydrocarbons, carbon
dioxide and water present in a sample. The tool
makes this determination based on light absorption and uorescence of the uids; results are
transmitted to surface in real time. Case studies
from the Middle East and the North Sea demonstrate the effectiveness of this new module.

Bubblepoint curve

Cricondentherm

Temperature

> A hydrocarbon phase envelope for a retrograde condensate. Between the

bubblepoint and dewpoint curves, hydrocarbon uids are in two phases. The
lines of constant liquid mole fraction (dashed) meet at the critical point. Fluids
that enter the two-phase region to the right of the critical point are termed
retrograde condensates. Fluids at temperatures greater than the cricondentherm remain single phase at all pressures. If the initial reservoir condition of
temperature and pressure is above the phase envelope and between the critical temperature and the cricondentherm, the uid goes through a dewpoint
and liquid drops out of the gas phase as the reservoir pressure declines. This
condition (vertical line) starts at initial reservoir condition, shown here at an
arbitrarily chosen temperature and pressure.

is predominantly methane, but further into the

two-phase region, more light and intermediate
components enter the gas phase.
Similarly, the rst liquid components to drop
out after passing the dewpoint are the heavier
components; lighter components go into the
liquid phase at conditions further from the dewpoint curve. This phenomenon is important when
sampling gas-condensate fluids: once a fluid
enters the two-phase region, heavy components
are lost into the liquid phase. This behavior is
used in the CFA design to determine when a uid
crosses the dewpoint.
The pressure and temperature condition at
which the bubblepoint and dewpoint curves
meet is called the critical point. At that point,
the density and composition of the liquid and
gas phases are identical. The maximum temperature at which two phases can coexist is termed
the cricondentherm.
Reservoir temperature is usually almost
constantunless cold or hot uids are injected
into the reservoirso most depleting reservoirs
follow a downward vertical path on a pressuretemperature phase diagram. If reservoir temperature is between the critical temperature and
the cricondentherm, liquid can drop out of the
gas phase within the reservoir. These are termed

gas-condensate, or retrograde-condensate, reservoirs. Gas in a reservoir with a temperature

greater than the cricondentherm is termed a wet
gas if liquid drops out because of pressure and
temperature decreases in the production system,
or a dry gas if no liquid falls out in either the
reservoir or production system.
Economic decisions early in an exploration
project often hinge upon characterizing the type
of hydrocarbon in a reservoir. This determination
is particularly true offshore, where an expensive
platform infrastructure or subsea tiebacks may
need to be designed to handle reservoir uids.
Early hydrocarbon typing is also needed in
remote areas where satellite elds may not be
1. Wasden FK: Flow Assurance in Deepwater
Flowlines/Pipelines, Deepwater Technology, World Oil
Magazine Supplement (October 2003): 3538.
2. Andrews RJ, Beck G, Castelijns K, Chen A, Cribbs ME,
Fadnes FH, Irvine-Fortescue J, Williams S, Hashem M,
Jamaluddin A, Kurkjian A, Sass B, Mullins OC,
Rylander E and Van Dusen A: Quantifying
Contamination Using Color of Crude and Condensate,
Oileld Review 13, no. 3 (Autumn 2001): 2443.
3. For more on phase diagrams and pseudouids:
Composing Pseudouids in: Alaka JO, Bahamaish J,
Bowen G, Bratvedt K, Holmes JA, Miller T, Fjerstad P,
Grinestaff G, Jalali Y, Lucas C, Jimenez Z, Lolomari T,
May E and Randall E: Improving the Virtual Reservoir,
Oileld Review 13, no. 1 (Spring 2001): 4445.

55

Miscible ood programs, such as reinjection of

separator gases, can change the composition and
phase behavior of the mixture of formation and
injected uids. Capturing reservoir uid samples
may be necessary to understand this process also.

2.0
Methane
Ethane
N-heptane
Carbon dioxide

Optical density

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
1600

1700

1800
Wavelength, nm

1900

2000

2100

Medium-weight oil

Optical density

Water
2

Hydrocarbons

Condensate

0
500

1000

1500

2000

Wavelength, nm

> Visible and near-infrared absorption spectrum. As the wavelength increases, hydrocarbon optical
densityor light absorptionis due to successively heavier and more complex molecules (bottom).
Gas condensates and oils have different responses in the visible region. Hydrocarbon molecularexcitation bands appear at about 1700 nanometers (nm), where light interacting with hydrocarbon
bonds induces molecular vibrations (top). Methane has a peak at the CH4 vibrational mode, and
ethane peaks at the CH3 mode. Longer-chain hydrocarbons, such as n-heptane, have many CH2
bonds, but also have CH3 bonds at the ends of chains. The carbon dioxide excitation wavelength is
longer than the hydrocarbon mode wavelengths. Water has two strong, broad absorption peaks,
which can interfere with detection of the hydrocarbon excitation peaks (bottom).

economic to produce unless a tieback conguration or additional facilities are built to market
the gas.
Sound production practices also require
knowledge of uid-phase behavior. If reservoir
pressure drops below the dewpoint, liquid condensate drops out in the formation. At low
saturation, liquid in the pore spaces is not mobile

56

and decreases the gas relative permeability. Two

negative economic impacts result: productivity
declines and valuable condensate liquids are left
behind in the reservoir. Pressure support through
gas or water injection often is required to keep
reservoir pressure above the dewpoint. Similar
practices can be followed to keep an oil reservoir
above the bubblepoint to avoid gas breakout.

Fluid Sampling
For many years, the industry has evaluated uids
by collecting samples from a formation, bringing
them to surface, and analyzing them in a laboratory that may be far from the wellsite. This
process can be time-consuming and is subject to
errors in collection, handling or sample degradation during transport.
The PVT Express onsite well-uid analysis
service is a recent advance in uid-property
determination. This system can deliver detailed
uid-analysis data a few hours after samples
reach the surface. A unique minicell for PVT
property determination allows onsite measurement of dewpoint pressure on gas-condensate
samples. The compact, modular, mobile laboratory can be transported to any geographic
location. Delays associated with sample shipment are eliminated. Fluid quality and uid
properties can be determined while the opportunity to obtain additional samples is still
available. Decisions relating to additional wireline formation testing or drillstem testing operations can be made more quickly with the PVT
Express service.
Taking the next step, Schlumberger makes
some uid properties evaluations downhole. The
LFA Live Fluid Analyzer for the MDT tool provides a means to analyze in-situ fluids to
determine when contamination from drilling
mud has decreased sufciently to obtain a uid
sample with acceptable quality.4 This minimizes
the time required to collect fluid samples,
decreasing both rig costs and the risk of the tool
becoming stuck because it was on the formation
for too long.
The LFA module includes a channel specically tuned to record the presence of methane,
providing a means to obtain GOR.5 Downhole GOR
measurements help identify whether different
formations are compartmentalized. A sampling
program can be directed to reveal compositional
variation within a given compartment, helping to
optimize completion programs. Agreement
between downhole, wellsite and laboratory crudeoil property measurements engenders condence
in the derived uid properties.
The LFA channels also measure the oils
color, which usually changes as drilling mud is
ushed out of the formation. A sophisticated
algorithm indicates the cleanup time required to

Oileld Review

obtain a representative formation-uid sample in

the MDT sample modules.6 This evaluation prequalifies fluid samples for more extensive
analysis at the surface, provides basic uidproperty data such as GOR and helps dene uid
variability at different depths. These measurements are critical for adjusting a sampling and
analysis plan while the MDT tool is in the borehole, which helps an operator realize maximum
benet of a logging run.
Gas-condensate reservoirs present special
challenges for uid-sample collection. A sampling tool must apply a pressure differential to
pull uid out of the formation into its sampling
chambers. If this drawdown is too large, the pressure can drop below the dewpoint and the separated liquid phase may be trapped in the
reservoir. As a result, the sample collected will
not be representative. Even if the phase transition occurs outside the formation, that is, the
uid becomes multiphase within the tools probe
and pumpout modules or in the owlines leading
to the sampling chamber, differences in uid
density and viscosity and phase segregation
within the tool can lead to an unrepresentative
sample composition. This problem of a reservoir
uid breaking into two phases is even more
severe when the samples are obtained at surface
during a drillstem test, which uses a larger pressure drawdown than a sampling tool on wireline.
The new CFA modulea joint development of
Schlumberger-Doll Research Center, Ridgeeld,
Connecticut, USA; Schlumberger Kabushiki
Kaisha Technology Center, Fuchinobe, Kanagawa,
Japan; and Schlumberger Sugar Land Product
Center, Sugar Land, Texas, USAwas designed
specically to detect dew formation as a second
hydrocarbon phase using a fluorescence
detector. This is the rst downhole tool with
dew-detection capabilities. With this capability,
the module can differentiate between single- and
multiple-phase ow and can show when pressure
in the tool drops below the dewpoint pressure.
Used in combination with an LFA module, a CFA
tool indicates the proper time and conditions for
obtaining a uid sample, even in the difcult
environment of gas-condensate reservoirs.
In addition to the uorescence detector, the
CFA tool incorporates absorption spectrometers
that measure the opacity, or optical density, of a
uid at several wavelengths. These measurements distinguish several components of hydrocarbon uids, not only enhancing dew detection,
but also providing a compositional analysis.
This compositional analysis capability will be
discussed first, with fluorescence detection
described later in the article.

Autumn 2003

Evaluating Gas Composition

Hydrocarbon molecules interact with light in the
visible and near-infrared wavelength band that is
sampled by the CFA spectrometers. Interaction
with electronic energy bands gives oils their
color, with complex molecules absorbing more
light than simple ones (previous page).7 Oils with
a signicant quantity of resins and asphaltenes
are darker than oils containing primarily parafns.8 Gas condensates tend to be relatively clear,
with little electronic absorption.
A different type of interaction occurs in
the near-infrared region, where light absorption
excites molecular vibration. The type of
molecular bond between carbon [C] and
hydrogen [H] atoms determines the frequency of
absorbed light. The dominant vibrational
absorption interactions occur in three types of
molecular congurations:9
a carbon atom surrounded by four hydrogen
atoms, that is, CH4
a carbon atom with three hydrogen atoms,
CH3
a carbon atom with two hydrogen atoms,
CH2.
Methane is the unique example of the rst
mode. Ethane is an example of the second case,
because it contains two carbon atoms that are
each connected to three hydrogen atoms.
However, longer-chain hydrocarbons are predominantly CH2 but also have the CH3 group at
each end of a chain. The CH2 group dominates
light absorption by such long-chain compounds,
but there also is some CH3 absorption. For
example, 77% of the carbon-hydrogen bonds of
n-dodecane, a common parafn with 12 carbon
atoms in a linear chain, are in CH2 groups.
There is a complication in the analysis of
hydrocarbon spectra: the absorption spectra
overlap. Spectral interpretation requires proper
accounting for this overlap. These complexities
are overcome in the CFA analysis by employing a
technique called principal component regression. This mathematical procedure extracts maximal information content in any dataset, in this
case the vibrational spectra.
The CFA interpretation algorithm incorporates
ve detectors to determine four components:10
methane, which is termed C1 in the
CFA analysis 11
other hydrocarbon gases, termed C2-C5
hydrocarbon liquids, termed C6+
carbon dioxide, CO2.
Distinct spectral signatures can distinguish
both methane and carbon dioxide. The other
hydrocarbon gases are dominated by CH3, and
CH2 groups dominate hydrocarbon liquids. Thus,

the principal component regression results are

interpretable in terms of spectral characteristics.
In the same part of the infrared spectrum,
water has a broad and strong absorption peak.
The presence of water can swamp the other signals, particularly the CO2 signal. The CFA module
has a detector tuned to the water vibrational
mode, indicating when the responses from the
other detectors are inuenced by water.
The CFA tool is recommended for uids with
a GOR exceeding 1000 scf/bbl [180 m3/m3],
because uids with a lower GOR have a color
signal that is strong enough to interfere with the
vibrational-mode absorption peaks. This recommended range includes gases, gas condensates,
volatile oils and some black oils.12
The following sections show how these compositional measurements were used to detect
injected gas in a monitoring well and to discover
a compositional gradient within the oil leg of a
reservoir with a gas cap.
4. Andrews et al, reference 2.
5. Mullins OC, Beck GF, Cribbs ME, Terabayashi T and
Kegasawa K: Downhole Determination of GOR on
Single-Phase Fluids by Optical Spectroscopy,
Transactions of the SPWLA 42nd Annual Logging
Symposium, Houston, Texas, USA, June 1720, 2001,
paper M.
Dong C, Hegeman PS, Elshahawi H, Mullins OC,
Fujisawa G and Kurkjian A: Advances in Downhole
Contamination Monitoring and GOR Measurement of
Formation Fluid Samples, Transactions of the SPWLA
44th Annual Logging Symposium, Galveston, Texas,
USA, June 2225, 2003, paper FF.
6. Mullins OC, Schroer J and Beck GF: Real-Time
Quantication of OBM Filtrate Contamination During
Openhole Wireline Sampling by Optical Spectroscopy,
Transactions of the SPWLA 41st Annual Logging
Symposium, Dallas, Texas, June 47, 2000, paper SS.
7. For more on visible and near-infrared light interactions
with crude oil: Andrews et al, reference 2.
8. Nonhydrocarbon compounds found in oil, such as those
containing nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur, also contribute
to color. Dark oils can contain large amounts of these
components.
9. The dashes indicate a connection to other carbon
atoms: CH3 connects to one carbon atom, and CH2
connects to a carbon atom on each side of the indicated
carbon atom.
10. Van Agthoven MA, Fujisawa G, Rabbito P and
Mullins OC: Near-Infrared Spectral Analysis of Gas
Mixtures, Applied Spectroscopy 56, no. 5 (2002): 593598.
Fujisawa G, van Agthoven MA, Jenet F, Rabbito PA and
Mullins OC: Near-Infrared Compositional Analysis of
Gas and Condensate Reservoir Fluids at Elevated
Pressures and Temperatures, Applied Spectroscopy
56, no. 12 (2002): 16151620.
11. In this terminology, the number following the letter C
indicates the number of carbon atoms in the compound.
Thus, C1 is methane, with molecular formula CH4.
12. A standard correlation of oil type to GOR is that black oil
GOR is less than 2000 scf/bbl [360 m3/m3]; volatile oils
range from that value to 3300 scf/bbl [594 m3/m3]; then
gas condensates extend to 50,000 scf/bbl [9006 m3/m3];
and gases have GOR greater than 50,000 scf/bbl.

57

Composition
percent

100

Water Flag

CO2
Quality

Low

Water
Volume
Fraction

Medium 0 percent 100

Elapsed
Time, s

High

C6+
C2C5

Tool GOR

C1

Laboratory GOR

Highly Scattering Fluid

10,260
10,215
10,170
10,125
10,080
10,035
9990
9945
9900
9855

Gas/Oil Ratio

scf/bbl

7500

A
Lab result

8145
8100
8055
8010
7965
7920
7875
7830
7785
7740

B
Lab result

8145
8100
8055
8010
7965
7920
7875
7830
7785
7740

C
Lab result

8145
8100
8055
8010
7965
7920
7875
7830
7785
7740

D
Lab result

> CFA uid composition in a UAE carbonate reservoir. The CFA result indicated that the upper zone, A, was unswept. The second station, B, had the
greatest concentration of the gas components, C1 and C2-C5, and the highest
gas/oil ratio (GOR), indicating that the injected gas had swept this zone. The
two lower stations also had been partly swept by injected gas. Results from
samples collected during this logging run were analyzed in a laboratory, conrming the composition and GOR values measured by the CFA module.

