Albert Einstein

1/5/2015
AlbertEinsteinWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
AlbertEinstein
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
AlbertEinstein(/lbrtanstan/
German:[albrtantan]( )14
March187918April1955)wasa
Germanborntheoreticalphysicistand
philosopherofscience.[3]Hedeveloped
thegeneraltheoryofrelativity,oneof
thetwopillarsofmodernphysics
(alongsidequantummechanics).[2][4]
Heisbestknowninpopularculturefor
hismassenergyequivalenceformula
E=mc2(whichhasbeendubbed"the
world'smostfamousequation").[5]He
receivedthe1921NobelPrizein
Physics"forhisservicestotheoretical
physics,andespeciallyforhis
discoveryofthelawofthe
photoelectriceffect.[6]Thelatterwas
pivotalinestablishingquantumtheory.
Nearthebeginningofhiscareer,
EinsteinthoughtthatNewtonian
mechanicswasnolongerenoughto
reconcilethelawsofclassical
mechanicswiththelawsofthe
electromagneticfield.Thisledtothe
developmentofhisspecialtheoryof
relativity.Herealized,however,that
theprincipleofrelativitycouldalsobe
extendedtogravitationalfields,and
withhissubsequenttheoryof
gravitationin1916,hepublisheda
paperonthegeneraltheoryof
relativity.Hecontinuedtodealwith
problemsofstatisticalmechanicsand
quantumtheory,whichledtohis
explanationsofparticletheoryandthe
motionofmolecules.Healso
investigatedthethermalpropertiesof
lightwhichlaidthefoundationofthe
photontheoryoflight.In1917,
Einsteinappliedthegeneraltheoryof
relativitytomodelthelargescale
structureoftheuniverse.[7]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein
AlbertEinstein
AlbertEinsteinin1921
Born
14March1879
Ulm,KingdomofWrttemberg,GermanEmpire
Died
18April1955(aged76)
Princeton,NewJersey,UnitedStates
Residence
Germany,Italy,Switzerland,Austria,Belgium,
UnitedStates
Citizenship
KingdomofWrttemberg(18791896)
Stateless(18961901)
Switzerland(19011955)
AustrianoftheAustroHungarianEmpire
(19111912)
GermanEmpire(19141918)
WeimarRepublic(19191933)
UnitedStates(19401955)
Fields
Institutions
Physics,Philosophy
SwissPatentOffice(Bern)
UniversityofZurich
CharlesUniversityinPrague
ETHZurich
Caltech
PrussianAcademyofSciences
KaiserWilhelmInstitute
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HewasvisitingtheUnitedStateswhen
AdolfHitlercametopowerin1933
and,beingJewish,didnotgobackto
Germany,wherehehadbeena
professorattheBerlinAcademyof
Sciences.HesettledintheU.S.,
becominganAmericancitizenin
1940.[8]OntheeveofWorldWarII,he
endorsedalettertoPresidentFranklin
D.Rooseveltalertinghimtothe
potentialdevelopmentof"extremely
powerfulbombsofanewtype"and
recommendingthattheU.S.begin
similarresearch.Thiseventuallyledto
whatwouldbecometheManhattan
Project.Einsteinsupporteddefending
theAlliedforces,butlargelydenounced
theideaofusingthenewlydiscovered
nuclearfissionasaweapon.Later,with
theBritishphilosopherBertrand
Russell,EinsteinsignedtheRussell
EinsteinManifesto,whichhighlighted
thedangerofnuclearweapons.Einstein
wasaffiliatedwiththeInstitutefor
AdvancedStudyinPrinceton,New
Jersey,untilhisdeathin1955.
UniversityofLeiden
InstituteforAdvancedStudy
Almamater
ETHZurich
UniversityofZurich
Thesis
FolgerungenausdenCapillarittserscheinungen
(http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/andp.19013090306) (1901)
Doctoral
advisor
AlfredKleiner
Otheracademic HeinrichFriedrichWeber
advisors
Notable
students
AbdulJabbarAbdullah
ErnstG.Straus
NathanRosen
LeSzilrd
RaziuddinSiddiqui[1]
Knownfor
Generalrelativityandspecialrelativity
Photoelectriceffect
Massenergyequivalence
TheoryofBrownianMotion
Einsteinfieldequations
BoseEinsteinstatistics
BoseEinsteincondensate
BoseEinsteincorrelations
Einsteinpublishedmorethan300
scientificpapersalongwithover150
nonscientificworks.[7][9]On5
December2014,universitiesand
archivesannouncedthereleaseof
Einstein'spapers,comprisingmorethan
30,000uniquedocuments.[10][11]
Einstein'sintellectualachievementsand
originalityhavemadetheword
"Einstein"synonymouswithgenius[12]
sothatinasensehemayberegardedas
thegreatestgeniuswhoeverlived.
Contents
UnifiedFieldTheory
EPRparadox
Notableawards
BarnardMedal(1920)
NobelPrizeinPhysics(1921)
MatteucciMedal(1921)
CopleyMedal(1925)[2]
MaxPlanckMedal(1929)
TimePersonoftheCentury(1999)
Spouse
MilevaMari(19031919)
ElsaLwenthal(19191936)
Children
"Lieserl"(19021903?)
HansAlbert(19041973)
Eduard"Tete"(19101965)
Signature
1Life
1.1Earlylifeand
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education
1.2Marriagesand
children
1.3Patentoffice
1.4Academiccareer
1.519211922:Travels
abroad
1.619301931:Travelto
U.S.
1.71933:Emigrationto
U.S.
1.7.1Refugee
status
1.7.2Resident
scholaratthe
Institutefor
AdvancedStudy
1.7.3WorldWarII
andtheManhattan
Project
1.7.4US
citizenship
1.8Personallife
1.8.1Supporterof
civilrights
1.8.2Assisting
Zionistcauses
1.8.3Loveof
music
1.8.4Politicaland
religiousviews
1.9Death
2Scientificcareer
2.11905Annus
Mirabilispapers
2.2Thermodynamic
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fluctuationsand
statisticalphysics
2.3Generalprinciples
2.4Theoryofrelativity
andE=mc
2.5Photonsandenergy
quanta
2.6Quantizedatomic
vibrations
2.7Adiabaticprinciple
andactionangle
variables
2.8Waveparticle
duality
2.9Theoryofcritical
opalescence
2.10Zeropointenergy
2.11Generalrelativity
andtheequivalence
principle
2.12Holeargumentand
Entwurftheory
2.13Cosmology
2.14Modernquantum
theory
2.15BoseEinstein
statistics
2.16Energymomentum
pseudotensor
2.17Unifiedfieldtheory
2.18Wormholes
2.19EinsteinCartan
theory
2.20Equationsofmotion
2.21Otherinvestigations
2.22Collaborationwith
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otherscientists
2.22.1Einsteinde
Haasexperiment
2.22.2Schrdinger
gasmodel
2.22.3Einstein
refrigerator
2.23Bohrversus
Einstein
2.24EinsteinPodolsky
Rosenparadox
3Nonscientificlegacy
4Inpopularculture
5Awardsandhonors
6Publications
7Seealso
8Notes
9References
10Furtherreading
11Externallinks
Life
Earlylifeandeducation
AlbertEinsteinwasborninUlm,intheKingdomofWrttembergintheGermanEmpireon14March
1879.[13]HisparentswereHermannEinstein,asalesmanandengineer,andPaulineKoch.In1880,the
familymovedtoMunich,wherehisfatherandhisunclefoundedElektrotechnischeFabrikJ.Einstein&
Cie,acompanythatmanufacturedelectricalequipmentbasedondirectcurrent.[13]
TheEinsteinswerenonobservantAshkenaziJews.AlbertattendedaCatholicelementaryschoolfromthe
ageof5forthreeyears.Attheageof8,hewastransferredtotheLuitpoldGymnasium(nowknownasthe
AlbertEinsteinGymnasium),wherehereceivedadvancedprimaryandsecondaryschooleducationuntilhe
leftGermanysevenyearslater.[14]Contrarytopopularsuggestionsthathehadstruggledwithearlyspeech
difficulties,theAlbertEinsteinArchivesindicateheexcelledatthefirstschoolthatheattended.[15]Hewas
righthanded[15][16]thereappearstobenoevidenceforthewidespreadpopularbelief[17]thathewasleft
handed.
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HisfatheronceshowedhimapocketcompassEinsteinrealizedthatthere
mustbesomethingcausingtheneedletomove,despitetheapparent"empty
space".[18]Ashegrew,Einsteinbuiltmodelsandmechanicaldevicesfor
funandbegantoshowatalentformathematics.[13][fn1]
In1894,hisfather'scompanyfailed:directcurrent(DC)losttheWarof
Currentstoalternatingcurrent(AC).Insearchofbusiness,theEinstein
familymovedtoItaly,firsttoMilanandthen,afewmonthslater,toPavia.
WhenthefamilymovedtoPavia,EinsteinstayedinMunichtofinishhis
studiesattheLuitpoldGymnasium.Hisfatherintendedforhimtopursue
electricalengineering,butEinsteinclashedwithauthoritiesandresentedthe
school'sregimenandteachingmethod.Helaterwrotethatthespiritof
learningandcreativethoughtwerelostinstrictrotelearning.Attheendof
December1894,hetravelledtoItalytojoinhisfamilyinPavia,convincing
theschooltolethimgobyusingadoctor'snote.[22]Itwasduringhistimein
Italythathewroteashortessaywiththetitle"OntheInvestigationofthe
StateoftheEtherinaMagneticField."[23][24]
Einsteinattheageof3in
1882
In1895,attheageof16,Einsteinsattheentranceexaminationsforthe
SwissFederalPolytechnicinZrich(latertheEidgenssischeTechnische
HochschuleETH).Hefailedtoreachtherequiredstandardinthegeneral
partoftheexamination,[25]butobtainedexceptionalgradesinphysicsand
mathematics.[26]OntheadviceoftheprincipalofthePolytechnic,he
attendedtheArgoviancantonalschool(gymnasium)inAarau,Switzerland,
in189596tocompletehissecondaryschooling.Whilelodgingwiththe
familyofProfessorJostWinteler,hefellinlovewithWinteler'sdaughter,
Marie.(Albert'ssisterMajalatermarriedWintelers'sonPaul.)[27]InJanuary
1896,withhisfather'sapproval,herenouncedhiscitizenshipintheGerman
KingdomofWrttembergtoavoidmilitaryservice.[28]InSeptember1896,
AlbertEinsteinin1893(age
hepassedtheSwissMaturawithmostlygoodgrades,includingatopgrade
14)
of6inphysicsandmathematicalsubjects,onascaleof16.[29]Though
only17,heenrolledinthefouryearmathematicsandphysicsteaching
diplomaprogramattheZrichPolytechnic.MarieWintelermovedtoOlsberg,Switzerlandforateaching
post.
Einstein'sfuturewife,MilevaMari,alsoenrolledatthePolytechnicthatsameyear.Shewastheonly
womanamongthesixstudentsinthemathematicsandphysicssectionoftheteachingdiplomacourse.Over
thenextfewyears,EinsteinandMari'sfriendshipdevelopedintoromance,andtheyreadbookstogether
onextracurricularphysicsinwhichEinsteinwastakinganincreasinginterest.In1900,Einsteinwas
awardedtheZrichPolytechnicteachingdiploma,butMarifailedtheexaminationwithapoorgradeinthe
mathematicscomponent,theoryoffunctions.[30]TherehavebeenclaimsthatMaricollaboratedwith
Einsteinonhiscelebrated1905papers,[31][32]buthistoriansofphysicswhohavestudiedtheissuefindno
evidencethatshemadeanysubstantivecontributions.[33][34][35][36]
Marriagesandchildren
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Thediscoveryandpublicationin1987ofanearlycorrespondencebetweenEinsteinandMarirevealedthat
theyhadhadadaughter,called"Lieserl"intheirletters,borninearly1902inNoviSadwhereMariwas
stayingwithherparents.MarireturnedtoSwitzerlandwithoutthechild,whoserealnameandfateare
unknown.Einsteinprobablyneversawhisdaughter.ThecontentsofhislettertoMariinSeptember1903
suggestthatthegirlwaseitheradoptedordiedofscarletfeverininfancy.[37][38]
EinsteinandMarimarriedinJanuary1903.InMay1904,thecouple'sfirstson,HansAlbertEinstein,was
borninBern,Switzerland.Theirsecondson,Eduard,wasborninZurichinJuly1910.In1914,thecouple
separatedEinsteinmovedtoBerlinandhiswiferemainedinZurichwiththeirsons.Theydivorcedon14
February1919,havinglivedapartforfiveyears.Eduard,whomhisfathercalled"Tete"(forpetit),hada
breakdownataboutage20andwasdiagnosedwithschizophrenia.Hismothercaredforhimandhewas
alsocommittedtoasylumsforseveralperiods,includingfulltimeafterherdeath.
EinsteinmarriedElsaLwenthalon2June1919,afterhavinghadarelationshipwithhersince1912.She
wasafirstcousinmaternallyandasecondcousinpaternally.In1933,they
emigratedtotheUnitedStates.In1935,ElsaEinsteinwasdiagnosedwith
heartandkidneyproblemsshediedinDecember1936.[39]
Patentoffice
Aftergraduating,Einsteinspentalmosttwofrustratingyearssearchingfora
teachingpost.HeacquiredSwisscitizenshipinFebruary1901,[40]butwas
notconscriptedformedicalreasons.WiththehelpofMarcelGrossmann's
fatherEinsteinsecuredajobinBernattheFederalOfficeforIntellectual
Property,thepatentoffice,[41]asanassistantexaminer.[42]Heevaluated
patentapplicationsforavarietyofdevicesincludingagravelsorterandan
electromechanicaltypewriter.[43]In1903,Einstein'spositionattheSwiss
PatentOfficebecamepermanent,althoughhewaspassedoverfor
promotionuntilhe"fullymasteredmachinetechnology".[44]
Muchofhisworkatthepatentofficerelatedtoquestionsabouttransmission
ofelectricsignalsandelectricalmechanicalsynchronizationoftime,two
technicalproblemsthatshowupconspicuouslyinthethoughtexperiments
thateventuallyledEinsteintohisradicalconclusionsaboutthenatureof
lightandthefundamentalconnectionbetweenspaceandtime.[45]
Einstein'smatriculation
certificateattheageof17,
showinghisfinalgrades
fromtheArgoviancantonal
school(aargauische
Kantonsschule,onascaleof
16,with6beingthebest
mark)
WithafewfriendshehadmetinBern,Einsteinstartedasmalldiscussion
group,selfmockinglynamed"TheOlympiaAcademy",whichmet
regularlytodiscussscienceandphilosophy.Theirreadingsincludedthe
worksofHenriPoincar,ErnstMach,andDavidHume,whichinfluencedhisscientificandphilosophical
outlook.