58

Detecting Injection Gas

The CFA module was used in a gas-injection pilot
project that had been in operation for several
years in an onshore carbonate reservoir in the
United Arab Emirates (UAE). As part of an ongoing evaluation program, the operator, Abu Dhabi
Company for Onshore Oil Operations (ADCO)
drilled a new monitoring well to determine the
progress of the injected gas.13 An MDT sampling
string containing the CFA tool was equipped with
a dual-packer module, a pumpout module, an
LFA module and 18 single-phase multisample
chambers. Single-phase samples of sufficient
quality for later, detailed laboratory analyses
were obtained from six different stations.
The CFA tool provided uid compositional
information prior to sample collection at the rst
four stations. The drilling uid was a water-base
mud, so some water was detected during the
analysis. The characteristics of the pumpout
moduledescribed in Detecting a Multiphase
Condition, page 60caused the water to appear
as slugs passing the CFA window. The tool monitored the cleanup of the drilling uid prior
to sampling.
The upper zone sample was virtually all oil
(left). The second sample station clearly showed
a high concentration of gas coming from the formation. The two lowest zones produced some gas.
This indicated that, at the monitor well, the top
zone was unswept, and the second zone had been
swept the most by the injected gas. The results
demonstrated that these two upper zones were
not in communication.
The CFA results were obtained after about
two hours of pumping to clean out drilling mud.
After an additional two to three hours at each
station, changes in the LFA color channels indicated that the uid had cleaned up enough to
take a sample in a single-phase sampling cylinder. These samples were analyzed in a laboratory,
and the results match reasonably well with the
real-time CFA data. These results helped ADCO
understand the ow characteristics and gasinjection efciency of their eld.
Discovering a Compositional Gradient
Statoil, the operator of a Norwegian Sea
appraisal well, wanted to establish the gas/oil
contact (GOC) and oil/water contact (OWC) and
obtain uid samples for laboratory analysis. A
drillstem test in a discovery well had not provided conclusive uid-phase property data. This
was the only appraisal well drilled before
developing facilities to process a complex, nearcritical reservoir-uid system. Statoil felt it was

Oileld Review

C1
Formation Resistivity
0.01

Bulk Density
0.6

Gamma Ray
XX60

20

g/cm3

Neutron Porosity

API 140 1.7

p.u.

C2C5

ohm-m 10,000

C6+

Invaded-Zone Resistivity
0 0.1

in.

Laboratory GOR
scf/bbl 8000

385 0

Tool GOR
scf/bbl 8000

Water

ohm-m 10,000

Invaded-Zone Diameter

2.7 0

Optical Density

60 375

MDT Pressure
Gas
bar

Oil
Water

2
Gas/oil
contact

XX80
3

XY00

4
Oil/water
contact

XY20

XY40

XY60

XY80

> Compositional gradient in a North Sea well. Gamma ray (Track 1), bulk density and neutron porosity
(Track 2), and formation resistivity (Track 3) logs indicate a relatively featureless zone of about 100 m
[328 ft]. A thin, possibly impermeable zone exists at about XY30. The invaded-zone resistivity (Track 3)
implies a water zone up to XY10, with a transition zone up to about XX95 and perhaps a third zone
above XX75. The pressure measurements (Track 4) conrm three gradients, with a gas/oil contact at
XX75 and an oil/water contact at XY10. Both optical density from the CFA color channel and gas/oil
ratio (GOR) (Track 5) show a gradient in composition, which is also seen in the CFA compositional
analysis (Track 4). The numbers to the left of the CFA compositions indicate the sampling order in the
wellbore. The thin bars below each CFA result are later laboratory results, which were scaled to
exclude the water fraction measured by the CFA tool, allowing direct comparison of the hydrocarbon
components. Laboratory GOR measurements (Track 5) also conrm the compositional gradient,
although the magnitude is somewhat different from the CFA result.

important to obtain a good description of the

uid properties within the reservoir.
A wireline triple combo log indicated 100 m
[328 ft] of relatively featureless reservoir, except
for a possibly impermeable streak at about
XY30 m (above). The density and neutron porosity logs did not indicate a crossover. Crossover is
normally a sign of a gas zone, but the formation
and uid properties in this reservoir were such
that no separation was seen, probably because of
high gas density, low oil density and invasion by
water-base mud ltrate. The formation resistivity
was uniform, but the resistivity due to the waterbase mud in the invaded region indicated a prob-

Autumn 2003

able change in the ushed-zone water saturation,

with a likely OWC at XY10.
Statoil next obtained pressure gradients in
the formation using an MDT tool to nd the different uid sections. The MDT logging system
comprised a probe module, a pumpout module,
a CFA module, an LFA module and multiple
sample-chamber modules. The probe module had
a high-grade quartz pressure gauge.
Within the 100-m span identied by the wireline logs, the operator obtained 25 pressure measurements. These data identied three different
pressure gradients corresponding to gas, oil and
water, all in hydraulic communication. However,

the pressure gradient alone was inadequate to

resolve a compositional gradient in the hydrocarbon zone. Statoil had investigated compositional
grading at other locations around the world and
wanted to study this oil leg in greater detail.14
Once the pressures were obtained, the operator repositioned the tool string to analyze the
formation uids using the CFA module and to collect samples in high-pressure sample bottles
from an area in the lower part of the oil leg. The
CFA module obtained a quick reading of sample
composition before filling each sampling
cylinder. The results, transmitted to surface in
real time, indicated that the uid composition
stabilized within 1000 to 2000 seconds, or 17 to
33 minutes. The CFA compositional measurements typically were taken after an hour of
cleanup time. However, slugs of water-base mud
continued to pass through the apparatus, and it
typically took more than two additional hours for
the mud contamination to become acceptably
low to obtain each sample for surface analysis.
Next, the probe was positioned in the gas cap.
The GOR was high, with large concentrations of
C1 and C2C5 components. The optical density
at the color channel was almost zero in the gas
cap, consistent with the presence of a very
light hydrocarbon system.
After obtaining a uid sample in the gas cap,
the tool was repositioned to obtain a second sample 14 m [46 ft] above the rst oil sample. The
operator suspected there might be a compositional
gradient in the oil zone. The CFA results from the
two oil stations indicated a signicantly higher
GOR at the upper position. The color optical
density also was less at the upper station, indicating a greater content of gas components at the
higher position.
With this information, the operator was able
to change the logging plan immediately. The
probe module was placed as close to the
oil/water contact as possible, then as close to the
gas/oil contact as possible. The CFA readings
over the full extent of the oil column conrmed
the existence of a uid compositional gradient
and more than a 60% increase in GOR over about
13. Fujisawa G, Mullins OC, Dong C, Carnegie A,
Betancourt SS, Terabayashi T, Yoshida S, Jaramillo AR
and Haggag M: Analyzing Reservoir Fluid Composition
In-Situ in Real Time: Case Study in a Carbonate
Reservoir, paper SPE 84092, presented at the SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Denver,
Colorado, USA, October 58, 2003.
14. Hier L and Whitson CH: Compositional Grading
Theory and Practice, paper SPE 63085, presented at
the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
Dallas, Texas, USA, October 14, 2000.
For another compositional-gradient example: Metcalfe
RS, Vogel JL and Morris RW: Compositional Gradients
in the Anschutz Ranch East Field, paper SPE 14412,
SPE Reservoir Engineering 3, no. 3 (August 1988):
10251032.

59

Subtle changes in composition can be easily

obscured if the uid passing through the detectors has separated into two phases. This can
occur if the drawdown pressure is too great. The
use of uorescence is key to detecting when a
uid passes through its dewpoint.

Excitation

Fluorescence intensity

Fluorescence channel 1

Gas condensate

Light oil

Fluorescence
channel 2

Wavelength

Fluorescence Fluorescence
channel 1
channel 2
Reflection
Blue light
detector
source
Lamp

Water

Fluid flow

Fluorescence
detection unit

Spectrometer

> Detecting uorescence. The uorescence detector and spectrometer are

about 7 cm [3 in.] apart along the CFA owline (bottom). In the uorescence
detection unit, a blue light source reects from a sampling window into a
detection channel tuned to the same wavelength. The excitation beam is
reemitted at longer wavelengths. Two other channels are tuned to detect this
hydrocarbon uorescence over two broad ranges of wavelengths. Most of the
signal from condensates occurs in the rst of these two detectors (top).

a 32-m [105-ft] interval within the oil column.

Fluid samples taken at each of these points and
later analyzed in a laboratory confirmed a
compositional gradient.
Finding this gradient without the real-time
CFA analysis would be unlikely. First, small differences between samples in a laboratory often
are interpreted as reecting sampling difculties
rather than uid-property variations. Second, a
company would not be likely to position a tool at
four separate heights in this oil leg without some
prior evidence of the presence of a gradient.
For Statoil, the important point was that the
existence of a compositional gradient within the
oil leg was noticed and conrmed in real time.
This allowed the operator to adjust the MDT
sampling program to identify appropriate uid
sampling depths and collect sufcient quantities
of samples for complete reservoir uid description.

60

Knowing that there was a compositional gradient

in the formation and knowing the expected range
of GOR helped the company develop a wellbore
drawdown strategy to optimize production.
Because the operator planned to develop the
eld using horizontal wells, placement of the
wells in relation to the gas/oil and water/oil contacts was crucial. An MDT permeability test performed during this testing sequence provided
additional information for well placement.
The in-situ properties determination provided by the combination of the CFA and LFA
modules assured that quality samples were
obtained in the sampling cylinders. Since the
produced uids from this eld will be tied in to
other elds, a quality uid compositional analysis and determination of compatibility with the
other uids were important for ow assurance.

An Aromatic Afterglow
Aromatic hydrocarbons uoresce. The distinguishing characteristic of uorescence is that
there is a brief time delay between light absorption and its reemission, and that the reemission
occurs at a lower energythat is, a longer wavelengththan the absorbed light (left).15
The CFA module incorporates a uorescence
detection unit (FDU) along the owline, about
7 cm [3 in.] from the absorption spectrometer.
Since they are close together, the two types of
detector sample essentially the same uid. This
allows the two measurements to be used simultaneously to evaluate uids.
The FDU shines blue light onto a window in
the ow tube. One detector tuned at the source
wavelength is placed at the reection angle.
This provides a measure of direct reection of
light, reducing the possibility of false-positive
uorescence detection. Two other detectors in
the FDU record the intensity and spectrum of
the uorescence.
The FDU is particularly sensitive to uorescence from uid on the surface of the ow-tube
window. Dew formation often causes a liquid
coating on the ow-tube surfaces. When the uid
is in a single phase, the detector measures the
properties of the uid owing near the window.
Once the pressure drops below the dewpoint,
liquid drops out of solution and condenses. The
condensed liquid phase wets the detector window, so the uorescence detector is most sensitive to the properties of the liquid phase. Since
the heavy ends are enriched in the liquid phase,
the FDU is sensitive to the presence of a liquid
phase dropping out from a gas condensate. This
makes it an excellent tool for detecting when a
uid drops below its dewpoint.
Detecting a Multiphase Condition
The rst use of an FDU in the eld showed that
the drawdown pressure being used at that
sampling station was too large, generating a twophase condition. The operator moved to another
location a few centimeters away and resampled,
this time obtaining a good sample. This section
describes how the fluids separated in the
pumpout module and how the FDU detected this
two-phase condition caused by excessive drawdown at the rst location.

Oileld Review

15. One way for a molecule to decay from an excited state

is by emitting a photon. If some of the excitation energy
has dissipated, for example through collision, the reemitted light is at a lower energy than the absorbed light.

Autumn 2003

Downstroke

Gas
Oil
Water
Hydraulic oil

Upstroke

To flowline

From reservoir

From reservoir

To flowline

Upstroke

Downstroke

Fluorescence intensity, volt

Water apparent density, g/cm3
Ratio of C1 to C6+, dimensionless

During an MDT logging run, a probe seals

against the formation, then the pump pulls uid
from the formation into the tool. Ideally, the
drawdown will be sufcient to remove the uid
from the formation, but not so much as to drop
the uid below its dewpoint pressure. However,
both the formation permeability and the differential between dewpoint pressure and formation
pressure are unknown or poorly known before
most MDT jobs in exploration wells begin. In fact,
determining the dewpoint is one of the main reasons for obtaining uid samples. Without knowing
permeability and dewpoint pressure, establishing
a proper drawdown pressure to keep a gas in
single phase is difcult. The FDU on the CFA tool
provides a check of this condition in situ.
When water may be present in the owline,
the CFA unit should be placed downstream of the
pumpout module to avoid continuous swamping
of the longer wavelength absorption spectrometers by the strong water-absorption peak. The
water is still present in the owlines in this conguration, but the residence time in the pump is
sufcient for phase segregation to occur. Thus,
the water, oil and gas phases will ow through
the spectrometers separately (right). On the
downstroke, the lower part of the pump lls from
the formation, and the upper part discharges to
the owline. The discharge point is at the bottom
of the upper pump chamber, so the rst uid
pumped out is water, followed by oil, then gas. On
the upstroke, the chambers reverse function.
Now, the lower chamber discharges to the owline, but this time does so from the upper part
of the chamber. The rst uid expelled is gas,
followed by oil, then water.
The CFA tool clearly distinguishes owing
phases using the water and hydrocarbon vibrational-energy absorption peaks and the main
FDU fluorescence channel. The hydrocarbon
vibrational channels provide an indicator of the
amount of gas passing through the owline when
the ratio of C1 to C6+ is high. The FDU is sensitive to the presence of a liquid hydrocarbon
phase. Thus, a plot of these three quantities
water absorption, C1/C6+ ratio and the main
uorescence channelshows the three phases
passing through the owline.
This procedure indicated three-phase ow
during sampling of a gas cap in a North Sea well.
In this case, the operator suspected that the gas

1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0

20

40

60
Elapsed time, s

80

100

120

> Detecting multiple phases downstream of the pumpout module in a North Sea well. The pumpout
module is a reciprocating pump with two separate chambers sharing one piston. When the pumpout
module strokes down (top left), a multiplex valve directs uid from the formation into the lower chamber
and from the upper chamber into the owline. On the upstroke, the multiplex valve switches the inlet
and outlet sources (top right). The CFA module, which is downstream of the pump, detects three
phases. The chart (middle) compares signals from the water vibrational channel, from the main
uorescence channel that indicates liquid oil, and from the C1/C6+ ratio that indicates gas. On the
downstroke, water is expelled rst, followed by oil, then gas (assuming all are present, as they are
here). On the upstroke, the order is reversed. The color bar indicates the primary ow contributor
(bottom). This uid sample came from a gas-condensate zone, and the separation of the uid into gas
and liquid phases indicated the drawdown was too large.

cap might contain a retrograde condensate. The

gas was near a saturated condition, and the
pumpout unit drew the pressure down to about
25 bar [370 psi] below formation pressure.
Because a large drawdown was used to pump the
uids out of the formation, two hydrocarbon
phases were observed; a sample taken from this
depth would be invalid because of a high likelihood of formation-uid damage at this point.
After moving the MDT string a few centimeters to
obtain an unaffected uid sample, the operator
found this new sample contained more liquid
than the rst. Detecting the inappropriate sampling condition and moving to a new location was
possible because of the real-time CFA results.

Real-Time Advantages
Capabilities provided by the FDU are being
incorporated into real-time CFA services,
increasing the sensitivity for detecting phase
transitions and providing additional information
about in-situ uid compositions.
The ability to distinguish methane and light
hydrocarbons from heavier hydrocarbons greatly
increases the amount of information available in
real time from gas-condensate reservoirs. This
determination allows an operator to quickly
make important economic decisions about a
reservoir. The operator can then follow up with
more extensive measurements in a surface
laboratory, using samples whose quality has
been assuredbefore collectionusing these
innovative downhole sampling tools.
MAA

61

From Mud to CementBuilding Gas Wells

Claudio Brufatto
Petrobras Bolivia S.A.
Santa Cruz, Bolivia
Jamie Cochran
Aberdeen, Scotland

As demand for natural gas increases, wellbore construction across gas-bearing

formations takes center stage. With few cost-effective remedial measures available,
prevention of annular gas ow and sustained casing pressure is key to drilling and
completing long-lasting gas wells.