Academiccareer
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In1900,hispaper"FolgerungenausdenCapillarittserscheinungen"("ConclusionsfromtheCapillarity
Phenomena")waspublishedintheprestigiousAnnalenderPhysik.[46][47]On30April1905,Einstein
completedhisthesis,withAlfredKleiner,ProfessorofExperimentalPhysics,servingasproformaadvisor.
Asaresult,EinsteinwasawardedaPhDbytheUniversityofZrich,withhisdissertationentitled,"ANew
DeterminationofMolecularDimensions."[48][49]Thatsameyear,whichhasbeencalledEinstein'sannus
mirabilis(miracleyear),hepublishedfourgroundbreakingpapers,onthephotoelectriceffect,Brownian
motion,specialrelativity,andtheequivalenceofmassandenergy,whichweretobringhimtothenoticeof
theacademicworld.
By1908,hewasrecognizedasaleadingscientistandwasappointed
lecturerattheUniversityofBern.Thefollowingyear,aftergivingalecture
onelectrodynamicsandtherelativityprincipleattheUniversityofZurich,
AlfredKleinerrecommendedhimtothefacultyforanewlycreated
professorshipintheoreticalphysics.Einsteinwasappointedassociate
professorin1909.[50]
EinsteinbecameafullprofessoratCharlesFerdinandUniversityinPrague
inApril1911.Forhis17monthlastingstayinPraqueattheGerman
UniversityhehadtopleadfortheAustriannationalityofthebackthen
AustroHungarianEmpire.[51]DuringhisPraquestayEinsteinwrote11
scientificworks,5ofthemonradiationmathematicsandonquantumtheory
ofthesolids.InJuly1912hereturnedtohisalmamaterinZurich.From
1912until1914hewasprofessoroftheoreticalphysicsattheETHin
Zurich,wherehetaught
analyticalmechanicsand
thermodynamics.Healso
studiedcontinuum
mechanics,themolecular
theoryofheat,andthe
problemofgravitation,on
whichheworkedwith
mathematicianMarcel
ConradHabicht,MauriceSolovine
Grossmann.[52]
AlbertEinsteinin1904(age
25)
andEinstein,whofoundedthe
OlympiaAcademy
In1914,hereturnedtothe
EinsteinwithhiswifeElsa
GermanEmpireafterbeing
appointeddirectoroftheKaiserWilhelmInstituteforPhysics
(19141932)[53]andaprofessorattheHumboldtUniversityofBerlin,butfreedfrommostteaching
obligations.HesoonbecameamemberofthePrussianAcademyofSciences,andin1916wasappointed
presidentoftheGermanPhysicalSociety(19161918).[54][55]
BasedoncalculationsEinsteinmadein1911,abouthisnewtheoryofgeneralrelativity,lightfromanother
starwouldbebentbytheSun'sgravity.In1919thatpredictionwasconfirmedbySirArthurEddington
duringthesolareclipseof29May1919.Thoseobservationswerepublishedintheinternationalmedia,
makingEinsteinworldfamous.On7November1919,theleadingBritishnewspaperTheTimesprinteda
bannerheadlinethatread:"RevolutioninScienceNewTheoryoftheUniverseNewtonianIdeas
Overthrown".[56]
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In1921,EinsteinwasawardedtheNobelPrizeinPhysicsforhisexplanationofthephotoelectriceffect,as
relativitywasconsideredstillsomewhatcontroversial.HealsoreceivedtheCopleyMedalfromtheRoyal
Societyin1925.[2]
19211922:Travelsabroad
EinsteinvisitedNewYorkCityforthefirsttimeon2April1921,wherehereceivedanofficialwelcomeby
MayorJohnFrancisHylan,followedbythreeweeksoflecturesandreceptions.Hewentontodeliver
severallecturesatColumbiaUniversityandPrincetonUniversity,andinWashingtonheaccompanied
representativesoftheNationalAcademyofScienceonavisittotheWhiteHouse.OnhisreturntoEurope
hewastheguestoftheBritishstatesmanandphilosopherViscountHaldane
inLondon,wherehemetseveralrenownedscientific,intellectualand
politicalfigures,anddeliveredalectureatKing'sCollege.[57]
Healsopublishedanessay,"MyFirstImpressionoftheU.S.A.,"inJuly
1921,inwhichhetriedbrieflytodescribesomecharacteristicsof
Americans,muchasAlexisdeTocquevilledid,whopublishedhisown
impressionsinDemocracyinAmerica(1835).[58]Forsomeofhis
observations,Einsteinwasclearlysurprised:"Whatstrikesavisitoristhe
joyous,positiveattitudetolife...TheAmericanisfriendly,selfconfident,
optimistic,andwithoutenvy."[59]:20
In1922,histravelstookhimtoAsiaandlatertoPalestine,aspartofasix
monthexcursionandspeakingtour,ashevisitedSingapore,Ceylonand
Japan,wherehegaveaseriesoflecturestothousandsofJapanese.Afterhis
firstpubliclecture,hemettheemperorandempressattheImperialPalace,
wherethousandscametowatch.Inalettertohissons,Einsteindescribed
hisimpressionoftheJapaneseasbeingmodest,intelligent,
considerate,andhavingatruefeelforart.[60]:307[60]:308
Onhisreturnvoyage,hevisitedPalestinefor12daysinwhat
wouldbecomehisonlyvisittothatregion.Einsteinwasgreeted
asifhewereaheadofstate,ratherthanaphysicist,which
includedacannonsaluteuponarrivingatthehomeoftheBritish
highcommissioner,SirHerbertSamuel.Duringonereception,
thebuildingwasstormedbypeoplewhowantedtoseeandhear
him.InEinstein'stalktotheaudience,heexpressedhappiness
thattheJewishpeoplewerebeginningtoberecognizedasaforce
intheworld.[61]:308
Einstein'sofficial1921
portraitafterreceivingthe
NobelPrizeinPhysics
EinsteininNewYork,1921,hisfirst
visittotheUnitedStates
19301931:TraveltoU.S.