Lee Conn
David Power
M-I L.L.C.
Houston, Texas, USA

1500

500

0
250

Bernard Fraboulet
Total Exploration & Production
Pau, France

0
100

2000

Said Zaki Abd Alla El-Zeghaty

Abu Dhabi Marine Operating Company
(ADMA - OPCO)
Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates (UAE)

Tom Grifn
Grifn Cement Consulting LLC
Houston, Texas
Simon James
Trevor Munk
Clamart, France
Frederico Justus
Santa Cruz, Bolivia
Joseph R. Levine
United States Minerals Management Service
Herndon, Virginia, USA
Carl Montgomery
ConocoPhillips
Bartlesville, Oklahoma, USA
Dominic Murphy
BHP Billiton Petroleum
London, England
Jochen Pfeiffer
Houston, Texas
Tiraputra Pornpoch
PTT Exploration and Production
Public Company Ltd. (PTTEP)
Bangkok, Thailand
Lara Rishmani
Abu Dhabi, UAE

62

Oileld Review

Wells at Risk
Since the earliest gas wells, uncontrolled migration of hydrocarbons to the surface has
challenged the oil and gas industry. Gas migration, also called annular flow, can lead to
sustained casing pressure (SCP), sometimes
called sustained annular pressure (SAP).
Sustained casing pressure can be characterized

Autumn 2003

60
Percent of wells affected by SCP

The science of constructing gas wells is thousands of years old. Legend has it that the
Chinese dug the first natural gas well before
200 BC and transported the gas through bamboo
pipelines.1 Subsequent well-construction history
is unclear until 1821, the year of the rst US well
drilled specically for natural gas.2 This well, in
Fredonia, New York, USA, reached a depth of
27 ft [8.2 m] and produced enough gas to light
dozens of burners at a nearby inn. Eventually
the well was deepened and produced enough gas
to provide lighting for the whole town of
Fredonia. By this time, well-casing technology in
the form of hollowed-out wooden logs had been
developed for salt dome drilling, but it is not
known whether such casing was used in the gas
wells drilled during this era. In all likelihood,
these rst gas wells were leak-prone.
During the rest of the 19th Century, natural
gas became an important energy source for
many communities. Techniques for locating,
exploiting and transporting natural gas to our
homes and industries have had huge advances
since the early days.
Despite these advances, many of todays
wells are at risk. Failure to isolate sources
of hydrocarbon either early in the wellconstruction process or long after production
begins has resulted in abnormally pressured
casing strings and leaks of gas into zones that
would otherwise not be gas-bearing.
Abnormal pressure at the surface may often
be easy to detect, although the source or root
cause may be difcult to determine. Tubing and
casing leaks, poor drilling and displacement
practices, improper cement selection and
design, and production cycling may all be factors
in the development of gas leaks.
Planning for gas by acknowledging the interdependencies of various well-construction
processes is critical to building gas wells for the
future. This article focuses on an early phase in
the gas journeyconstructing the gas well. Case
studies from South America, the Irish Sea, Asia
and the Middle East demonstrate effective
methods for selecting drilling muds, displacing
mud before cementing, and constructing longlasting wells with high-integrity cement.

50
40
30
20
10
0

12
16
Well age, years

20

24

28

> Wells with SCP by age. Statistics from the United States Mineral Management
Service (MMS) show the percentage of wells with SCP for wells in the outer
continental shelf (OCS) area of the Gulf of Mexico, grouped by age of the wells.
These data do not include wells in state waters or land locations.

as the development of annular pressure at the

surface that can be bled to zero, but then builds
again. The presence of SCP indicates that there
is communication to the annulus from a sustainable pressure source because of inadequate
zonal isolation. Annular ow and SCP are signicant problems affecting wells in many
hydrocarbon-producing regions of the world.3
In the Gulf of Mexico, there are approximately 15,500 producing, shut-in and temporarily
abandoned wells in the outer continental shelf
(OCS) area.4 United States Minerals Management
Service (MMS) data show that 6692 of these
wells, or 43%, have reported SCP on at least one
casing annulus. In this group of wells with SCP,
pressure is present in 10,153 of all casing annuli:
47.1% of the annuli are in production strings,
26.2% are in surface casing, 16.3% are in intermediate strings, and 10.4% are in conductor pipe.
The presence of SCP appears to be related to
well age; older wells are generally more likely to
experience SCP. By the time a well is 15 years
old, there is a 50% probability that it will have
measurable SCP in one or more of its casing
annuli [above]. However, SCP may be present in
wells of any age.
In the Gulf of Mexico OCS area, SCP generally results from either direct communication of
shallow gas-bearing sands with the surface or
poor primary cementing that exposes deeper
gas-bearing sands through gas migration. Most
wells in the Gulf of Mexico have multiple casing
strings and produce through production tubing,

making locating and repairing leaks difficult

and expensive.
In Canada, SCP occurs in all types of wells
shallow gas wells in southern Alberta, heavy-oil
producers in eastern Alberta and deep gas wells
in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains.5 Most of
the pressure buildup is due to gas, although, in
fewer than 1% of all wells, oil and sometimes salt
water also ow to surface.
Continued demand for natural gas coupled
with increasingly more difficult drilling
environments has heightened operator awareness worldwide to the short- and long-term
implications of poor zonal isolation. Whether
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to
Raafat Abbas and Daniele Petrone, Abu Dhabi, UAE;
and Matima Ratanapinyowong, Bangkok, Thailand.
CBT (Cement Bond Tool), CemCADE, CemCRETE, DeepCEM,
DensCRETE, FlexSTONE, GASBLOK, LiteCRETE, MUDPUSH,
USI (UltraSonic Imager), Variable Density and WELLCLEAN II
are marks of Schlumberger. SILDRIL, VERSADRIL and
Virtual Hydraulics are marks of M-I L.L.C.
1. For an overview of natural gas history:
http://r0.unctad.org/infocomm/anglais/gas/
characteristics.htm (accessed August 20, 2003).
http://www.naturalgas.org/overview/history.asp
(accessed August 20, 2003).
2. For a chronology of oil- and gas-well drilling in
Pennsylvania: http://www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/
deputate/minres/reclaiMPa/interestingfacts/
chronlogyofoilandgas (accessed August 20, 2003).
3. Frigaard IA and Pelipenko S: Effective and Ineffective
Strategies for Mud Removal and Cement Slurry Design,
paper SPE 80999, presented at the SPE Latin American
and Caribbean Petroleum Engineering Conference,
Port-of -Spain, Trinidad, West Indies, April 2730, 2003.
4. United States Minerals Management Service statistics:
http://www.gomr.mms.gov (accessed August 21, 2003).
5. Alberta Energy and Utilities Board:
http://www.eub.gov.ab.ca (accessed August 15, 2003).

63

constructing a gas well, an oil well, or both,

long-term, durable zonal isolation is key to
minimizing problems associated with annular
gas ow and SCP development.6
Identifying Causes of Gas Migration
Annular gas may originate from a pay zone or
from noncommercial, gas-bearing formations.7
Some of the most hazardous gas ows have originated from unrecognized gas behind conductor,
surface or intermediate casing. Typically, gas
ow that occurs immediately after cementing or
before the cement is set is referred to as annular
gas flow, or annular gas migration. This flow is
generally massive and can be interzonal, charging lower-pressured formations, or can flow to

the surface and require well-control procedures.

Flow to surface occurring later in the life of the
well is known as SCP. Later flow also can be
from gas-bearing formations to formations of
lower pressure, generally at shallower depths.
Determining the precise source of annular
flow or sustained casing pressure is often difficult, although likely causes can be divided into
four primary categories: tubing and casing leaks,
poor mud displacement, improper cement-slurry
design and damage to primary cement after
setting [below].
Tubing and casing leaksProduction tubing failures may present the most serious SCP
problem. 8 Leaks can result from poor thread
connection, corrosion, thermal-stress cracking

Microannulus

Poor mud displacement

Cement not gas-tight

Sand

Tubing leak

> Scenarios for gas ow. Shown are possible scenarios of gas migration to
the surface resulting in SCP. Tubing and packer leaks may allow gas to
migrate. Microannului may develop soon or long after cementing operations.
Poor mud displacement may result in inadequate zonal isolation. Gas may
slowly displace residual nondisplaced drilling uid, eventually pressurizing
the annular space between tubing and casing strings. Gas may also ow
through poorly designed nongas-tight permeable cement.

64

or mechanical rupture of the inner string, or

from a packer leak. Production casing is
typically designed to handle tubing leaks, but if
the pressure from a leak causes a failure of the
production casing, the outcome can be catastrophic. With pressurization of the outer casing
strings, leaks to surface or underground
blowouts may jeopardize personnel safety, production-platform facilities and the environment.
Poor mud displacementInadequate
removal of mud or spacer uids prior to cement
placement may result in failure to achieve zonal
isolation. There are several reasons for mudremoval failure, including, but not limited to,
poor borehole conditions, improper displacement mechanics and failures in displacement
process or execution. Inadequate removal of
mud from the borehole during displacement is a
major contributing factor to poor zonal isolation
and gas migration. Mud displacement is discussed in greater detail (see From Mud to
Cement, page 66).
Improper cement-slurry designFlow
occurring before cement has set is a result of
loss in hydrostatic pressure to the point that the
well is no longer overbalancedhydrostatic
pressure is less than formation pressure. This
decrease in hydrostatic pressure results from
several phenomena that occur as part of the
cement-setting process. 9 The change from a
highly uid, pumpable slurry to a set, rock-like
material involves a gradual transition of the
cement from fluid to gel and finally to a set
condition. This may require several hours,
depending on the temperature, quantity and
characteristics of retarding compounds added to
prevent setting of the cement prior to placement. As the cement begins to gel, bonding
between the cement, casing and borehole allows
the slurry to become partially self-supporting.
This self-supporting condition would not be a
problem if it occurred alone. The difculty arises
because, while the cement becomes selfsupporting, it loses volume as a result of at least
two factors. First, where the formation is permeable, the hydrostatic pressure overbalance
drives water from the cement into the formation. The rate of water loss depends on the
pressure differential, formation permeability,
the condition and permeability of any residual
mudcake and fluid-loss characteristics of the
cement. A second cause of volume loss is hydration volume reduction as the cement sets. This
occurs because set cement is denser and occupies less volume than the liquid slurry. Volume
loss is relatively small at rst, since little solid
product forms during early hydration. However,

Oileld Review

ultimately the volume loss can be as much as

6%.10 Volume loss coupled with the interaction
between partially set cement, borehole wall and
casing causes a loss of hydrostatic pressure,
leading to an underbalanced condition.
While the hydrostatic pressure in the
partially set cement is below formation pressure,
gas may invade. If unchecked, the invasion of
gas may create a channel through which gas can
flow, effectively compromising cement quality
and zonal isolation.
Free water in cement may also cause a channel. Under static conditions, slurry instability
may lead to water separating from a cement
slurry. This water may migrate to the borehole
wall and collect, forming a channel. This is of
particular concern in deviated wellbores where
gravity may drive density separation and fluid
inversion, resulting in the development of a freeuid channel on the top side of the borehole.
Cement damage after settingSCP can
occur long after the well-construction process.
Even a flawless primary cement job can be
damaged by rig operations or well activities
occurring after the cement has set. Changing
stresses in the wellbore may cause microannuli,
stress cracks, or both, often leading to SCP.11
The mechanical properties of casing and
cement vary signicantly. Consequently, they do
not behave in a uniform manner when exposed
to changes in temperature and pressure. As the
casing and cement expand and contract, the
bond between the cement sheath and casing
may fail, causing a microannulus, or flow path,
to develop.
Decreasing the internal casing pressure
during completion and production operations
may also lead to microannuli development.
Underbalanced perforating, gas-lift operations
or increased drawdown in response to reservoir
depletion all reduce internal casing pressure.
Any of these conditionstubing or casing
leaks, poor mud displacement, improper cement
system design or damage to cement after
settingmay result in ow paths for gas in the
form of discrete conductive cement fractures, or
microannuli. Once the gas-migration mechanism
is understood, steps can be taken to mitigate
the process.
Controlling Gas Migration
As the borehole reaches deeper into the earth,
previously isolated layers of formation are
exposed to one another, with the borehole as the
conductive path. Isolating these layers, or establishing zonal isolation, is key to minimizing the
migration of formation fluids between zones or

Autumn 2003

> Cuttings response to drilling uids. Cuttings samples were taken from a
well in the southern Gulf of Mexico drilled with oil-base mud; these cuttings
had not been exposed to water-base mud prior to testing. After cleaning oil
from the cuttings surface, Schlumberger laboratory technicians sorted the
rock pieces. Three initially identical samples of rock were photographed
after receiving a different treatment. Sample A (left) was placed in tap water,
Sample B (middle) into a generic lignosulfonate drilling uid and Sample C
(right) was immersed in a glycol-polymer-potassium chloride uid. Each
sample was rolled in a stainless-steel cell in a hot-roll oven for 16 hours at
250F [121C] to simulate drilling and transport up the borehole to surface.
The sample in tap water, Sample A, was most damaged, and Sample C in the
glycol-polymer-potassium chloride uid was essentially undamaged. The
lignosulfonate system generated intermediate damage for Sample B. Drilling
with a mud having low inhibition values would be expected to generate
borehole instability and washout. In contrast, excellent clay control would
be obtained by a more advanced chemistry, such as glycol-polymerpotassium chloride.

to the surface where SCP would develop. Crucial

to this process are borehole condition, effective
mud removal, and cement-system design for
placement, durability and adaptability to the
well life cycle.
Wellbore condition depends on many factors,
including rock type, formation pressures, local
stresses, the type of mud used and drilling
operational parameters, such as hydraulics,
penetration rate, hole cleaning and fluiddensity balance.
The ultimate condition of the borehole is
often determined early in the drilling process as
drilling mud interacts with newly exposed
formation. If mismatched, the interaction of the
drilling mud with formation clays can have
serious detrimental effects on borehole gauge
and rugosity. Once a well is drilled, displacement, cementing and ultimately, zonal-isolation
efficiency are dependent on a stable borehole
with minimal rugosity and tortuosity.
Mud companies have created highperformance water-base muds that incorporate
various polymers, glycols, silicates and amines, or
a combination thereof, for clay control. Today,
water-base and nonaqueous invert-emulsion
uids account for 95% of all drilling uids used.
The majority, about 70%, are water-base and range
from clear water to mud that is highly treated
with chemicals.
Drilling uid engineers and related technical
specialists have applied various techniques to
investigate rock response to drilling uid chemistry; these include exposing core samples to

drilling uids under simulated downhole conditions and physical examination of core and
cuttings with scanning electron microscopy.12
The results are often inconsistent, so drilling
fluid selection often is based simply on field
history. Many times, particularly in new fields
where formation clay chemistry may be
unknown, effective eld development may hinge
on understanding the nature of formation clays
as they vary with depth [above].
6. For more on zonal isolation: Abbas R, Cunningham E,
Munk T, Bjelland B, Chukwueke V, Ferri A, Garrison G,
Hollies D, Labat C and Moussa O: Solutions for
Long-Term Zonal Isolation, Oileld Review 14, no. 3
(Autumn 2002): 1629.
7. Bonett A and Patis D: Getting to the Root of Gas
Migration, Oileld Review 8, no. 1 (Spring 1996): 3649.
8. Bourgoyne A, Scott S and Manowski W: Review of
Sustained Casing Pressure Occurring on the OCS,
http://www.mms.gov/tarprojects/008/008DE.pdf
(posted April 2000).
9. Wojtanowicz AK and Zhou D: New Model of Pressure
Reduction to Annulus During Primary Cementing,
paper IADC/SPE 59137, presented at the IADC/SPE
Drilling Conference, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA,
February 2325, 2000.
10. Parcevaux PA and Sault PH: Cement Shrinkage and
Elasticity: A New Approach for a Good Zonal Isolation,
paper SPE 13176, presented at the 59th SPE Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition, Houston, Texas,
USA, September 1619, 1984.
11. A microannulus is a small gap between cement and a
pipe or a formation. This phenomenon has been documented by running sequential cement bond logs, rst
with no pressure inside the casing and then with the
casing pressured. The bond log clearly indicates that
applied pressure often closes a microannulus.
12. Galal M: Can We Visualize Drilling Fluid Performance
Before We Start? paper SPE 81415, presented at the
SPE 13th Middle East Oil Show & Conference, Bahrain,
June 912, 2003.

65

Many drilling uid additives are available to

assist the driller in formation-clay control.
Lightly treated, noninhibitive mud provides good
borehole cleaning and moderate filtration
control for routine tophole sections. Seawater,
brackish water or eld brines sometimes provide
inhibition in clay-laden shale, and high salt
levels, up to saturation, are used to prevent
washout while drilling massive salt sections.
Where environmental regulations allow,
nonwater-base muds can provide optimal borehole control. Drilling fluids based on oil- or
nonaqueous-synthetic-base materials, commonly
referred to as invert-emulsion muds, have
evolved into high-performance systems. Even
though synthetic-base mud can cost two to eight
times more than conventional fluids, superior
performance-to-cost ratios combined with
environmental acceptability have established
synthetic-base fluids as the top choice for
critical wells, particularly those in which gauge
hole and zonal isolation are signicant concerns.
Like the fluids themselves, drilling fluid
hydraulics play a fundamental role in constructing a quality borehole. Balance must be
maintained between fluid density, equivalent
circulating density (ECD) and borehole cleaning.13 If the static or dynamic uid density is too
high, loss of circulation may occur. Conversely, if

Hole
Cleaning

Hole
Cleaning

G = good
F = fair
P = poor

Equivalent Circulating Density

at Shoe versus Flow Rate
Equivalent circulating density
at shoe, lbm/gal

Geometry

it is too low, shales and formation fluids may

ow into the borehole, or in the worst case, well
control may be lost. Improper control of density
and borehole hydraulics can lead to signicant
borehole rugosity, poor displacement and,
ultimately, poor cement placement and failure
to achieve zonal isolation.
Rheological properties of drilling uids must
be optimized in such a way that the frictional
pressure losses are minimized without compromising cuttings-carrying capacity. Optimal uid
properties for achieving good borehole cleaning
and low frictional pressure loss often appear to be
mutually exclusive. Detailed engineering analysis
is required to obtain an acceptable compromise
that allows both objectives to be satised [below].
In a recent deepwater project offshore
Brazil, where wellbore erosion has been a severe
problem, M-Is Virtual Hydraulics software established the drilling parameters and fluid
properties required to provide ECD management
and good borehole cleaning with reduced flow
rates. In this case, less than ideal flow rates
were required to minimize borehole erosion.
However, carefully balancing the drilling fluid
rheology, flow rate and density allowed the
driller to maintain penetration rate while
effectively cleaning the borehole and minimizing
mechanical borehole erosion.

ROP = 5 m/hr
ROP = 16 m/hr
ROP = 28 m/hr
ROP = 39 m/hr
ROP = 50 m/hr

10.6

Low rheology

10.4
10.2
10.0
9.8
9.6
9.4
500

550

600

650

700

750

800

850

900

Flow rate, gal/min

Low
Rheology

Optimized
Rheology

Equivalent circulating density

at shoe, lbm/gal

Equivalent Circulating Density

at Shoe versus Flow Rate

ROP = 5 m/hr
ROP = 16 m/hr
ROP = 28 m/hr
ROP = 39 m/hr
ROP = 50 m/hr

9.90

Optimized rheology
9.85
9.80
9.75

From Mud to Cement

Proper mud selection and careful management
of drilling practices generally produce a quality
borehole that is near-gauge, stable and with
minimal areas of rugosity, or washout. To
establish zonal isolation with cement, the
drilling fluid must first be effectively removed
from the borehole.
Mud removal depends on many interdependent factors. Tubular geometry, downhole
conditions, borehole characteristics, fluid
rheology, displacement design and hole geometry play major roles in successful mud removal.
Optimal fluid displacement requires a clear
understanding of each variable as well as inherent interdependencies among variables.
Since the early 1980s, the availability of computing technology has signicantly advanced the
way drillers approach wellbore displacement.
Software applications and faster computer
processing now allow for a significant level of
prewell modeling, simulation and engineering.
Fluids can be built, complex interactions predicted, and displacements simulated on the
computer screen rather than at the wellsite
where minor mistakes may result in major costs.
Key elements of an engineered displacement
begin with an understanding of borehole characteristics such as hole size and washouts,
rugosity, borehole angle and dogleg severity.
Once these are understood, decisions regarding
displacement ow dynamics, spacer design and
chemistry, and centralization requirements can
be made.

9.70
500

550

600

650

700

750

800

850

900

Flow rate, gal/min

> Optimized rheology with Virtual Hydraulics analysis. In this simulation, the M-I Virtual Hydraulics
software demonstrates that borehole-cleaning capacity can be optimized against ow rate and
equivalent circulating density (ECD). The simulation indicates that even when pumping at high rates,
borehole cleaning (left, Track 2) with a low-rheology mud is poor in the upper sections and ECD is high
(chart - upper right). Once optimized, ECD is signicantly lower (chart - lower right) and boreholecleaning efciency improves from poor to good (left, Track 3).

66

Software such as the M-I Virtual Hydraulics

application provides an excellent tool for
in-depth analysis of uid properties and evaluation of the impact of drilling uid parameters on
downhole hydraulics and borehole erosion.
During drilling, optimal fluid characteristics
may change depending on the task, such as running casing or displacement of borehole fluids.
Modeling and simulation can be useful in
optimizing fluid properties in anticipation of
changes in rig operations.
Integrating carefully designed drilling uids
with other key services is critical for achieving
successful wellbore construction, zonal isolation
and well longevity.

13. Equivalent circulating density is the effective density

exerted by a circulating uid against the formation that
takes into account the pressure drop in the annulus
above the point being considered.

Oileld Review

Depth, m

WELLCLEAN II
Risk of Mud
on Wall
CBT
Amplitude
0

mV

Variable
Density Log

50 Min s Max

1500

Depth, m

Condensed
USI LogUnpressurized
Casing

WELLCLEAN II
Risk of Mud
on Wall
High
Med
Low
None

2000

Case A
WELLCLEAN
ll
Standoff
Cement
coverage
0

WELLCLEAN ll
Standoff
Cement
Coverage

High
Medium
Low
None
0

100

2000

% 100
2500

2500
3

3
3000

3000

3500
3500

4000
4000

4500

Flag Notes:
1 Poor coverage and bond after this pointlead/tail interface.
2 Mud on wall has produced channel, seen on USI plot also.
3 Increasing risk of mud on wall leads to poor cement coverage and microannuli.

> Post-placement WELLCLEAN II analysis. Wells L10 (left) and L11 (right) were both producing at the time these simulations
were run, each with SCP between the 1338- and 958-in. casing strings. Post-placement analysis of each well indicated a high
risk of mud left in the borehole, implying poor displacement and a high potential for primary cement failure and annular gas
migration. The red and orange areas on Track 4 (left) and Track 3 (right) provide clear indications of the mud-removal risk
level. The USI UltraSonic Imager log on the left image (Track 2) correlates with the WELLCLEAN II prejob simulation in Track 4
where poor mud removal potential is indicated. On the USI log (Track 2), the yellow shading indicates bonded cement.

An example of an engineered displacement

is seen in a case study from the Irish Sea. BHP
Billiton Petroleum experienced problems resulting from poor mud removal on their Lennox eld
project. Located in the Liverpool Bay sector of
the Irish Sea, this series of wells, producing both
oil and gas, suffered repeated zonal-isolation
failures and SCP occurring between the 958-in.
and 13 38-in. casing strings. Aside from other
pressure-related safety hazards, gas from these
wells contains a high concentration of hydrogen

Autumn 2003

sulfide [H 2S], up to 20,000 parts per million

(ppm), and periodic venting of annular pressure
posed a serious environmental issue.
To reduce risk and establish zonal isolation
on future wells, engineers from BHP Billiton and
Schlumberger assessed two previous wells and
developed a forward-looking plan to attack the
SCP problem. Using well data from the already
producing L10 and L11 wells, engineers ran
WELLCLEAN II Engineering Solution simulations to determine the cause of zonal-isolation

failures. The simulation results compared favorably with the original cement bond logs and
other data from both wells, conrming the accuracy and utility of the WELLCLEAN II
simulations in predicting mud removal and
cement placement [above].
Based on modeling of the L10 and L11 wells,
the engineering team determined that poor
mud removal was the primary cause of inadequate zonal isolation. Utilizing CemCADE
cementing design and simulation software and

67

WELLCLEAN II
Risk of Mud
on Wall

Depth, m

WELLCLEAN ll
Standoff
Cement
Coverage
0

100

1500

USI Log

Variable Density
Log

High
Medium
Low
None

Lithology

Cleueleys
mudstone
2000

Blackpool
mudstone

2500

Rosall Halite
3000

Andsell
mudstone

3500

Omskirk
sandstone
4000

> Results of a prejob displacement simulation. Prior to cementing the 958-in. casing string on the L12 well, engineers modeled
and simulated borehole conditions and displacement parameters using WELLCLEAN II software. By optimizing mud properties
and spacer and cement design, along with proper centralization, the simulation predicted near-complete displacement of the
drilling uid (Track 7). A USI log run after cementing conrmed proper placement and zonal isolation as seen in Tracks 2 through
5. The yellow shading in Track 5 indicates optimal cement bonding. Well L12 is currently producing with no detectable SCP.

WELLCLEAN II software, engineers designed

and executed a displacement and cementing
program on Well L12, effectively eliminating SCP
development [above]. Optimizing spacer design,
the casing centralization program and cement
properties led to effective displacement and
cement bonding, bringing significant value to
the operator.
Gas Isolation with Cement
Integration of drilling uids, spacer design and
displacement techniques provide the foundation
for optimal cement placement. 14 Long-term
zonal isolation and control of gas require the
cement to be properly placed and to provide low
permeability, mechanical durability and adaptability to changing wellbore conditions.
Cement permeability depends on the solid
fraction of the formulation. For high-density

68

slurries, a high solid fraction is inherent, thus

the permeability tends to be low. For low-density
slurries, special products and techniques create
low-density, high solid-fraction slurries.
Mechanical durability varies with strength,
Youngs modulus of elasticity and Poissons ratio.
The cement should be designed so these properties are sufficient to prevent failure of the
cement when it is exposed to changing well
pressures and temperature fluctuations, which
create stresses across the casing-cement-formation system. Special materials are required to
give the cement exibility in this environment.
During placement, overbalance must be
maintained across gas-bearing formations until
the vulnerability of the cement to invasion
by gas is reduced through the setting process.
The higher the overbalance, the later in the
hydration cycle invasion can occur.

A technique for increasing or maintaining

overbalance is the application of pressure to the
annulus following the cementing operation
usually by applying pump pressure to the
annulus at the surface. In Canada, a common
practice is to pump rapidly setting cement
ahead of more conventional cement. This allows
the rst cement pumped, or lead cement, to set
in the annulus near the surface. Pressure can be
applied through the casing to the cement that
has been slightly underdisplaced. A precaution
to the application of pressure is that weak formations must be evaluated for the risk of losses.
A modication of this pressure application is
a technique called cement pulsation, the application of pressure pulses to the annulus
following the cementing operation.15 The advantage of this technique is that the pressurizationdepressurization cycles generate a small amount

Oileld Review

of motion of the uids in the wellbore, delaying

gel-strength development, and thereby slowing
hydrostatic-pressure decay.
Foamed cement may also be used across gas
formations. As volume decreases through dehydration, the pressure-volume relationship of the
compressed gas used in the foaming process
allows a higher pressure to be maintained
against the formation, thus minimizing
gas inux.
Planning for Gas
Sealing an annular space against gas migration
can be more difficult in gas wells than in oil
wells. Wellbore construction, particularly in the
presence of gas-bearing formations, requires
that borehole, drilling uid, spacer and cement
designs, and displacement techniques be dealt
with as a series of interdependent systems, each
playing an equally important role. Often, the
relationships among these systems is overlooked, or at the very least, poorly appreciated.
Effective management of these interdependent technologies requires that drillers and
cementers work together throughout the drilling
process, selecting muds that achieve drilling
goals while managing the borehole in a manner
that allows effective mud removal and zonal isolation. Efficient slurry placement for complete
and permanent zonal isolation relies on effective
displacement of drilling fluids from the boreholemodeling, simulation and spacer system
design play key roles in this process, as illustrated in an example from South America.
In early 2002, Petrobras, operating in a
remote region of southern Bolivia, experienced
repeated occurrences of SCP on their Sabalo
project in the San Antonio eld [right]. Each of
the first three 1338-in. surface casing primary
cement jobs developed SCP, some as high as
1000 psi [6895 kPa]. Pressure was also detected
on several 958-in. intermediate and 7-in. production-liner casing strings.
The next borehole segment to be drilled was
the 812-in. deviated section of the X-3 well, which
would traverse the gas-laden, potentially commercial, Huamampampa formation. Concerns
over lubricity in a deviated borehole, minimizing
production zone damage and the requirement
for an in-gauge stable borehole led the drilling
team to select a low-fluid-loss VERSADRIL
oil-base mud system.
Fluid-loss control, bridging and filter-cake
quality are important drilling-uid properties for
minimizing both formation damage and excessive lter-cake buildup across permeable zones.

Autumn 2003

Formation damage issues aside, excessive

filter-cake buildup can severely hamper mud
displacement prior to cementing. The ltration
properties of the system were controlled utilizing a blend of high melting-point gilsonite and
specically sized calcium carbonate particles.
The inclination of the borehole caused operational concerns about borehole cleaning and
barite sag. 16 Cuttings-bed development and
static sag problems are most prevalent at 30 to
60 degree borehole inclination; either condition
could result in borehole destabilization. Since

the X-3 borehole inclination was 62 degrees, the

well was considered high risk.
To mitigate these concerns, the driller maintained high annular ow rates, and the drilling
uid engineer adjusted the mud-product mix to
produce higher viscosity at low shear rates.
Strict adherence to these and other good drilling
practices minimized the accumulation of cuttings along the lower side of the borehole and
minimized borehole erosion. No evidence of sag
was recorded. The 812-in. interval was drilled
with a mud weight of 14.1 lbm/gal [1690 kg/m3]

> Petrobras remote location drilling. Petrobras is drilling multiple well templates
in the San Antonio eld in southern Bolivia.

14. Fraser L, Stanger B, Grifn T, Jabri M, Sones G,

Steelman M and Valk P: Seamless Fluids Programs:
A Key to Better Well Construction, Oileld Review 8,
no. 2 (Summer 1996): 4256.
15. Dusterhoft D, Wilson G and Newman K: Field Study on
the Use of Cement Pulsation to Control Gas Migration,
paper SPE 75689, presented at the SPE Gas Technology
Symposium, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, April 30May 2,
2002.

16. Sag is dened as settling of particles in the annulus of a

well, which can occur when the mud is static or being
circulated. Because of the combination of secondary
ow and gravitational forces, weighting materials can
settle, or sag, in a owing mud in a high-angle well. If
settling is prolonged, the upper part of a wellbore will
lose mud density, which lessens the hydrostatic pressure
in the hole, allowing an inux of formation uid to enter
the well.

69

Caliper 1
16
Gamma Ray
0

API

in.

Caliper 2
6 6

in.

Bit Size
200

Depth,
m
16

in.

16

Bit Size
6 6

in.

16

3575

3600

> Well X-3 caliper logs. Tracks 2 and 3 indicate a

near-gauge borehole.

Casing Collar Locator (CCL)

-19

1
Transit Time (TT)

400

200

Transit Time (Sliding Gate) (TTSL)

400

150

Depth,
0
m

Gamma Ray
0

API

CBT Amplitude

200

mV

10

CBT Amplitude
mV

100

from 10,981 to 11,870 feet [3347 to 3618 m].

At total depth (TD), the four-arm wireline
caliper log indicated excellent borehole
conditions [left].
Proper uid design, on-site engineering and
proper drilling practices provided a clean ingauge borehole. Engineers optimized the spacer
system for actual borehole conditions, mud
characteristics and liner design. Based on
WELLCLEAN II and CemCADE simulator recommendations, 40 centralizers, one per casing
joint, were placed on the liner. Since an oil-base
mud was used for drilling, a MUDPUSH XLO
spacer system for cementing with surfactant at
12 gal/1000 gal [286 cm3/m3] and mutual solvent
at 100 gal/1000 gal [2380 cm3/m3] was designed
for optimal mud removal.
Because the Huamampampa formation typically contains a high level of gas, Schlumberger
cementing specialists designed a 16.6-lbm/gal
[1989-kg/m 3 ] DensCRETE slurry system
incorporating a gas-control additive to prevent
gas migration after cement placement. To
minimize cement slurry dehydration across
permeable zones, API fluid loss was controlled
at 19 mL/30 min.17
Displacement and cementing operations
were executed according to stringent design
specifications. On reentering the borehole, the
driller located the top of cement at 10,646 ft
[3245 m] measured depth (MD), 335 ft [102 m]
below the top of the tieback, or overlap between
the liner and previous casing string.
Petrobras routinely evaluates primary
cement using cement bond logs and formation
leakoff tests. A CBT Cement Bond Tool Variable

Density log was run three days after the cementing operation. 18 The CemCADE simulator
predicted a CBT amplitude of 1.7 mV for 100%
mud removal and 3.1 mV for 80% mud removal.
The logging results indicate an average
amplitude of around 2 mV, so the 7-in. liner
cement job had a 95% average bond index
[below left]. These results agree with CemCADE
and WELLCLEAN II predictions. Good zonal
isolation was achieved.
The holistic approach to gas-migration control adopted by the engineering teams,
combined with state-of-the-art technology,
resulted in effective zonal isolation with no gas
leakage to surface. As of September 2003, after
producing as much as 20 MMscf/D [0.57 m3/d] of
gas for over a year, the X-3 well has shown no
indication of microannuli or SCP development.
By applying an integrated approach to wellbore
planning and construction, the engineering team
successfully modied their operational, drilling
uids and cementing programs to achieve zonal
isolation on two subsequent casing strings.