InDecember1930,EinsteinvisitedAmericaforthesecondtime,originallyintendedasatwomonth
workingvisitasaresearchfellowattheCaliforniaInstituteofTechnology.Afterthenationalattentionhe
receivedduringhisfirsttriptotheU.S.,heandhisarrangersaimedtoprotecthisprivacy.Although
swampedwithtelegramsandinvitationstoreceiveawardsorspeakpublicly,hedeclinedthemall.[61]:368
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AfterarrivinginNewYorkCity,Einsteinwastakentovarious
placesandevents,includingChinatown,alunchwiththeeditorsof
theNewYorkTimes,andaperformanceofCarmenatthe
MetropolitanOpera,wherehewascheeredbytheaudienceonhis
arrival.Duringthedaysfollowing,hewasgiventhekeystothecity
byMayorJimmyWalkerandmetthepresidentofColumbia
University,whodescribedEinsteinas"therulingmonarchofthe
mind."[61]:370HarryEmersonFosdick,pastoratNewYork's
RiversideChurch,gaveEinsteinatourofthechurchandshowed
himafullsizestatuethechurchmadeofEinstein,standingatthe
entrance.[61]:370AlsoduringhisstayinNewYork,hejoineda
crowdof15,000peopleatMadisonSquareGardenduringa
Hanukkahcelebration.[61]:370
CharlieChaplinandEinsteinatthe
HollywoodpremierofCityLights,
January1931
EinsteinnexttraveledtoCaliforniawherehemetCaltechpresident
andNobellaureate,RobertA.Millikan.Hisfriendshipwith
Millikanwas"awkward",asMillikan"hadapenchantforpatriotic
militarism,"whereEinsteinwasapronouncedpacifist.[61]:373
DuringanaddresstoCaltech'sstudents,Einsteinnotedthatsciencewasofteninclinedtodomoreharm
thangood.[61]:374
ThisaversiontowaralsoledEinsteintobefriendauthorUptonSinclairandfilmstarCharlieChaplin,both
notedfortheirpacifism.CarlLaemmle,headofUniversalStudios,gaveEinsteinatourofhisstudioand
introducedhimtoChaplin.Theyhadaninstantrapport,withChaplininvitingEinsteinandhiswife,Elsa,to
hishomefordinner.ChaplinsaidEinstein'soutwardpersona,calmandgentle,seemedtoconceala"highly
emotionaltemperament,"fromwhichcamehis"extraordinaryintellectualenergy."[62]:320
ChaplinalsoremembersElsatellinghimaboutthetimeEinsteinconceivedhistheoryofrelativity.During
breakfastonemorning,heseemedlostinthoughtandignoredhisfood.Sheaskedhimifsomethingwas
botheringhim.Hesatdownathispianoandstartedplaying.Hecontinuedplayingandwritingnotesfor
halfanhour,thenwentupstairstohisstudy,whereheremainedfortwoweeks,withElsabringinguphis
food.Attheendofthetwoweekshecamedownstairswithtwosheetsofpaperbearinghistheory.[62]:320
Chaplin'sfilm,CityLights,wastopremierafewdayslaterinHollywood,andChaplininvitedEinsteinand
Elsatojoinhimashisspecialguests.WalterIsaacson,Einstein'sbiographer,describedthisas"oneofthe
mostmemorablescenesintheneweraofcelebrity."EinsteinandChaplinarrivedtogether,inblacktie,
withElsajoiningthem,"beaming."Theaudienceapplaudedastheyenteredthetheater.[61]:374Chaplin
visitedEinsteinathishomeonalatertriptoBerlin,andrecalledhis"modestlittleflat"andthepianoat
whichhehadbegunwritinghistheory.Chaplinspeculatedthatitwas"possiblyusedaskindlingwoodby
theNazis."[62]:322
1933:EmigrationtoU.S.
InFebruary1933whileonavisittotheUnitedStates,EinsteinknewhecouldnotreturntoGermanywith
therisetopoweroftheNazisunderGermany'snewchancellor,AdolfHitler.[63][64]
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WhileatAmericanuniversitiesinearly1933,heundertookhisthirdtwomonthvisitingprofessorshipatthe
CaliforniaInstituteofTechnologyinPasadena.HeandhiswifeElsareturnedtoBelgiumbyshipinMarch,
andduringthetriptheylearnedthattheircottagewasraidedbytheNazisandhispersonalsailboat
confiscated.UponlandinginAntwerpon28March,heimmediately
wenttotheGermanconsulateandturnedinhispassport,formally
renouncinghisGermancitizenship.[61]Afewyearslater,theNazis
soldhisboatandturnedhiscottageintoanAryanyouthcamp.[65]
Refugeestatus
InApril1933,healsodiscoveredthatthenewGermangovernment
hadpassedlawsbarringJewsfromholdinganyofficialpositions,
includingteachingatuniversities.[61]HistorianGeraldHolton
describeshow,with"virtuallynoaudibleprotestbeingraisedby
theircolleagues,"thousandsofJewishscientistsweresuddenly
forcedtogiveuptheiruniversitypositionsandtheirnameswere
removedfromtherollsofinstitutionswheretheywereemployed.[59]
CartoonofEinstein,whohasshedhis
"Pacifism"wings,standingnexttoa
pillarlabeled"WorldPeace."Heis
rollinguphissleevesandholdinga
swordlabeled"Preparedness"(by
CharlesR.Macauley,c.1933).
Amonthlater,Einstein'sworkswereamongthosetargetedbyNazi
bookburnings,withNazipropagandaministerJosephGoebbels
proclaiming,"Jewishintellectualismisdead."[61]OneGerman
magazineincludedhiminalistofenemiesoftheGermanregime
withthephrase,"notyethanged",offeringa$5,000bountyonhis
head.[61][66]Inasubsequentlettertophysicistandfriend,MaxBorn,whohadalreadyemigratedfrom
GermanytoEngland,Einsteinwrote,"...Imustconfessthatthedegreeoftheirbrutalityandcowardice
cameassomethingofasurprise."[61]AftermovingtotheU.S.,hedescribedthebookburningsasa
"spontaneousemotionaloutburst"bythosewho"shunpopularenlightenment,"and"morethananything
elseintheworld,feartheinfluenceofmenofintellectualindependence."[67]:197
Einsteinwasnowwithoutapermanenthome,unsurewherehe
wouldliveandwork,andequallyworriedaboutthefateofcountless
otherscientistsstillinGermany.HerentedahouseinBelgium
wherehelivedforafewmonths.InlateJuly1933,hewentto
EnglandforaboutsixweeksatthepersonalinvitationofBritish
navalofficerCommanderOliverLockerLampson,whohadbecome
friendswithEinsteinintheprecedingyears.ToprotectEinstein,
LockerLampsonsecretlyhadtwoassistantswatchoverhimathis
secludedcottageoutsideofLondon,withthepresspublishinga
photoofthemguardingEinstein.[61]:422
LockerLampsontookEinsteintomeetWinstonChurchillathis
home,andlater,AustenChamberlainandformerPrimeMinister
LloydGeorge.[61]:419420EinsteinaskedthemtohelpbringJewish
scientistsoutofGermany.BritishhistorianMartinGilbertnotesthat
Churchillrespondedimmediately,andsenthisfriend,physicist
EinsteinsurroundedbyOliver
LockerLampson(seated)and
assistantsassignedtoprotecthim
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FrederickLindemanntoGermanytoseekoutJewishscientistsandplacetheminBritishuniversities.[68]
ChurchilllaterobservedthatasaresultofGermanyhavingdriventheJewsout,theyloweredtheir
"technicalstandards,"andhadputtheAllies'technologyaheadoftheirs.[68]
Einsteinlatercontactedleadersofothernations,includingTurkey'sPrimeMinister,smetnn,whohe
wroteinSeptember1933requestingplacementofunemployedGermanJewishscientists.Asaresultof
Einstein'sletter,JewishinviteestoTurkeyeventuallytotaledover"1,000savedindividuals."[69]
LockerLampsonalsosubmittedabilltoparliamenttoextendBritishcitizenshiptoEinstein,duringwhich
periodEinsteinmadeanumberofpublicappearancesdescribingthecrisisbrewinginEurope.Thebill
failedtobecomelaw,however,andEinsteinthenacceptedanearlierofferfromthePrincetonInstitutefor
AdvancedStudy,intheU.S.,tobecomearesidentscholar.[70]
ResidentscholarattheInstituteforAdvancedStudy
InOctober1933EinsteinreturnedtotheU.S.andtookupaposition
attheInstituteforAdvancedStudy(inPrinceton,New
Jersey),[70][71]notedforhavingbecomearefugeforscientists
fleeingNaziGermany.[72]Atthetime,mostAmericanuniversities,
includingHarvard,PrincetonandYale,hadminimalornoJewish
facultyorstudents,asaresultoftheirJewishquotawhichlasted
untilthelate1940s.[72]
Hewasstillundecidedonhisfuture(hehadoffersfromEuropean
universities,includingOxford),butin1935hearrivedatthe
decisiontoremainpermanentlyintheUnitedStatesandapplyfor
citizenship.[70][73]
Einstein'saffiliationwiththeInstituteforAdvancedStudywould
lastuntilhisdeathin1955.[74]Hewasoneofthefourfirstselected
(twooftheothersbeingJohnvonNeumannandKurtGdel)atthe
Portraittakenin1935inPrinceton
newInstitute,wherehesoondevelopedaclosefriendshipwith
Gdel.Thetwowouldtakelongwalkstogetherdiscussingtheir
work.BruriaKaufman,hisassistant,laterbecameaphysicist.Duringthisperiod,Einsteintriedtodevelopa
unifiedfieldtheoryandtorefutetheacceptedinterpretationofquantumphysics,bothunsuccessfully.