< Well X-3 casing bond log. The CBT Cement

Bond Tool Variable Density log was run three
days after cementing. The average CBT amplitude was 2 mV (Track 2) across the gas zone,
which was extremely low for wells in the area.
Amplitude values decrease with cement bond
quality. The 812-in. borehole was drilled at a 62
angle with oil-base mud at 14.1 lbm/gal [1689
kg/m3]. Borehole conditions were excellent for
displacement and cementing. No SCP has been
detected, indicating successful zonal isolation.

17. This is the American Petroleum Institute (API) standard

for cement uid loss.
18. Butsch RJ, Kasecky MJ, Morris CW and Wydrinski R:
The Evaluation of Specialized Cements, paper
SPE 76731, presented at the SPE Western Regional/
AAPG Pacic Section Joint Meeting, Anchorage,
Alaska, USA, May 2022, 2002.

3575

3600

A Solution for Shallow-Gas Isolation

Shallow-gas ows present a specialized problem
in the control of gas migration. While operating
in the Gulf of Thailand in the fall of 2001, PTT
Exploration and Production Public Company
Ltd. (PTTEP) experienced serious problems
with shallow-gas flows and SCP development.
Originally discovered in 1973, the Bongkot eld
is 600 km [373 miles] south of Bangkok,
Thailand, and 180 km [112 miles] off the coast
of Songkhla. The field primarily consists of gas
reserves with some limited oil production.
The WP11 drilling project was part of a
12-well development-drilling program. Geophysical and wireline log data indicated the potential
for shallow gas at a depth of 312 to 326 m [1023
to 1069 ft] below mean sea level. PTTEP engineers planned to set 1338-in. casing at 310 m

Casing Collars
Cement Isolation Marker

70

Oileld Review

[1017 ft], then drill a 1212-in. borehole through

the shallow-gas sand and set 958-in. casing at
about 500 m [1640 ft]. Zonal isolation behind
the 958-in. casing was critical to the success of
the project. Even though a gas-tight, or gasinux-resistant, cement-slurry design was used,
the rst three 958-in. casing primary cement jobs
failed, resulting in both SCP at the surface and
gas charging of upper-zone normally pressured
sands [right].
Although not under contract for the project,
Schlumberger and M-I engineers working in conjunction with PTTEP and their partners, Total
and BG, proposed a plan to integrate borehole
stabilization with mud displacement and
cement-system design.
The shallow formations in the 1212-in. section
consisted primarily of sand and shale, 30 to 40%
of which was reactive clay. Historically, conventional water-base muds had been used to drill
these formations, resulting in significantly
washed-out sections, poor displacements, inadequate primary cement placement and loss of
zonal isolation.
The M-I engineering team recommended
controlling the borehole and cuttings integrity
with SILDRIL mud, a sodium-silicate-base
drilling uid. The objective was to obtain a neargauge borehole allowing optimized casing
centralization, mud displacement and cement
placement across the gas-bearing sand.

BK-11-G

26-in. conductor
pipe at 151 m

BK-11-L

26-in. conductor
pipe at 151 m

13 3/8-in. shoe
at 308 m

TD = 308 m

17 1/2-in. hole,
TD at 311 m

Top of gas sand = 327 m

Shallow-gas zone
Bottom of gas sand = 340 m

BK-11-G

26-in. conductor
pipe at 151 m

BK-11-L

26-in. conductor
pipe at 151 m

13 3/8-in. shoe
at 308 m

TD = 308 m

17 1/2-in. hole,
TD at 311 m

Top of gas sand = 327 m

Shallow-gas zone
Bottom of gas sand = 340 m

> Scenarios for upper-sand charging. In early

drilling operations, previously nongas-bearing
upper sands were charged with gas. Several
scenarios were developed to explain gas crossow between Wells BK-11-G and BK-11-L, and
the development of SCP at surface. Gas is shown
as red bubbles originating in the shallow-gas
sand. In the three scenarios shown, gas
migrates around poorly bonded cement (A). Gas
moves around poorly bonded cement to vertical
fractures (B). It migrates around poorly bonded
cement and through a microfracture network (C).
In all cases, primary cement failed to provide
zonal isolation, resulting in gas migration to both
upper sands and between casing strings, resulting in SCP.

BK-11-G

26-in. conductor
pipe at 151 m

BK-11-L

26-in. conductor
pipe at 151 m

13 3/8-in. shoe
at 308 m

17 1/2-in. hole,
TD at 311 m

TD = 308 m
Top of gas sand = 327 m
Shallow-gas zone
Bottom of gas sand = 340 m

Autumn 2003

71

> Controlling cuttings with silicate mud. The SILDRIL silicate-base mud, used
to drill the 1214-in. sections, produced a stable borehole with an average
diameter of 12.54 in. [318 mm]. Cuttings shown crossing the shaker have a high
level of integrity, conrming control of formation clay hydration and dispersion.

3.5
3

3.0

Expansion, %

2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0

0.7

0.5
0.1

-0.05

Salt
cement

Portland
cement

Foamed
cement

0.0
-0.5

Plaster
cement

FlexSTONE
cement

> Changing volume of cement during the setting phase. Most cements have
only a slight volume change during the setting process. FlexSTONE advanced
exible cement system can be formulated to expand by as much as 3%.

Silicate muds have proved useful in stabilizing the erosion of shallow unconsolidated
formations and in providing gauge boreholes
while maintaining optimal penetration rates. In
highly reactive formations such as those encountered on the WP11 project, silicate ions bond
with active sites on formation clays. This results
in highly competent cuttings and borehole stabilization through direct chemical bonding of the
polymerized silicate [top].

72

Spacer design and mud displacement were

the next challenge. Schlumberger engineers,
using WELLCLEAN II simulations, designed a
spacer system composed of MUDPUSH XL
spacer and CW7 chemical wash to efficiently
remove the SILDRIL fluid from the borehole
prior to placing cement. The design used 22 casing centralizers to provide better than 75%
standoff. A pump rate of 7 bbl/min [1 m3/min]
would allow 5 minutes of spacer contact time
across the gas sand at 327 m [1073 ft].
WELLCLEAN II modeling predicted 100%

cement coverage across the openhole section.

For added safety, PTTEP engineers planned for
an external casing packer (ECP) to be placed
just above the gas sand.
Cement-slurry design was also challenging.
To avoid losses while cementing, a lightweight
gas-tight cement slurry was required. The low
borehole temperature, 35C [95F], meant long
cement setting time. Low fluid loss and rapid
static gel-strength development during cement
setting would aid in minimizing gas influx.
Schlumberger engineers designed a lowtemperature LiteCRETE cementing system
containing GASBLOK LT gas migration control
cement system additive and DeepCEM deepwater cementing solutions additive to minimize
the transition time from liquid to solid, thus
limiting gas-migration potential through the
setting cement.
Caliper logs indicated an average borehole
diameter of 12.54 in. [318 mm]optimum
formation-clay inhibition had been achieved
using the SILDRIL mud system. Although four of
seven ECPs failed to lock after inflation, the
LiteCRETE cementing system in conjunction
with a gauge borehole, an optimized spacer
system and effective displacement provided
excellent cementation and zonal isolation.
Ultimately, there was no evidence of gas migration or SCP behind the 958-in. casing string.
An integrated drilling and wellbore-fluids
approach effectively isolated the troublesome
gas zone at 327 m [next page, bottom]. Although
consideration had been given to changing locations to avoid the shallow-gas sand, this solution
allowed PTTEP to keep the platform in place
and continue the drilling program. Seven wells
have since been successfully completed.
Improving Cement Bond over Time
Preventing gas migration and SCP has been
helped by recent developments in cementing
technology that offer significant advantages in
durability and adaptation to changing wellbore
conditions. Cement properties have traditionally
been designed for optimal placement and
strength development rather than long-term
post-setting performance. The rapid development of high cement-compressive strength after
placement was generally considered adequate
for most wellbore conditions. Today, operators
and service companies realize that the emphasis
on strength at the expense of durability has
often led to the development of SCP and
reduced well productivity.

Oileld Review

Microdebonding
Liquid
Gas or Dry
Microannulus
Bonded

-1000.0000
-500.0000
0.3000
2.0000
2.2727
2.5454
2.8182
3.0909
3.3636
3.6364
3.9091
4.1818
4.4545
4.7273
5.0000

Cement Map

Microdebonding
Liquid
Gas or Dry
Microannulus
Depth, m

Bonded

-1000.0000
-500.0000
0.3000
2.0000
2.2727
2.5454
2.8182
3.0909
3.3636
3.6364
3.9091
4.1818
4.4545
4.7273
5.0000

Cement Map
with Impedance
Classification

250

> Filling the voids. The void space between particles in standard cements (left) is lled with water.
FlexSTONE systems ll the void space with medium and small particles (right). Less water is used in
the formulation, and slurries can be made more gas-tight, stronger and more exible. As the cement
sets, specic particles in the FlexSTONE system contribute to expansion while others are designed to
provide exibility of set cement.

Cement particle characteristics and size distribution can contribute signicantly to both the
resistance to gas influx and maintenance of a
sustainable hydraulic seal, particularly in wellbores subjected to pressure and temperature
cycling. FlexSTONE advanced flexible cement
technology, part of the CemCRETE concretebased oilwell cementing technology, is one of
several solutions that effectively address cement
exibility and durability.
Conventional Portland cements are known
to shrink during setting [previous page, middle].19
In contrast, FlexSTONE slurries can be designed
to expand, further tightening the hydraulic seal
and helping to compensate for variations in borehole or casing conditions. This capability helps
avoid microannuli development. By adjusting
specic additive characteristics and by blending
the cement slurry with an engineered particle
size distribution, a lowering of Youngs modulus
of elasticity in cement can be achieved [above].
Annular cement can then ex in unison with the
casing rather than failing from tensile stresses.
19. Dusseault MB, Gray MN and Nawrocki PA: Why
Oilwells Leak: Cement Behavior and Long-Term
Consequences, paper SPE 64733, presented at the
SPE International Oil and Gas Conference and Exhibition,
Beijing, China, November 710, 2000.

Autumn 2003

Thus, the potential development of microannuli

and gas communication to the surface or to
zones of lower pressure are minimized.
An example of the expansion capabilities of
FlexSTONE cement comes from the Middle East.
During 2002, Abu Dhabi Marine Operating
Company (ADMA), operating the Umm Shaif
eld, 20 miles [32 km] northeast of Das Island,
offshore Abu Dhabi, UAE, used an expandable
FlexSTONE cement system to address
recurrent gas-migration problems behind 958-in.
casing strings.

> Improved zonal isolation. Prior to optimization

of the drilling and cementing process, zonal isolation was not obtained, as indicated by Tracks 1
and 2 (left). Areas shaded in red in Track 2 indicate gas. In Track 1, blue and green shadings
along the left side indicate the presence of liquid
and debonding respectively, signs of a potential
gas channel. Effective procedures and optimized
wellbore-construction processes successfully
isolated the gas sands. In the gure at right,
Track 1 shows areas of solid yellow, indicating
bonded cement and zonal isolation. Signicant
levels of gas are seen only proximal to the shallow-gas sand.

275

300

325

350

73

While logging the 7-in. liner section, the

operator ran a USI UltraSonic Imager log for a
second time across the 958-in. section cemented
with a FlexSTONE cement two months earlier.
Although a gas-tight seal was obtained during
primary cementation, further tightening of the
cement bond occurred with time. This finding
demonstrates the expansive characteristics of
the FlexSTONE design [right].
Modeling Cement Systems
The role of modeling in cement-system design is
evident in another Middle Eastern example. The
Abu Dhabi Company for Onshore Oil Operations
(ADCO) has drilled 70 gas wells in the Bab and
Asab fields, offshore Abu Dhabi. Many of these
wells have SCP problems, attributed by ADCO
engineers to poor primary cementing practices.
These SCP problems threatened a 2003
development program. A different approach to
cement-sheath integrity was needed. A planned
horizontal, gas-producing appraisal well offered
the opportunity to test a new cementing system.
Schlumberger and ADCO engineers agreed
that historical failure mechanisms must be
clearly understood to achieve sustainable zonal
isolation. Schlumberger engineers used a stress
analysis model (SAM) to evaluate potential
cement systems. They ran a series of simulations
to predict cement-sheath behavior across different borehole sections. In one scenario, an
80-lbm/ft 3 [1280-kg/m 3] mud system was displaced from the cased wellbore with a 74-lbm/ft3
[1184-kg/m 3] completion fluid. The displacement resulted in a pressure reduction of 540 psi
[3723 kPa] across the liner section.
Typically, these liner sections are cemented
with 125-lbm/ft 3 [2000-kg/m 3 ] conventional
cement systems. Laboratory records indicated
that locally formulated conventional cement systems generally have an unconned compressive
strength (UCS) of about 4000 to 8000 psi [27 to
55 MPa] and a Youngs modulus of 1,450,000 psi
[10,000 MPa] to 1,700,000 psi [11,721 MPa].
Simulations with the SAM model predicted that
a 540-psi decrease in hydrostatic pressure inside
the casing would result in cement-to-liner bond
failure and development of a channel or
microannulus. The model suggested that a more
exible expanding cement would withstand the
variation in internal casing pressure without
causing microannulus development.
While SAM modeling and other analyses
were under way, appraisal-well drilling began.
The 958-in. section was cemented with a conventional cement system, allowed to set and then

74

-500.0000
-6.0000
-5.6000
-5.2000
-4.8000
-4.4000
-4.000
-3.6000
-3.2000
-2.8000
-2.4000
-2.0000
-1.6000 Microdebonding
-1.2000
-0.8000
-0.4000
Liquid
0.5000
Amplitude of
Echo Minus
Max
Gamma Ray
0

API

70

Gas or Dry
Microannulus

Bonded

-1000.0000
-500.0000
0.3000
2.6000
3.0000
3.5000
4.0000
4.5000
Transit Time (Sliding Gate)
5.0000
s
400
200
5.5000
6.0000
Transit Time (TT)
6.5000
s
400
200
7.0000
7.5000
CBT Amplitude (Sliding Gate)
8.0000
0
mV
100
Cement Map
CBT Amplitude (CBL)
with Impedance
mV
100
Classification 0

-500.0000
-6.0000
-5.6000
-5.2000
-4.8000
-4.4000
-4.000
-3.6000
-3.2000
-2.8000
-2.4000
-2.0000
-1.6000
Microdebonding
-1.2000
-0.8000
-0.4000
Liquid
0.5000
Amplitude of
Echo Minus
Max

Depth,
ft
12,600

Gamma Ray
0

API

70

Gas or Dry
Microannulus

Bonded

-1000.0000
-500.0000
0.3000
2.6000
3.0000
3.5000
4.0000
4.5000
Transit Time (Sliding Gate)
5.0000
400
200
s
5.5000
6.0000
Transit Time (TT)
6.5000
400
200
s
7.0000
7.5000
CBT Amplitude (Sliding Gate)
8.0000
0
mV
100
Cement Map
CBT Amplitude (CBL)
with Impedance
mV
100
Classification 0

12,650

12,700

12,750

12,800

12,850

12,900

> FlexSTONE cement expansion with time. USI logs of a borehole made in October (left) and December
(right) indicated cement expansion over the two-month period. Track 2 indicates more debonding
(green) in October than in December (Track 6). The reduction in CBT amplitude in Tracks 4 and 8 also
indicates improved bonding.

Oileld Review

Slurry
Slurry 1FlexSTONE
Slurry 2Type G
conventional cement 1
Slurry 3Type G
conventional cement 2

Youngs
Modulus, psi

Poissons
Ratio

900,000

0.20

1,700,000

0.19

1,500,000

0.22

> Flexible cement designs. The FlexSTONE system was designed with
a 50% lower Youngs modulus than conventional slurry to meet the
specications determined from SAM simulations. Slurry 2 reects
the properties for the conventional cement slurry used to cement
the 958-in. casing string. FlexSTONE Slurry 1, which has a substantial
increase in exibility, was used to cement the 7-inch liner section.

Autumn 2003

Cement Map
with Impedance
Classification

Gas or Dry
Microannulus

Liquid

Microdebonding

-1000.0000
-500.0000
0.3000
2.6000
3.0000
3.5000
4.0000
4.5000
5.0000
5.5000
6.0000
6.5000
7.0000
7.5000
8.0000
Depth,
ft

Bonded

Microdebonding
Liquid
Gas or Dry
Microannulus

compressive strength cannot be used as a

primary indication of a cements long-term durability. The cement systems must be designed to
ensure a compromise between both properties.
After evaluating several potential slurries
including tests to determine the balance
between expansion and the compressivestrength requirements, engineers settled on a
suitable FlexSTONE cement formulation for the
7-in. liner.
The 812-in. borehole section would be drilled
through a limestone formation. Special mud systems generally are not necessary when drilling
through carbonate rock. Engineers could safely
assume that borehole conditions would be optimal with little washout. The WELLCLEAN II
program simulated and designed the displacement, and CemCADE software provided
cement-job design and execution guidelines.
Engineers designed the BB-545 appraisal
well with a 7-in. liner section extending to
11,621 ft [3542 m] MD, (11,104 ft [3385 m]
TVD). This section ended with a 90 section in
the Arab ABC reservoir, a gas-bearing formation
with 32% H2S content. The liner overlap, potentially a problematic source of SCP, extended
365 ft [111 m] back into the 958-in. casing. Well
production came from a 2250-ft [686-m],
6-in. openhole horizontal section drilled from
the 7-in. liner shoe.
On February 4, 2003, the 7-in. liner was
cemented as designed. After the cement had set,
a USI log conrmed complete cement placement
with no detectable channels or microannuli.
After seven months, the BB-545 appraisal well
showed no sign of SCP.

Bonded

logged with a USI tool to evaluate the cement

bond. Once the cement had cured, the operator
pressure-tested the section to 3500 psi
[24 MPa]. To check cement integrity, USI logs
were rerun under the same conditions as the
rst logging run. The second log indicated that
the nonexible conventional cement-system formulation failed to produce a slurry capable of
compensating for casing deformation, resulting
in loss of cement-to-casing bond [right].
Even though the casing had already been
cemented, Schlumberger engineers simulated
the pressure-test conditions in SAM. Cement
properties were imported from the job design for
analysis. SAM predicted that the conventional
cement slurry would fail in tensile load.
The model indicated that the change in internal
casing pressure exceeded the cement tensile
strength by 153%. To withstand this level of
tensile load, the SAM model recommended
cement designed with a Youngs modulus of
1,200,000 psi [8273 MPa], 500,000 psi
[3447 MPa] below that typical for conventional
cement-system formulations.
Additional SAM modeling and cement slurry
tested in the Schlumberger laboratory indicated
that the FlexSTONE cement system would
provide sustainable zonal isolation under
anticipated downhole conditions [below]. The
results suggested that both the expansive
and flexible properties of FlexSTONE cement
would be required to effectively cement the
7-in. liner section.
As with many high-performance cementing
systems, FlexSTONE cements must be carefully
designed. The increase in exibility is associated
with a decrease in compressive strength. Thus,

-1000.0000
-500.0000
0.3000
2.6000
3.0000
3.5000
4.0000
4.5000
5.0000
5.5000
6.0000
6.5000
7.0000
7.5000
8.0000
Cement Map
with Impedance
Classification

9650

9700

9750

> Cement debonding after pressure-testing. The

USI log image (left) shows well-bonded cement
in Track 1 (yellow). After the well was pressuretested to 3500 psi [24 MPa], another USI log was
run (right). When the pressure was removed,
the casing decreased in size but the cement
sheath did not move, or ex, with the casing.
Near total debonding resulted as indicated in
Track 3 (blue).

75

CBT Amplitude
(Sliding Gate)
0

mV

CBT Amplitude
(Sliding Gate)
10

CBT Amplitude
(Sliding Gate)

mV

10

CBT Amplitude
(Sliding Gate)

mV
100
CBT Amplitude

mV
100
CBT Amplitude

mV
100
CBT Amplitude

mV
100
CBT Amplitude

mV

-500.0000
0.3375
0.6750
1.0125
1.3500
1.6875
2.0250
2.3625
2.7000
3.0375
3.3750
3.7125
4.0500
4.3875
4.7250
5.0625
5.4000

10

mV

10

Depth,
ft
8050

Microdebonding

Liquid
Gas or
Dry
Microannulus

-1000.0000
-500.0000
0.3000
2.1000
2.4000
2.7000
3.0000
3.3000
3.6000
3.9000
4.2000
4.5000
4.8000
5.1000
5.4000

Internal
Cement Map with
Radii
Impedance
Minus Bonded
Classification
Average

-500.0000
0.3375
0.6750
1.0125
1.3500
1.6875
2.0250
2.3625
2.7000
3.0375
3.3750
3.7125
4.0500
4.3875
4.7250
5.0625
5.4000

Microdebonding

Liquid
Gas or
Dry
Microannulus

-1000.0000
-500.0000
0.3000
2.1000
2.4000
2.7000
3.0000
3.3000
3.6000
3.9000
4.2000
4.5000
4.8000
5.1000
5.4000

Internal
Cement Map with
Radii
Impedance
Minus Bonded
Classification
Average

8100

8150

8200

FlexSTONE cement was also used to cement

the 958-in. casing section of Well BB-548, a wellbore similar to the BB-545 well that also
penetrated the Arab ABC formation. Even
though the well underwent signicant pressure
variations during testing, USI logs run after
72 hours and again after two months indicated
sustained zonal isolation and improved bonding
with time [left].
The Future under Construction
Gas migration and sustained casing pressure
occur with unpredictable frequency in many
parts of the world. Regulatory agencies and the
oil and gas industry both have a vested interest
in focusing on factors contributing to its development and prevention.
Continuing efforts to develop sound well-construction practices will eventually mitigate the
frequency of SCP development. Further
advances are needed, particularly in the areas of
monitoring wells, locating the source of leaks
and providing cost-effective methods of repair.
Operator experiences presented in this
article demonstrate that integration of interdependent services and technologies coupled with
advances in simulation, modeling and product
technologies have moved the industry forward
in addressing gas-well security and potentially,
gas-well longevityDW

8250

8300

8350

8400

8450

> Zonal isolation on Well BB-548. Both CBT (left, Tracks 1 and 2) and USI (right Tracks 3 to 8) logs
were obtained while logging the 958-in. casing section of Well BB-548 in April and again in June. The
April USI results in Track 4 indicated good overall bonding (yellow) with a few small liquid zones
(blue). These zones, shown in the April CBT log (Track 1/8080 ft [2463 m]), reect a CBT amplitude of
20 mV. As indicated by less liquid in the June USI result (Track 7) and a drop of CBT voltage to 5 mV
(Track 2), pressure-testing did not affect the hydraulic seal developed by the expansive and exible
FlexSTONE cement. In Tracks 1 and 2, the CBT amplitude and CBT amplitude (sliding gate) essentially
overlap one another.

76

Oileld Review

Contributors
John Anderson is senior staff engineer in the
Canadian Gas Business Unit of Nexen Canada Ltd. in
Calgary, Alberta, where he has worked since 1995. He
has supervised drilling, completion and production
operations, including gas-storage operations. In more
than 23 years as a drilling and operations engineer,
John has worked for several operating companies and
consultancies in Canada. He earned a Diploma of
Engineering Studies at Dalhousie University, Halifax,
Nova Scotia, Canada, and a BE degree from Nova
Scotia Technical College, also in Halifax.
Paul Basinski joined El Paso Production in Houston,
Texas, USA, as principal geologist, Coalbed Methane
(CBM) Division, in 2000 and is currently involved with
unconventional gas new ventures. Prior to El Paso, he
worked in international exploration and US exploration
and development as geological adviser for Burlington
Resources in Houston and in Farmington, New Mexico,
USA, where he was involved with various CBM projects.
As a geologist for several independents and a major
company, he made commercial discoveries in the
Rocky Mountains, Michigan (USA), the Gulf Coast and
Permian Basins. Paul received a BA degree in geology
from the State University of New York, Buffalo, USA,
and an MS degree in geology from the Mackay School
Mines, University of Nevada, Reno, USA.
Andrew Beaton is a coal and coalbed methane (CBM)
specialist with the Alberta Geological Survey,
Alberta Energy and Utilities Board in Edmonton,
Canada. There he focuses on evaluating the coalbed
methane resources of Alberta and geological factors
controlling CBM production potential. Previously, he
worked at Smoky River Coal Company, Grande Cache,
Alberta, on coal quality and mining geology issues. He
has also served as consultant in the fields of coal
chemistry, coal petrology, coal quality, coal and coalbed
methane exploration, and isotope geology. He holds a
BS degree in geology from Saint-Francis Xavier
University, Antigonish, Nova Scotia, Canada, and an
MS degree in coal science from the University of
Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada. Andrew has
published several papers on Canadas coal chemistry,
petrography and CBM resources.
Soraya Betancourt is a research engineer with the
Sampling and Analysis group at Schlumberger-Doll
Research in Ridgefield, Connecticut, USA. She joined
Schlumberger in 2000 as a reservoir engineer at
the Schlumberger Reservoir Completions Center,
Rosharon, Texas. Soraya previously was employed by
Petrleos de Venezuela SA (PDVSA) Oil & Gas in
Venezuela as a production technologist. She has a BS
degree from Universidad del Zulia in Venezuela and an
MS degree from the University of Tulsa, Oklahoma,
USA, both in petroleum engineering.

Autumn 2003

Charles Boyer, who is based in Pittsburgh,

Pennsylvania, USA, is principal consultant specializing
in unconventional gas reservoirs for Schlumberger
Data & Consulting Services. Before joining
Schlumberger in 1998, he was manager of methane
control research at U.S. Steel, which included the first
commercial CBM production field in the world. He also
founded or managed several exploration and consulting
firms. Charles has authored or coauthored more than
70 papers and has made more than 50 technical
presentations about coalbed methane at conferences
worldwide. He received a BS degree in geological sciences from Pennsylvania State University in University
Park and completed graduate studies in mining and
petroleum engineering at the University of Pittsburgh
and Pennsylvania State University. He was named a
Centennial Fellow at Pennsylvania State University
(1996), received the Distinguished Service Award from
the Potential Gas Agency (1995), and has served on
the organizing committees of numerous domestic and
international CBM symposia and conferences.
Claudio Brufatto, Engineering Coordinator for
Petrobras Bolivia in Santa Cruz, Bolivia, is responsible
for well construction projects, including special operations like cementing operations. He joined Petrobras
in 1987. Claudio earned a BS degree in civil engineering from the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul in
Porto Alegre, Brazil, and a certification in petroleum
engineering from the Petrobras Personal Development
Center in Bahia, Brazil.
Daren Bulat has been Canadian technical manager
for Schlumberger Well Services, Calgary, Alberta, since
1996. He provides sales and operations technical
support and champions the introduction of new
technologies. Daren joined Schlumberger in 1993
as a cementing engineer. Before that, he worked for
Canadian Fracmaster Ltd., Red Deer, Alberta, in
various field operations for cementing and stimulation
of oil and gas wells. Daren has a BS degree in chemical
engineering from the University of Calgary.
Andrew Carnegie is Schlumberger principal reservoir
engineer for the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Yemen
and Oman region. Since joining Schlumberger in 1989,
he has worked for both Wireline & Testing and
GeoQuest in several subdisciplines of petroleum
engineering and reservoir characterization, with
assignments in the Far East, Middle East and
Australia. Before joining Schlumberger, he worked
for Cap Scientific as a mathematician specializing in
torpedo and submarine hull design and for Intera as a
reservoir engineer. Author of many papers, Andrew
earned a BS degree (Hons) in applied mathematics
and a PhD degree in mathematical physics, both from
Queen Mary College, University of London, England.

Jamie Cochran is a senior staff engineer in cementing

engineering for Schlumberger in Aberdeen, Scotland.
In his previous position as cementing technical engineer, he worked on projects throughout the North Sea
and Irish Sea that involved slimhole well construction
and completion, gas-migration challenges and
advanced cementing technology. Jamie obtained an
MS degree in mechanical engineering at the University
of Birmingham, England, in 2000.
Leif Colson, who is based in Denver, Colorado, USA,
works for Schlumberger on multiwell petrophysical
evaluations leading to reservoir simulation and on
individual well evaluations in the Rocky Mountain
region. From 1982 to 1985, he was an applications
development engineer in Anchorage, Alaska, USA.
He also served as project manager for nuclear tool
development at Schlumberger Well Services Houston
Engineering. Before taking his current post, he
specialized in the interpretation of log data and
investigation of new tool responses to more efficiently
evaluate oil and gas reservoirs. Leif has a BS degree
in engineering physics from the Colorado School of
Mines in Golden.
Lee Conn, Global Technical Service Engineering
Manager for M-I L.L.C. in Houston, Texas, has provided
global field engineering support since 1999. His
previous positions included working as a field engineer
in south Texas and south Louisiana (USA); technical
service engineer in Houston; technical service
engineer in Aberdeen, Scotland; and technical
services manager in Stavanger, Norway. Lee holds a
BS degree in mechanical engineering from Texas A&M
University in College Station.
Chengli Dong is a senior reservoir engineer for
Schlumberger in Sugar Land, Texas, where he works
on formation testing and sampling, especially development of MDT* Modular Formation Dynamics Tester,
OFA* Optical Fluid Analyzer, LFA* Live Fluid Analyzer
for MDT tool and CFA* Composition Fluid Analyzer
interpretation algorithms. Chengli obtained MS and
PhD degrees in petroleum engineering from The
University of Texas at Austin. An author of many
technical papers, Chengli also earned recognition
in the Performed by Schlumberger program in
2001 and 2003.
George Dozier is Schlumberger project manager for
the Kerr-McGee Joint Value Enhancement Agreement.
He joined Holditch-Reservoir Technologies, now part
of Schlumberger Data & Consulting Services, in 2000,
as a senior production engineer involved in hydraulic
fracturing and production optimization. As operations
manager for Schlumberger in Hobbs and Artesia, New
Mexico, he was responsible for customer support, field
operations, technology transfer, finance, cost control,
personnel management, marketing, and quality,
health, safety and environment. Other assignments
included field service manager in Michigan; DESC*
design and evaluation services for clients engineer for
Chevron California in Bakersfield, USA; and project
coordinator for fracturing and perforating operations
in Lost Hills, California. George earned a BS degree in
mechanical engineering from the University of
Wyoming, Laramie, USA.

77

Jack Elbel retired from Schlumberger in 1997. He

began his career in 1954 and had various engineering
assignments in field locations and at technical centers
in the USA, Middle East and Europe. He specialized
in the design and evaluation of hydraulic fracturing
treatments. Jack attended The University of Texas and
William Marsh Rice University in Houston.
Said Zaki Abd Alla El-Zeghaty, Cement Engineering
Section Leader for Abu Dhabi Marine Operating
Company (ADMA-OPCO) in Abu Dhabi, UAE, manages
cementing and stimulation operations. Prior to that,
he was lead engineer for ADMA-OPCO cement, dry
tests and stimulation operations. He also worked for
Zakum Development Company in Abu Dhabi as senior
cement supervisor, and for Dowell Schlumberger and
Halliburton in the UAE, USA and Egypt in service,
sales and engineering roles. An author and coauthor
of several published papers and numerous cement,
stimulation and nitrogen manuals, he is an active
member of the Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE)
and the American Petroleum Institute (API) with
more than 35 years of contributions to the industry.
Said holds a BS degree in petroleum engineering from
Suez Canal University in Ismailia, Egypt.
Kre Otto Eriksen, Well Data Acquisition Specialist
for Statoil ASA in Stavanger, Norway, is responsible for
implementing new logging technology and is involved
in well-data acquisition and formation-evaluation
support. As petroleum engineer for Statoil Exploration
Norway, he was involved in logging and well-testing
operations, petrophysics, reservoir evaluation, field
development and pore-pressure interpretation, particularly for high-pressure, high-temperature wells. As
technical advisor for well-logging operations for Statoil
Exploration & Production Norway, he oversaw logging
operations, new logging technology and pore-pressure
rock-mechanics support. Kre Otto earned an
MS degree in petroleum engineering at Rogaland
University Centre in Stavanger.
Eugene Fielder is operations engineering supervisor
for Devon Energy in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, where
he focuses on the Fort Worth basin. Before joining
Devon in 2001, he was reservoir engineering supervisor
for Mitchell Energy in The Woodlands, Texas, also
involved in Fort Worth basin operations. Other assignments for Mitchell involved operations in East Texas
and the Gulf coast. He has also worked for Amoco
Production in Tyler, Texas, where he served as production engineer for East Texas. Eugene received a
BS degree in petroleum engineering from Texas A&M
University in College Station.
Bernard Fraboulet, Cementing Advisor for Total
Exploration & Production in Pau, France, is involved
in cementing research and development. He was hired
by Elf in 1998 as laboratory manager in Pau, where he
worked with drilling, cementing, stimulation and
treatment fluids and geomechanics. Prior to that,
he spent 26 years with Dowell Schlumberger, which
included assignments in Algeria, Angola, Cameroon,
Italy and France. Bernard is a graduate of the Institut
Nationnal des Sciences Appliques in Lyon, France,
where he studied material sciences.