OtherscientistsalsofledtoAmerica,includingNobellaureatesandprofessorsoftheoreticalphysics.With
somanyotherJewishscientistsnowforcedbycircumstancestoliveinAmerica,oftenworkingsideby
side,Einsteinwrote."InmywholelifeIhaveneverfeltsoJewishasnow."[61]
WorldWarIIandtheManhattanProject
In1939,agroupofHungarianscientiststhatincludedmigrphysicistLeSzilrdattemptedtoalert
WashingtonofongoingNaziatomicbombresearch.Thegroup'swarningswerediscounted.[75]Einsteinand
Szilrd,alongwithotherrefugeessuchasEdwardTellerandEugeneWigner,"regardeditastheir
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responsibilitytoalertAmericanstothepossibilitythatGermanscientistsmightwintheracetobuildan
atomicbomb,andtowarnthatHitlerwouldbemorethanwillingtoresorttosuchaweapon."[60]:630[76]
TomakecertaintheU.S.wasawareofthedanger,inJuly1939,afewmonthsbeforethebeginningof
WorldWarIIinEurope,SzilrdandWignervisitedEinsteintoexplainthepossibilityofatomicbombs,
whichEinstein,apacifist,saidhehadneverconsidered.[77][78]Hewasaskedtolendhissupportbywriting
aletter,withSzilrd,toPresidentRoosevelt,recommendingtheU.S.payattentionandengageinitsown
nuclearweaponsresearch.OneofthosefearedsecretGermannuclearfacilities,apparentlythelargestofthe
ThirdReich,covering75acresinanundergroundcomplex,wasdiscoveredinAustriainDecember
2014.[79]
Theletterisbelievedtobe"arguablythekeystimulusfortheU.S.adoptionofseriousinvestigationsinto
nuclearweaponsontheeveoftheU.S.entryintoWorldWarII".[80]Inadditiontotheletter,Einsteinused
hisconnectionswiththeBelgianRoyalFamily[81]andtheBelgianqueenmother[75]togetaccesswitha
personalenvoytotheWhiteHouse'sOvalOffice.[75]PresidentRooseveltcouldnottaketheriskof
allowingHitlertopossessatomicbombsfirst.AsaresultofEinstein'sletterandhismeetingswith
Roosevelt,theU.S.enteredthe"race"todevelopthebomb,drawingonits"immensematerial,financial,
andscientificresources"toinitiatetheManhattanProject.Itbecametheonlycountrytosuccessfully
developanatomicbombduringWorldWarII.
ForEinstein,"warwasadisease...[and]hecalledforresistancetowar."BysigningthelettertoRoosevelt
hewentagainsthispacifistprinciples.[82]In1954,ayearbeforehisdeath,Einsteinsaidtohisoldfriend,
LinusPauling,"ImadeonegreatmistakeinmylifewhenIsignedthelettertoPresidentRoosevelt
recommendingthatatombombsbemadebuttherewassomejustificationthedangerthattheGermans
wouldmakethem..."[83]
UScitizenship
EinsteinbecameanAmericancitizenin1940.Notlongaftersettling
intohiscareerattheInstituteforAdvancedStudy(inPrinceton,
NewJersey),heexpressedhisappreciationofthemeritocracyin
AmericanculturewhencomparedtoEurope.Herecognizedthe
"rightofindividualstosayandthinkwhattheypleased",without
socialbarriers,andasaresult,individualswereencouraged,hesaid,
tobemorecreative,atraithevaluedfromhisownearly
education.[61]:432
Personallife
Supporterofcivilrights
EinsteinacceptingU.S.citizenship
certificatefromjudgePhillipForman
Einsteinwasapassionate,committedantiracistandjoinedNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementof
ColoredPeople(NAACP)inPrinceton,wherehecampaignedforthecivilrightsofAfricanAmericans.He
consideredracismAmerica's"worstdisease,"[66]seeingitas"handeddownfromonegenerationtothe
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next."[84]Aspartofhisinvolvement,hecorrespondedwithcivilrightsactivistW.E.B.DuBoisandwas
preparedtotestifyonhisbehalfduringhistrialin1951.[85]:565WhenEinsteinofferedtobeacharacter
witnessforDuBois,thejudgedecidedtodropthecase.[86]
In1946EinsteinvisitedLincolnUniversityinPennsylvaniawhere
hewasawardedanhonorarydegree.Lincolnwasthefirstuniversity
tograntcollegedegreestoblacks,includingLangstonHughesand
ThurgoodMarshall.Toitsstudents,Einsteingaveaspeechabout
racisminAmerica,adding,"Idonotintendtobequietaboutit."[86]
AresidentofPrincetonrecallsthatEinsteinhadoncepaidthe
collegetuitionforablackstudent,[86]andblackphysicistSylvester
JamesGatesstatesthatEinsteinhadbeenoneofhisearlyscience
heroes,laterfindingoutaboutEinstein'ssupportforcivilrights.[86]
AssistingZionistcauses
EinsteinwasafigureheadleaderinhelpingestablishtheHebrew
UniversityofJerusalem,whichopenedin1925,andwasamongits
firstBoardofGovernors.Earlier,in1921,hewasaskedbythe
biochemistandpresidentoftheWorldZionistOrganization,Chaim
Weizmann,tohelpraisefundsfortheplanneduniversity.[61]:290He
alsosubmittedvarioussuggestionsastoitsinitialprograms.
Einsteinin1947
Amongthose,headvisedfirstcreatinganInstituteofAgricultureinordertosettletheundevelopedland.