78

Go Fujisawa, who is a senior research engineer at

Schlumberger-Doll Research in Ridgefield, Connecticut,
has worked on downhole fluid analysis for the last three
years. Go joined Schlumberger SKK in Fuchinobe,
Kanagawa, Japan, in 1999, and worked there as a
product development engineer in the pressure-sensor
product line. He received BS and MS degrees in
applied physics from Osaka University in Japan.
Tom Griffin, of Griffin Cement Consulting LLC, provides consulting in oil- and gas-well cementing services
to operators, service companies and suppliers. He has
33 years of experience in well services, including
28 years in gas and oilwell cementing. Before forming
his own company, he spent 28 years in research and
technical support on acidizing, sand control, fracturing
and cementing for Schlumberger. He has written
numerous publications on sand control and cementing
and holds many patents on acidizing, fracturing and
cementing. He also served 12 years on the API
Standardization Subcommittee on Cementing. Tom
earned a BS degree in chemistry at Wake Forest
University in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA.
Mostafa Haggag, Senior Petrophysicist for Abu Dhabi
Company for Onshore Oil Operations (ADCO), works in
Abu Dhabi, UAE, on the companys Sahil asset.
Stephen A. Holditch is a Schlumberger Fellow and the
companys theme manager for natural gas and heavy oil,
as well as a production and reservoir engineering advisor. In 1977, he formed S.A. Holditch & Associates, Inc.,
which was acquired by Schlumberger in 1997. After
holding several positions with the SPE, he became SPE
President in 2002. The SPE has honored him with the
John Franklin Carll Award and the 1994 Lester C. Uren
award in recognition of distinguished achievement in
petroleum engineering technology made by a member
before reaching age 45. He also received the ASME
Rhodes Industry Leadership Award. Stephen was
elected to the National Academy of Engineering, the
Russian Academy of Natural Sciences and the
Petroleum Engineering Academy of Distinguished
Graduates at Texas A&M University in College Station,
where he is currently a Professor Emeritus of petroleum
engineering. Author of more than 100 technical articles,
Stephen received his PhD degree in petroleum
engineering from Texas A&M University.
Ren Hoover is senior sales engineer for Schlumberger
Well Services in Fort Worth, Texas. Since joining
Dowell, now part of Schlumberger, in 1976, he has
worked in cementing, acidizing and fracturing in
Arkansas (USA), Oklahoma and Texas in various
assignments from equipment operator to district
manager. An active member of the SPE, Ren has
coauthored several papers. He has also served on
several SPE committees and was chairman of the
Fort Worth section of SPE. Ren earned a BBA degree
in marketing from Central State University (now the
University of Central Oklahoma) in Edmond.

Simon James is a project manager in the cement

chemistry department of the Schlumberger Riboud
Product Center in Clamart, France, where he addresses
challenges in gas well cementing and sustained casing
pressure. In previous assignments in Sugar Land,
Texas, and St. Austell, England, he worked on fracturing
materials, screenless completions and drilling-fluids
research. Author of many technical papers and holder
of several patents, Simon obtained a BS degree in
natural sciences and a PhD degree in physics, both
from the University of Cambridge, England.
Antonio R. Jaramillo, Operations Coordinator-Sahil
Team, is a senior reservoir engineer for ExxonMobilAbu Dhabi Company for Onshore Oil Operations
(ADCO) in Abu Dhabi, UAE. Previously, he was a
reservoir engineering advisor for Mobil Oil Corporation
in Midland, Texas, and Stavanger, Norway. He holds BS
and MS degrees in petroleum engineering from The
University of Texas at Austin.
Zachariah John is operations manager for
Schlumberger Data & Consulting Services in Perth,
Western Australia. He joined Schlumberger as a
wireline engineer and worked as a field engineer in
Jakarta, Indonesia, and in China. Other assignments
were in Kuwait, India, Vietnam, Indonesia and Iran.
He introduced new logging tools and coordinated
coalbed methane-related log interpretation in India.
To further his interest in interpretation, he attended
the Schlumberger Advanced Interpretation School in
Houston, Texas. Since then, his projects have involved
fluid substitution, coalbed methane, nuclear magnetic
resonance interpretation, mechanical properties logs
for fracturing, log analysis, advanced processing and
interpretation of logging-while-drilling logs and
InterACT* real-time monitoring and data delivery.
Zachariah holds a BS degree in mechanical engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi,
India. An author of several SPE papers, he also serves
as the secretary of FESWA, the local chapter of the
SPWLA in Perth.
Frederico Justus, Operations Manager for
Schlumberger Well Services and Well Completions &
Productivity, is based in Santa Cruz, Bolivia. He joined
Schlumberger in 1998 as a cementing field engineer in
Maca, Brazil. He became engineer in charge for the
Shell Drilling Project in Maca, and then was transferred to Bolivia in 2002 as technical engineer for Well
Services. Frederico earned a BS degree in industrial
and mechanical engineering from the Centro Federal
de Educao Tecnolgica do Paran in Curitiba, Brazil.
Riaz Khan is a senior log analyst for Schlumberger
Data & Consulting Services in Houston, Texas. He is
currently assigned to El Paso Production and provides
log interpretation and exploration and development
field studies. In previous assignments as project
leader, petrophysicist, computer operator and wireline
operator, Riaz worked in Qatar, Saudi Arabia and
India. He obtained a BS degree in physics and
mathematics from Bombay University in India.

Oilfield Review

Andrew Kurkjian, Manager of MDT fluid analysis for

Schlumberger in Sugar Land, Texas, is involved in testing and evaluation of measurements and development
of answer products. In 1982, he joined SchlumbergerDoll Research in Ridgefield, Connecticut, as a
research scientist. There he was principal inventor of
the DSI* Dipole Shear Sonic Imager tool. From 1988
to 1990, he was engineering manager for crosswell
seismic development at Schlumberger Riboud Product
Center in Clamart, France. He then moved to
Schlumberger Cambridge Research in England, where
he headed borehole seismic research. Since 1993,
he has been involved with the MDT tool as principal
authority on fluid sampling and is also a coinventor of
the CHDT* Cased Hole Dynamics Tester tool. Andrew
received a BS degree in electrical engineering from
Catholic University in Washington, DC, USA, and
MS and PhD degrees, also in electrical engineering,
from Massachusetts Institute of Technology in
Cambridge, USA.
Stephen Lemp, who is coiled tubing services technical
manager for Schlumberger Canada, Ltd., in Calgary,
Alberta, provides technical assistance for sales and
operations and is involved in marketing new technologies for coiled tubing and for the various stimulation
and cementing-fluid technologies. In more than 23 years
with Schlumberger, his assignments have ranged from
field engineer to technical manager in Canada,
Venezuela and the USA. He earned a BS degree in
chemical engineering from Michigan Technological
University in Houghton. Author of several technical
publications, Stephen was recognized as a Platinum
Award winner in the Performed by Schlumberger program and was awarded a US patent for his work on the
CoilFRAC* stimulation through coiled tubing project.
Joseph R. Levine, Chief of the Operations Analysis
Branch with the US Department of Interior, Minerals
Management Service (MMS), is based in Herndon,
Virginia, USA. His responsibilities include overseeing
the development and implementation of MMSs standardization program, offshore training program,
preparation of technical publications, the analysis of
Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) incident data, OCS
pipeline-related activities and other safety-related
issues. He has onshore oilfield experience in drilling
operations and has worked with the MMS in its Alaska,
Pacific and Gulf of Mexico regional offices. Joseph
received a petroleum engineering degree from the
University of Wyoming in Laramie.
Nick Low is Schlumberger InTouch engineer for
Well Construction Services (WCS), based in the
Schlumberger Riboud Product Center in Clamart,
France. Previously, he was US Land GeoMarket*
marketing and technical engineer for WCS in Denver,
Colorado. He has also worked as account manager for
Santos in Adelaide, South Australia, and as WCS
field service manager for various oil companies in
Aberdeen, Scotland, where he also was a DESC engineer. As a development engineer in fluids chemistry
and process engineering, he worked in Saint-tienne
and Clamart, France. Nick joined Schlumberger in
1988 as a field engineer in Australia, Brunei and
Malaysia. He earned a BS degree (Hons) in chemical
engineering from the University of Adelaide in Australia.

Autumn 2003

Carl Montgomery, Research Fellow for ConocoPhillips

in Bartlesville, Oklahoma, has been responsible for
technical innovation and training in the companys
worldwide stimulation and completion operations
since 2000. His current emphasis is on developing
software for designing hydraulic fracturing, acid
fracturing and matrix treatments, developing cavitytype completion techniques, developing stimulation
programs for the Eldfisk-Ekofisk-Embla fields in
Norway, Bohai Bay field in China and Britannia field in
the UK, and developing new stimulation training for
ConocoPhillips. He previously worked for ARCO and
Dowell Schlumberger. The author of many papers on
stimulation, he has been session chairman at several
SPE conferences, editor of SPE Production &
Facilities and chairman of the SPE Distinguished
Lecturer Committee. Carl has degrees in biochemistry,
a BS from Colorado State University in Fort Collins,
and an MS from Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana,
USA, and he also attended the Colorado School of
Mines in Golden.
Oliver C. Mullins received a BS degree in biology from
Beloit College in Wisconsin, USA, and MS and PhD
degrees in chemistry from Carnegie-Mellon University,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He held research positions
in chemistry at the University of Chicago, Illinois,
USA, and in physics at the University of Virginia,
Charlottesville. He has been at Schlumberger-Doll
Research since 1986, and has worked on or led the
research effort for several commercial services,
including the OFA, LFA and CFA systems. Oliver is
currently a scientific advisor and program manager for
Downhole Fluid Analysis. He has coedited two books
on asphaltenes, published 50 articles in refereed journals and 11 in oilfield journals, and has coauthored
19 US patents, with 12 more applications filed.
Trevor Munk, New Technology Implementation
Manager for Cementing, is based at Schlumberger
Riboud Product Center in Clamart, France. There he
manages the deployment of technologies to the field
and provides internal and client training and support.
He began his career in 1985 as a process technician
with Petro-Canada. He held various engineering and
project-management positions with Canadian Western
Natural Gas, Home Oil and the Canadian Institute for
Petroleum Industry Development. He served as business development engineer for Imperial Oil before
joining Schlumberger in 1998 as Well Services cell
leader in Gabon, becoming engineer-in-charge in
Equatorial Guinea and then in southern Africa. Before
taking his current post, he was sand-control business
development manager in West and South Africa. Trevor
holds an honors diploma in petroleum engineering
technology from the Northern Alberta Institute of
Technology in Canada, and a BS degree in petroleum
engineering and an MS degree in engineering management from the University of Alberta.
Dominic Murphy is a drilling engineer for BHP
Billiton in London, England, where he is responsible
for all aspects of well design and operations for the
upcoming Liverpool Bay drilling campaign. Prior to
joining BHP in 2002, he worked for Shell, KCA Drilling
and for several service companies. Dominic obtained
a BS degree (Hons) in geology from the University
of Durham, England, and an MS degree in drilling
engineering from Robert Gordon University in
Aberdeen, Scotland.

Tom Olsen, Schlumberger US Land Coalbed Methane

Business Development Manager, is based in Denver,
Colorado. He has been with Schlumberger since joining Dowell in 1980. His first assignments involving
wellbore stimulation, production enhancement and
project engineering took him to postings in the North
Sea, the former Soviet Union (CIS), Canada, and,
in the USA, Alaska, Texas, Oklahoma and Colorado.
He then served as technical manager of production
enhancement for Europe and the CIS. After serving as
Dowell well production services manager for Europe
and the CIS, he moved to Sugar Land, Texas, as marketing manager for the Well Services Product Center.
Before taking his current assignment, he managed
the Schlumberger Consulting Services Group. Tom
received a BS degree in geology from the University
of Connecticut in Storrs.
Jochen Pfeiffer, who is based in Houston, Texas,
is involved in cementing operations in the Gulf of
Mexico. He joined Dowell Schlumberger after earning
a degree in geology at Ludwig-Maximilians University
in Munich, Germany, in 1981. His early assignments
were as cementing specialist in Turkey and Libya,
offshore manager of cementing in Libya, manager
of a stimulation vessel in Italy, and station manager
in Libya and then Norway. From 1993 to 1997, he
managed coiled tubing and stimulation activities in
Germany and then became district manager there.
From 1997 to 1999, he was Schlumberger Well
Services marketing manager for central and eastern
Europe. Prior to taking his current position, Jochen
was project manager, Well Services marketing at
the Schlumberger Riboud Product Center in
Clamart, France.
Tiraputra Pornpoch is senior manager of the drilling
department for PTT Exploration and Production Public
Company Limited (PTTEP) in Bangkok, Thailand.
David Power is deepwater technical advisor for
M-I L.L.C. in Houston, Texas, where he is responsible
for global deepwater technical support. Previously,
he developed drilling and drilling-fluid technology as
a senior technical professional for Halliburton Energy
Services. David obtained BS and PhD degrees in
chemical engineering from the University of
Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
Satyaki Ray, Senior Geologist for Schlumberger Data
& Consulting Services (DCS) in Calgary, Alberta, specializes in borehole image processing, interpretation
and field testing, and has interpretation experience
in dipole sonic technology. He is also leader of the
Coalbed Methane Geology team, working to develop
products and solutions for clients in Canada. He began
his career in 1989 as a wellsite geologist and core analyst for Oil & Natural Gas Corporation Ltd. (ONGC),
India, and subsequently worked in its reservoirmodeling group. He joined Schlumberger in 1997 as
an interpretation development geologist in Bombay,
India. From 1999 to 2002, he was Schlumberger DCS
coordinator for onshore and eastern India. Satyaki
holds an MS degree in applied geology from the
Indian Institute of Technology in Roorkee, India,
and an MS degree in geo-exploration from the Indian
Institute of Technology in Bombay.

79

Scott Reeves is a founder, the executive vice president

and a director of Advanced Resources International
in Houston, Texas, which specializes in emerging
resources, technologies and issues for the oil and gas
industry. He oversees the companys operations in the
western USA, manages the firms reservoir engineering
practice, and is responsible for strategic planning and
marketing. He has had more than 18 years of industry
experience, including operations, engineering and
research, for Taurus Exploration, Inc. (now Energen
Resources), TRW Exploration and Production, and the
Texas Petroleum Research Committee. Scott was an
SPE Distinguished Lecturer on enhanced coalbed
methane technology. He was appointed by the US
Environmental Protection Agency as special advisor
to Russia on coalbed methane technology in 2000,
appointed by the US Agency for International
Development as special advisor to the Ukraine on
coalbed methane technology in 1998 and 1999, and
appointed by the United Nations as special advisor to
China on coalbed methane and field enhancement
technology from 1992 to 1996. Scott earned a
BS degree in petroleum engineering from Texas A&M
University in College Station, and an MBA degree from
the Fuqua School of Business, Duke University,
Durham, North Carolina.
Don Reinheimer is a senior log analyst for
Schlumberger Data & Consulting Services in Calgary,
Alberta, where his interests include petrophysics,
corrosion, rock mechanics and wireline formation
testing. He began his career with Schlumberger as a
wireline field engineer in 1975. Dons field assignments
were primarily in Canadian land, offshore and
arctic locations. He has a BS degree in electrical
engineering from the University of British Columbia,
Vancouver, Canada.
Lara Rishmani, who is a Schlumberger general field
engineer in cementing in Abu Dhabi, UAE, provides
cementing technical support for Abu Dhabi Company
for Onshore Oil Operations (ADCO). Her last assignment involved cementing operations in Yemen. Lara
obtained a BE degree in civil engineering from the
American University of Beirut in Lebanon.
Barry Ryan is a coal and coalbed methane specialist
with the Oil and Gas Emerging Opportunities and
Geosciences Branch of the Ministry of Energy and
Mines, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, where he
has worked for 14 years. He is responsible for technical
aspects of coal geology and coalbed methane geology
in the province. Previously, Barry was employed by
Crowsnest Resources, a subsidiary of Shell Canada
that pursued coal exploration and development in
western Canada. He also worked at the Line Creek
coal mine in southeast British Columbia. Barry has a
PhD degree in structural geology and isotope geology
from the University of British Columbia in Vancouver
and spent time in South Africa as a postdoctoral fellow.

80

Greg Schlachter joined Schlumberger Data &

Consulting Services in Calgary, Alberta, as a senior log
analyst in 1997. As the local MDT product champion,
he provides MDT interpretation support in addition to
production log, cased hole resistivity and petrophysical
interpretation. Previously, he was a senior staff engineer specializing in closed chamber drillstem testing
interpretation and software development for Delta-P
Test Corporation in Calgary. He also worked in
production testing and underbalanced drilling data
acquisition and interpretation as operations manager
for Datalogger Inc., also in Calgary. Greg received a
BS degree in mechanical engineering from the
University of Alberta in Edmonton.
David Schoderbek is the coalbed methane team
leader for Burlington Resources Canada in Calgary,
Alberta. He has worked for Burlington Resources and
its predecessor, Meridian Oil, in Farmington, New
Mexico, and Midland, Texas. His geological and geophysical assignments included both exploration and
development in West Texas, the San Juan basin and
the Paradox basin. Prior to joining Burlington, David
was employed as a geophysicist working in West Texas
and the Gulf Coast by Chevron USA and Gulf Oil in
Midland and Houston, Texas. David holds a BS degree
in geology from the New Mexico Institute of Mining
and Technology in Socorro, and an MS degree in
geology from the University of Houston.
Eduard Siebrits, Team Leader for the Schlumberger
Modeling & Mechanics Group in Sugar Land, Texas,
is actively involved in matrix acidizing, reaction and
transport in porous media, hydraulic fracturing, sand
management, new fluid rheology, friction and leakoff
models, proppant transport models, fracture cleanup,
soft rock fracturing and tip screenout models. Before
joining Schlumberger in 1995, he worked for CSIR
Mining Technology and COMRO Rock Engineering in
Johannesburg, South Africa. He received BS (Hons)
and MS degrees in civil engineering from the
University of Cape Town, South Africa, and a PhD
degree in geoengineering from the University of
Minnesota in Minneapolis. Eduard has been on the
international advisory board of FRAGBLAST, the
international quarterly journal for blasting and
fragmentation, since its inception in 1997.
Mike Simpson is manager of coalbed methane,
Canadian Oil and Gas Division, for Nexen Canada Ltd.
in Calgary, Alberta. He has also served as Canadian
exploration manager and division manager of strategic
planning and reporting for Nexen. He previously
worked for Home Oil Co. and B.C. Exploration in
supervisory positions in exploration, planning and
property consolidation. Mike has a BS degree in
geology from McGill University, Montreal, Quebec,
Canada, and an MS degree in economics from the
University of Calgary. A former president of the
Economics Society of Calgary, he is a founding and
current director of the Canadian Society for
Unconventional Gas.

Harry Terabayashi, Downhole Fluid Analysis Project

Manager at Schlumberger SKK, Fuchinobe, Kanagawa,
Japan, oversees project management and continued
development of the OFA, LFA and CFA modules for the
MDT tool. Since joining the company in 1988, he has
worked on development of the OFA, LFA and CFA
modules and other projects involving downhole fluid
analysis. He earned a BS degree in applied physics at
Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology in
Japan. Harry was recognized for his contributions to
downhole fluid analysis in 2000, 2001 and 2003 through
the Performed by Schlumberger program.
Del Wisler, Rincon Asset Team Manager for Kerr-McGee
Oil & Gas Onshore LLC in Houston, Texas, manages
the operations and development activities for the
Rincon field in South Texas. He joined Oryx Energy
Company, now owned by Kerr-McGee, in 1985, serving
as an operations engineer in California, Texas and
Louisiana for fourteen years. He became operations
manager for West Texas in 1999 and then onshore
USA operations engineering manager for three years
before assuming his current position. Del holds a BS
degree in petroleum engineering from the University
of Southern California in Los Angeles.
Steve Wolhart, Senior Staff Engineer for Pinnacle
Technologies in Houston, Texas, directs projects
combining hydraulic fracture diagnostics, fracture
engineering and modeling, and reservoir engineering
to optimize hydraulic fracturing and field development.
Before joining Pinnacle, Steve worked for the Gas
Research Institute (GRI), now the Gas Technology
Institute (GTI), leading projects on tight-gas sands
development and hydraulic fracturing. He also worked
for Exxon in reservoir and completions engineering.
His experience includes field studies to optimize stimulation treatments and field development of tight-gas
reservoirs in the USA, Canada and Mexico. He has
written or coauthored many SPE papers on hydraulic
fracturing, advanced hydraulic fracture diagnostics,
restimulation, coiled tubing testing and cementing.
Steve was an SPE Distinguished Lecturer from 2001
to 2002 on restimulation through hydraulic fracturing.
He earned a BS degree in mechanical engineering
at Texas A&M University in College Station, and an
MBA degree from Southern Methodist University in
Dallas, Texas.
An asterisk (*) is used to denote a mark of Schlumberger.

Oilfield Review

Coming in Oilfield Review

NEW BOOKS

Real Options. Financial analysis

similar to that used to value stock
market put and call options is now
being applied to options involving
tangible or real properties. This
methodology often uncovers additional value in anticipated projects
beyond that calculated through a
conventional discounted-cash-flow
analysis. The article will define real
options and describe a methodology
for their calculation.
Stimulation Fluids. An innovative
nondamaging viscoelastic surfactant
acid system overcomes challenges in
carbonate-reservoir stimulation. This
solids-free treatment is self-diverting
and compatible with normal additives, can be bullheaded or delivered
through coiled tubing as a single
fluid, and remains effective at high
temperatures. Case studies demonstrate superior acid treatments that
improve production.
Dynamic Underbalance. Conventional perforating relies on a large
pressure differential, or static underbalance, between wellbore and the
formation to remove debris and
crushed-zone damage. Recent
research, however, indicates that
perforation cleanup is actually governed by a sharp drop in pressure
that occurs as wellbore fluids enter
spent guns immediately after detonation. This article describes customized perforating designs and
hardware that optimize this dynamic
underbalance, starting from a modest
static underbalance or slightly overbalanced pressure, to significantly
improve well productivity or injectivity.

are difficult to read. It will be of significant interest to all geologists

involved in the study and exploration
of this petroleum-rich region.
Ulmishek GF: Journal of Petroleum Geology 25,
no. 3 (July 2002): 367-368.

Slawinski MA: The Leading Edge 22, no. 3

(March 2003): 273-274.

Petroleum Geology of the

South Caspian Basin
Leonid A. Buryakovsky, George V.
Chilingar and Fred Aminzadeh
Gulf Professional Publishing, an
imprint of Butterworth-Heinemann
225 Wildwood Avenue
Woburn, Massachusetts 01801 USA
2001. 442 pages. $125.00
ISBN 0-88415-342-8

The authors present mathematical

models and analyses for evaluating and
describing the petroleum geology of
the oil-rich South Caspian Sea basin,
including eastern Azerbaijan and
western Turkmenistan. Their models
describe the geological system, including structure and trapping mechanisms.
Included is explanation of new technology that may help operators make wells
more profitable.
Contents:
Geology of the Azerbaijan and the
South Caspian Basin
Mud Volcanoes
Regional Distribution of Oil and Gas
Lithostratigraphic Framework
Onshore Oil and Gas Fields
Offshore Oil and Gas Fields
General Regularities in Oil and
Gas Distribution
Conclusions (Chapters 1-7)
Mathematical Models in Petroleum
Geology
Mathematical Models in Oil and
Gas Exploration and Production
(Static Geologic Systems)
Mathematical Modeling of
Geological Processes (Dynamic
Geological Systems)
Other Applications of Numerical
Simulation Methodology
Conclusions (Chapters 8-13)
Bibliography
the book contains a substantial
volume of data on the Azerbaijani
part of the South Caspian Basin, data
which were previously unavailable to
the Western geologic community. The
book is handsomely published and
well illustrated, although some maps

Autumn 2003

While this is a survey book, it

provides sufficient detail to make the
reader aware of concepts that underlie this work. Kennetts work is a thorough, unifying document that serves
as an excellent introduction to the
study of seismic wavefields.

The Seismic Wavefield,

Volume 1: Introduction and
Theoretical Development
Brian L.N. Kennett
Cambridge University Press
40 West 20th Street
New York, New York 10011 USA
2001. 370 pages. $100.00 (hardcover);
$35.95 (paperback)
ISBN 0-521-80945-2

The book provides a guide to the understanding of seismograms in terms of

physical propagation processes within
the Earth. The focus is on the observation of earthquakes and man-made
sources on all scales, for both body
waves and surface waves. The book
begins with a survey of the structure of
the Earth and the nature of seismic
wave propagation using observed seismograms as examples. The second part
provides a full development of the
theoretical background for seismic
wave behavior.
Contents:
Introduction
Earthquakes and Earth Structure
Seismic Waves
Seismic Sources
Seismic Phases
Building a Seismogram
Stress and Strain
Seismic Waves IPlane Waves
Seismic Waves IIWavefronts
and Rays
Rays in Stratification
Seismic Sources
Waves in Stratification
Reflection and Transmission
Building the Response of a Model
Constructing the Wavefield
Body Waves and Surface Waves
Appendix, Bibliography, Index

Risk and Reason: Safety, Law,

and the Environment
Cass R. Sunstein
Cambridge University Press
40 West 20th Street
New York, New York 10011 USA
2002. 352 pages. $30.00
ISBN 0-521-79199-5

The author contends that, when it

comes to comprehending risks, the public lacks good information and is biased
toward the most alarming scenarios.
The resulting policy expends limited
resources on minute risks and misses
opportunities to regulate larger ones.
He argues that if experts employed
objective tools such as cost-benefit
analysis, it would bring rationality to
our regulatory process, save lives and
money and protect the environment.
Contents:
Introduction: Magnitudes, Tradeoffs,
and Tools
Beyond 1970s Environmentalism
Thinking About Risks
Are Experts Wrong?
This Months Risk (with Timur
Kuran)
Reducing Risks Rationally
Health-Health Tradeoffs
The Arithmetic of Arsenic
Of Courts and Law: Cost-Benefit
Default Principles
Cleaning the Air
Tools
Afterword: On Consequences
and Technocrats
Appendices, Index

81

Risk and Reasona rather

sprawling book by legal scholar Cass
Sunsteincovers a lot of interesting
territory pertinent to environmental
regulation. The main theses are that
people cant be trusted to judge
rationally the risks they face, and that
the answer to this problem is a priesthood of government technocrats who
carry out cost-benefit analysis (CBA)
insulated from judicial review and
pressure by advocacy groups.
My fear is that Sunsteins costbenefit state would succeed only in
getting people to listen to the mistakes
of their accountants instead.
Sunstein says that CBA does not
necessarily stack the decks in favour
of industry groups seeking to obstruct
regulations, but he provides scant
reason for such optimism.
Pierrehumbert RT: Nature 422, no. 6929
(March 20, 2003): 263.

Igneous and Metamorphic

Petrology, 2nd edition
Myron G. Best
Blackwell Publishing
350 Main Street
Malden, Massachusetts 02148 USA
2003. 832 pages. $84.95
ISBN 1-40510-588-7

Advances in geochemistry, geochronology and geophysics, as well as new analytical tools, have all contributed to
new ways of thinking about the origin
and evolution of magmas, and the
processes driving metamorphism. This
book is designed to give comprehensive
coverage of these new advances, as well
as a firm grounding in the classical
aspects of igneous and metamorphic
petrology.
Contents:
Overview of Fundamental Concepts
Composition and Classification of
Magmatic Rocks
Thermodynamics and Kinetics: An
Introduction
Silicate Melts and Volatile Fluids in
Magma Systems
Crystal-Melt Equilibria in Magmatic

82

Systems
Chemical Dynamics of Melts and
Crystals
Kinetic Paths and Fabric of Magmatic Rocks
Physical and Thermal Dynamics of
Bodies of Magma
Magma Ascent and Emplacement:
Field Relations of Intrusions
Magma Extrusion: Field Relations of
Volcanic Rock Bodies
Generation of Magma
Differentiation of Magmas
Magmatic Petrotectonic Associations
Metamorphic Rocks and Metamorphism: An Overview
Petrograpy of Metamorphic
Rocks: Fabric, Composition, and
Classification
Metamorphic Mineral Reactions and
Equilibria
Evolution of Imposed Metamorphic
Fabrics: Processes and Kinetics
Metamorphism at Convergent Plate
Margins: PTt Paths, Facies and
Zones
Precambrian Rock Associations
Appendices, References, Glossary,
Index
For most geoscience courses a
book about rocks is a much better
choice. And theres a really good one
just out: Myron Bests Igneous and
Metamorphic Petrology. These topics,
falling under the umbrella of hardrock geology, have lost a great deal
of prominence in curricula as departments have sought to address increasingly environmental agendas. Perhaps
books like this will begin to redress
the balance.
Butler R: New Scientist 177, no. 2387 (March 22,
2003): 52.

An Introduction to Geophysical
Exploration, 3rd edition
Philip Kearey, Michael Brooks and
Ian Hill
Blackwell Science
350 Main Street
Malden, Massachusetts 02148 USA
2002. 280 pages. $69.95
ISBN 0-632-04929-4

The book deals with the physical principles, methodology, interpretational procedures and applications of the various
survey methods used in geophysical
exploration. The main emphasis is on
seismic techniques, but gravity, magnetic, electrical, electromagnetic and
radiometric methods are also discussed.
Contents:
The Principles and Limitations of
Geophysical Exploration Methods
Geophysical Data Processing
Elements of Seismic Surveying
Seismic Reflection Surveying
Seismic Refraction Surveying
Gravity Surveying
Magnetic Surveying
Electrical Surveying
Electromagnetic Surveying
Radiometric Surveying
Geophysical Borehole Logging
Appendix, References, Index
With such a wide range of coverage, [the book] does not go into the
details that experts may need. However,
if more information is needed, the references at the end of each chapter are
very adequate.the authors give the
required basis of the math in a simple
clear way in each chapter.
The discussion of different methods
of explorationwill be of great help
to undergraduate students, and others
who want to get an idea about what is
going on under the surface of the
earth (for example, archaeologists
and managers).
Michael F: The Leading Edge 21, no. 12
(December 2002): 1251.

Geodynamics, 2nd edition

Donald L. Turcotte and
Gerald Schubert
Cambridge University Press
40 West 20th Street
New York, New York 10011 USA
2002. 528 pages. $110.00 (hardcover);
$50.00 (paperback)
ISBN 0-521-66186-2

In this second edition, the authors

bring this classic text up to date with
additions that include chemical geodynamics and coverage of comparative
planetology based on recent planetary
missions. The book provides the fundamentals needed to understand the
workings of the solid earth by describing the mechanics of earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and mountain building
in the context of the role of mantle convection and plate tectonics.
Contents:
Plate Tectonics
Stress and Strain in Solids
Elasticity and Flexure
Heat Transfer
Gravity
Fluid Mechanics
Rock Rheology
Faulting
Flows in Porous Media
Chemical Geodynamics
Appendices, Index
The long-awaited second edition
has the originals well-paced mathematical treatmentthe physics of the
problems hasnt changedbut the
applications are bang up to date. So
along with the rheology, heat budget
and mechanics, all required for understanding how plates deform and move,
come new approaches such as using
satellite geodesy to track active deformation of the Earths surface, comparisons with the tectonics of other planets
and updated geochemical tools for
understanding the mantle.
Butler R: New Scientist 177, no. 2387
(March 22, 2003): 52.

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