Thatshouldbefollowed,hesuggested,byaChemicalInstituteandanInstituteofMicrobiology,tofight
thevariousongoingepidemicssuchasmalaria,whichhecalledan"evil"thatwasunderminingathirdof
thecountry'sdevelopment.[87]:161EstablishinganOrientalStudiesInstitute,toincludelanguagecourses
giveninbothHebrewandArabic,forscientificexplorationofthecountryanditshistoricalmonuments,
wasalsoimportant.[87]:158
ChaimWeizmannlaterbecameIsrael'sfirstpresident.UponhisdeathwhileinofficeinNovember1952
andattheurgingofEzrielCarlebach,PrimeMinisterDavidBenGurionofferedEinsteinthepositionof
PresidentofIsrael,amostlyceremonialpost.[88][89]TheofferwaspresentedbyIsrael'sambassadorin
Washington,AbbaEban,whoexplainedthattheoffer"embodiesthedeepestrespectwhichtheJewish
peoplecanreposeinanyofitssons".[60]:522Einsteindeclined,andwroteinhisresponsethathewas
"deeplymoved",and"atoncesaddenedandashamed"thathecouldnotacceptit.[60]:522
Loveofmusic
Einsteindevelopedanappreciationofmusicatanearly
age.Hismotherplayedthepianoreasonablywelland
wantedhersontolearntheviolin,notonlytoinstillin
himaloveofmusicbutalsotohelphimassimilateinto
IfIwerenotaphysicist,Iwouldprobablybea
musician.Ioftenthinkinmusic.Ilivemy
daydreamsinmusic.Iseemylifeintermsof
music...Igetmostjoyinlifeoutofmusic.
AlbertEinstein[90][91]
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Germanculture.AccordingtoconductorLeonBotstein,
Einsteinissaidtohavebegunplayingwhenhewas5,althoughhedidnotenjoyitatthatage.[92]
Whenheturned13hediscoveredtheviolinsonatasofMozart,
whereupon"Einsteinfellinlove"withMozart'smusicandstudied
musicmorewillingly.Hetaughthimselftoplaywithout"ever
practicingsystematically",hesaid,decidingthat"loveisabetter
teacherthanasenseofduty."[92]Atage17,hewasheardbyaschool
examinerinAarauasheplayedBeethoven'sviolinsonatas,the
examinerstatingafterwardthathisplayingwas"remarkableand
revealingof'greatinsight'."Whatstrucktheexaminer,writesBotstein,
wasthatEinstein"displayedadeeploveofthemusic,aqualitythat
wasandremainsinshortsupply.Musicpossessedanunusualmeaning
forthisstudent."[92]
MusictookonapivotalandpermanentroleinEinstein'slifefromthat
periodon.Althoughtheideaofbecomingaprofessionalhimselfwas
notonhismindatanytime,amongthosewithwhomEinsteinplayed
chambermusicwereafewprofessionals,andheperformedforprivate
audiencesandfriends.Chambermusichadalsobecomearegularpart
ofhissociallifewhilelivinginBern,Zrich,andBerlin,wherehe
playedwithMaxPlanckandhisson,amongothers.Heissometimes
erroneouslycreditedastheeditorofthe1937editionoftheKchel
catalogueofMozart'sworkthateditionwasactuallypreparedby
AlfredEinstein.
In1931,whileengagedinresearchattheCaliforniaInstituteof
Technology,hevisitedtheZoellnerfamilyconservatoryinLos
Angeles,whereheplayedsomeofBeethovenandMozart'sworkswith
membersoftheZoellnerQuartet.[93][94]Neartheendofhislife,when
theyoungJuilliardQuartetvisitedhiminPrinceton,heplayedhis
violinwiththem,andthequartetwas"impressedbyEinstein'slevelof
coordinationandintonation."[92]
AlbertEinsteinplayingviolin
EinsteinwithmusicianandNobel
laureateRabindranathTagore,
1930
Politicalandreligiousviews
Einstein'spoliticalviewwasinfavorofsocialismandcriticalofcapitalism,whichhedetailedinhisessays
suchas"WhySocialism?".[95][96]Einsteinofferedandwascalledontogivejudgmentsandopinionson
mattersoftenunrelatedtotheoreticalphysicsormathematics.[70]
Einstein'sviewsaboutreligiousbeliefhavebeencollectedfrominterviewsandoriginalwritings.Hecalled
himselfanagnostic,whiledisassociatinghimselffromthelabelatheist.[97]Hesaidhebelievedinthe
"pantheistic"GodofBaruchSpinoza,butnotinapersonalgod,abeliefhecriticized.[98][99]Einsteinonce
wrote:IdonotbelieveinapersonalGodandIhaveneverdeniedthisbutexpresseditclearly.[100]
Death
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On17April1955,AlbertEinsteinexperiencedinternalbleeding
causedbytheruptureofanabdominalaorticaneurysm,whichhad
previouslybeenreinforcedsurgicallybyRudolphNissenin
1948.[101]Hetookthedraftofaspeechhewaspreparingfora
televisionappearancecommemoratingtheStateofIsrael'sseventh
anniversarywithhimtothehospital,buthedidnotlivelongenough
tocompleteit.[102]
Einsteinrefusedsurgery,saying:"IwanttogowhenIwant.Itis
tastelesstoprolonglifeartificially.Ihavedonemyshare,itistime
togo.Iwilldoitelegantly."[103]HediedinPrincetonHospitalearly
thenextmorningattheageof76,havingcontinuedtoworkuntil
neartheend.
AlbertEinsteinwithhiswifeElsa
EinsteinandZionistleaders,
includingfuturePresidentofIsrael
ChaimWeizmann,hiswifeVera
Weizmann,MenahemUssishkin,and
BenZionMossinsononarrivalin
NewYorkCityin1921
Duringtheautopsy,thepathologistofPrincetonHospital,Thomas
StoltzHarvey,removedEinstein'sbrainforpreservationwithoutthe
permissionofhisfamily,inthehopethattheneuroscienceofthe
futurewouldbeabletodiscoverwhatmadeEinsteinso
intelligent.[104]Einstein'sremainswerecrematedandhisasheswerescatteredatanundisclosed
location.[105][106]
InhislectureatEinstein'smemorial,nuclearphysicistRobertOppenheimersummarizedhisimpressionof
himasaperson:"Hewasalmostwhollywithoutsophisticationandwhollywithoutworldliness...There
wasalwayswithhimawonderfulpurityatoncechildlikeandprofoundlystubborn."[107]
Scientificcareer
Throughouthislife,Einsteinpublishedhundredsofbooksandarticles.[9][13]Inadditiontotheworkhedid
byhimselfhealsocollaboratedwithotherscientistsonadditionalprojectsincludingtheBoseEinstein
statistics,theEinsteinrefrigeratorandothers.[108]
1905AnnusMirabilispapers
TheAnnusMirabilispapersarefourarticlespertainingtothephotoelectriceffect(whichgaveriseto
quantumtheory),Brownianmotion,thespecialtheoryofrelativity,andE=mc2thatAlbertEinstein
publishedintheAnnalenderPhysikscientificjournalin1905.Thesefourworkscontributedsubstantially
tothefoundationofmodernphysicsandchangedviewsonspace,time,andmatter.Thefourpapersare:
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Title(translated)
Areaof
focus
Received Published
Significance
OnaHeuristic
ViewpointConcerning Photoelectric
18March 9June
theProductionand
effect
TransformationofLight
Resolvedanunsolvedpuzzlebysuggesting
thatenergyisexchangedonlyindiscrete
amounts(quanta).[109]Thisideawas
pivotaltotheearlydevelopmentof
quantumtheory.[110]
OntheMotionofSmall
ParticlesSuspendedin
aStationaryLiquid,as Brownian
Requiredbythe
motion
MolecularKinetic
TheoryofHeat
Explainedempiricalevidenceforthe
atomictheory,supportingtheapplication
ofstatisticalphysics.
OntheElectrodynamics Special
ofMovingBodies
relativity
11May
18July
30June
ReconciledMaxwell'sequationsfor
electricityandmagnetismwiththelawsof
mechanicsbyintroducingmajorchangesto
mechanicsclosetothespeedoflight,
26
resultingfromanalysisbasedonempirical
September evidencethatthespeedoflightis
independentofthemotionofthe
observer.[111]Discreditedtheconceptofa
"luminiferousether."[112]
Equivalenceofmatterandenergy,E=mc2
DoestheInertiaofa
Matter
27
21
(andbyimplication,theabilityofgravity
BodyDependUponIts energy
September November to"bend"light),theexistenceof"rest
EnergyContent?
equivalence
energy",andthebasisofnuclearenergy.
Thermodynamicfluctuationsandstatisticalphysics
AlbertEinstein'sfirstpaper[113]submittedin1900toAnnalenderPhysikwasoncapillaryattraction.Itwas
publishedin1901withthetitle"FolgerungenausdenCapillarittserscheinungen",whichtranslatesas
"Conclusionsfromthecapillarityphenomena".Twopapershepublishedin19021903(thermodynamics)
attemptedtointerpretatomicphenomenafromastatisticalpointofview.Thesepaperswerethefoundation
forthe1905paperonBrownianmotion,whichshowedthatBrownianmovementcanbeconstruedasfirm
evidencethatmoleculesexist.Hisresearchin1903and1904wasmainlyconcernedwiththeeffectoffinite
atomicsizeondiffusionphenomena.[113]
Generalprinciples
Hearticulatedtheprincipleofrelativity.ThiswasunderstoodbyHermannMinkowskitobea
generalizationofrotationalinvariancefromspacetospacetime.OtherprinciplespostulatedbyEinstein
andlatervindicatedaretheprincipleofequivalenceandtheprincipleofadiabaticinvarianceofthe
quantumnumber.
TheoryofrelativityandE=mc
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Einstein's"ZurElektrodynamikbewegterKrper"("OntheElectrodynamicsofMovingBodies")was
receivedon30June1905andpublished26Septemberofthatsameyear.ItreconcilesMaxwell'sequations
forelectricityandmagnetismwiththelawsofmechanics,byintroducingmajorchangestomechanicsclose
tothespeedoflight.ThislaterbecameknownasEinstein'sspecialtheoryofrelativity.
Consequencesofthisincludethetimespaceframeofamovingbodyappearingtoslowdownandcontract
(inthedirectionofmotion)whenmeasuredintheframeoftheobserver.Thispaperalsoarguedthatthe
ideaofaluminiferousaetheroneoftheleadingtheoreticalentitiesinphysicsatthetimewas
superfluous.[114]
Inhispaperonmassenergyequivalence,EinsteinproducedE=mc2fromhisspecialrelativity
equations.[115]Einstein's1905workonrelativityremainedcontroversialformanyyears,butwasaccepted
byleadingphysicists,startingwithMaxPlanck.[116][117]
Photonsandenergyquanta
Ina1905paper,[118]Einsteinpostulatedthatlightitselfconsistsoflocalized
particles(quanta).Einstein'slightquantawerenearlyuniversallyrejected
byallphysicists,includingMaxPlanckandNielsBohr.Thisideaonly
becameuniversallyacceptedin1919,withRobertMillikan'sdetailed
experimentsonthephotoelectriceffect,andwiththemeasurementof
Comptonscattering.
Einsteinconcludedthateachwaveoffrequencyfisassociatedwitha
collectionofphotonswithenergyhfeach,wherehisPlanck'sconstant.He
doesnotsaymuchmore,becauseheisnotsurehowtheparticlesarerelated
tothewave.Buthedoessuggestthatthisideawouldexplaincertain
experimentalresults,notablythephotoelectriceffect.[119]
Thephotoelectriceffect.
Incomingphotonsontheleft
strikeametalplate(bottom),
andejectelectrons,depicted
asflyingofftotheright.
Quantizedatomicvibrations
In1907,Einsteinproposedamodelofmatterwhereeachatominalatticestructureisanindependent
harmonicoscillator.IntheEinsteinmodel,eachatomoscillatesindependentlyaseriesofequallyspaced
quantizedstatesforeachoscillator.Einsteinwasawarethatgettingthefrequencyoftheactualoscillations
wouldbedifferent,butheneverthelessproposedthistheorybecauseitwasaparticularlyclear
demonstrationthatquantummechanicscouldsolvethespecificheatprobleminclassicalmechanics.Peter
Debyerefinedthismodel.[120]
Adiabaticprincipleandactionanglevariables
Throughoutthe1910s,quantummechanicsexpandedinscopetocovermanydifferentsystems.After
ErnestRutherforddiscoveredthenucleusandproposedthatelectronsorbitlikeplanets,NielsBohrwas
abletoshowthatthesamequantummechanicalpostulatesintroducedbyPlanckanddevelopedbyEinstein
wouldexplainthediscretemotionofelectronsinatoms,andtheperiodictableoftheelements.
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Einsteincontributedtothesedevelopmentsbylinkingthemwiththe1898argumentsWilhelmWienhad
made.Wienhadshownthatthehypothesisofadiabaticinvarianceofathermalequilibriumstateallowsall
theblackbodycurvesatdifferenttemperaturetobederivedfromoneanotherbyasimpleshiftingprocess.
Einsteinnotedin1911thatthesameadiabaticprincipleshowsthatthequantitywhichisquantizedinany
mechanicalmotionmustbeanadiabaticinvariant.ArnoldSommerfeldidentifiedthisadiabaticinvariantas
theactionvariableofclassicalmechanics.
Waveparticleduality
AlthoughthepatentofficepromotedEinsteintoTechnicalExaminer
SecondClassin1906,hehadnotgivenuponacademia.In1908,hebecame
aPrivatdozentattheUniversityofBern.[121]In"berdieEntwicklung
unsererAnschauungenberdasWesenunddieKonstitutionderStrahlung"
("TheDevelopmentofourViewsontheCompositionandEssenceof
Radiation"),onthequantizationoflight,andinanearlier1909paper,
EinsteinshowedthatMaxPlanck'senergyquantamusthavewelldefined
momentaandactinsomerespectsasindependent,pointlikeparticles.This
paperintroducedthephotonconcept(althoughthenamephotonwas
introducedlaterbyGilbertN.Lewisin1926)andinspiredthenotionof
waveparticledualityinquantummechanics.Einsteinsawthiswave
particledualityinradiationasconcreteevidenceforhisconvictionthat
physicsneededanew,unifiedfoundation.
Theoryofcriticalopalescence
Einsteinduringhisvisitto
theUnitedStates
Einsteinreturnedtotheproblemofthermodynamicfluctuations,givinga
treatmentofthedensityvariationsinafluidatitscriticalpoint.Ordinarily
thedensityfluctuationsarecontrolledbythesecondderivativeofthefree
energywithrespecttothedensity.Atthecriticalpoint,thisderivativeiszero,leadingtolargefluctuations.
Theeffectofdensityfluctuationsisthatlightofallwavelengthsisscattered,makingthefluidlookmilky
white.EinsteinrelatesthistoRayleighscattering,whichiswhathappenswhenthefluctuationsizeismuch
smallerthanthewavelength,andwhichexplainswhytheskyisblue.[122]Einsteinquantitativelyderived
criticalopalescencefromatreatmentofdensityfluctuations,anddemonstratedhowboththeeffectand
Rayleighscatteringoriginatefromtheatomisticconstitutionofmatter.
Zeropointenergy
Einstein'sphysicalintuitionledhimtonotethatPlanck'soscillatorenergieshadanincorrectzeropoint.He
modifiedPlanck'shypothesisbystatingthatthelowestenergystateofanoscillatorisequalto12hf,tohalf
theenergyspacingbetweenlevels.Thisargument,whichwasmadein1913incollaborationwithOtto
Stern,wasbasedonthethermodynamicsofadiatomicmoleculewhichcansplitapartintotwofreeatoms.
Generalrelativityandtheequivalenceprinciple
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Generalrelativity(GR)isatheoryofgravitationthatwasdevelopedbyAlbertEinsteinbetween1907and
1915.Accordingtogeneralrelativity,theobservedgravitationalattractionbetweenmassesresultsfromthe
warpingofspaceandtimebythosemasses.Generalrelativityhas
developedintoanessentialtoolinmodernastrophysics.Itprovidesthe
foundationforthecurrentunderstandingofblackholes,regionsofspace
wheregravitationalattractionissostrongthatnotevenlightcanescape.
AsAlbertEinsteinlatersaid,thereasonforthedevelopmentofgeneral
relativitywasthatthepreferenceofinertialmotionswithinspecialrelativity
wasunsatisfactory,whileatheorywhichfromtheoutsetprefersnostateof
motion(evenacceleratedones)shouldappearmoresatisfactory.[123]
Consequently,in1908hepublishedanarticleonaccelerationunderspecial
relativity.Inthatarticle,hearguedthatfreefallisreallyinertialmotion,and
thatforafreefallingobservertherulesofspecialrelativitymustapply.This
argumentiscalledtheequivalenceprinciple.Inthesamearticle,Einstein
alsopredictedthephenomenonofgravitationaltimedilation.In1911,
Einsteinpublishedanotherarticleexpandingonthe1907article,inwhich
additionaleffectssuchasthedeflectionoflightbymassivebodieswere
predicted.
Eddington'sphotographofa
solareclipse
HoleargumentandEntwurftheory
Whiledevelopinggeneralrelativity,Einsteinbecameconfusedaboutthegaugeinvarianceinthetheory.He
formulatedanargumentthatledhimtoconcludethatageneralrelativisticfieldtheoryisimpossible.He
gaveuplookingforfullygenerallycovarianttensorequations,andsearchedforequationsthatwouldbe
invariantundergenerallineartransformationsonly.
InJune1913,theEntwurf("draft")theorywastheresultoftheseinvestigations.Asitsnamesuggests,it
wasasketchofatheory,withtheequationsofmotionsupplementedbyadditionalgaugefixingconditions.
Simultaneouslylesselegantandmoredifficultthangeneralrelativity,aftermorethantwoyearsofintensive
workEinsteinabandonedthetheoryinNovember1915afterrealizingthattheholeargumentwas
mistaken.[124]
Cosmology
In1917,Einsteinappliedthegeneraltheoryofrelativitytomodelthestructureoftheuniverseasawhole.
Heapprehendedthathisequationspredictedtheuniversetobeeithercontractingorexpanding.Hewanted
theuniversetobeeternalandunchanging,butthistypeofuniverseisnotconsistentwithrelativity.Tofix
this,Einsteinmodifiedthegeneraltheorybyintroducinganewnotion,thecosmologicalconstant,whichhe
called''Lambda''.[125]ThepurposeofLambdawastorectifytheeffectsofgravityandallowthewhole
systemtostaybalanced.Withapositivecosmologicalconstant,theuniversecouldbeaneternalstatic
sphere.However,in1929,EdwinHubbleconfirmedthattheuniverseisexpanding,Einsteinexclaimed
afterhisMountWilsonvisitwithHubble:"Ifthereisnoquasistaticworld,thenawaywiththe
cosmologicalterm!"[126][127]andEinsteinsupposedlydiscardedthecosmologicalconstant.
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Einsteinbelievedasphericalstaticuniverseisphilosophicallypreferred,becauseitwouldobeyMach's
principle.HehadshownthatgeneralrelativityincorporatesMach'sprincipletoacertainextentinframe
draggingbygravitomagneticfields,butheknewthatMach'sideawouldnotworkifspacegoesonforever.
Inacloseduniverse,hebelievedthatMach'sprinciplewouldhold.Mach'sprinciplehasgeneratedmuch
controversyovertheyears.
InmanyofEinsteinbiographies,writersclaimthathecalledthecreationofLambdahis"biggestblunder".
Recently,astrophysicistMarioLivioshowedthatEinsteinpossiblyneversaidthat.[128]Insteadof
discardingLambda,Einsteinwascontinuallyexperimentingwithit.[129]
Inlate2013,IrishphysicistCormacO'Raifeartaigh,happenedtodiscoverahandwrittenmanuscriptby
Einsteinwhichwassincethenoverlookedbyotherscientists.Theresearchpaperwastitled''"Zum
kosmologischenProblem"''("AbouttheCosmologicalProblem").[130][131]AndEinsteinproposedarevision
ofhismodel,stillwithacosmologicalconstant,butnowtheconstantwasresponsibleforthecreationof
newmatterastheuniverseexpanded.Thus,theaveragedensityofthesystemneverchanged.Hestatedin
thepaper,''"Inwhatfollows,Iwouldliketodrawattentiontoasolutiontoequation(1)thatcanaccountfor
Hubbel's[sic]facts,andinwhichthedensityisconstantovertime."And:"Ifoneconsidersaphysically
boundedvolume,particlesofmatterwillbecontinuallyleavingit.Forthedensitytoremainconstant,new
particlesofmattermustbecontinuallyformedinthevolumefromspace."''
ThisisconsistentwiththenowobsoleteSteadyStatemodelofcosmology,proposedlaterin1949,andwith
today'smodernunderstandingofdarkenergy.[132]
Modernquantumtheory
Einsteinwasdispleasedwithquantumtheoryandmechanics(the
verytheoryhehelpedcreate),despiteitsacceptancebyother
physicists,statingthatGod"isnotplayingatdice."[133]Einstein
continuedtomaintainhisdisbeliefinthetheory,andattempted
unsuccessfullytodisproveituntilhediedattheageof76.[134]In
1917,attheheightofhisworkonrelativity,Einsteinpublishedan
articleinPhysikalischeZeitschriftthatproposedthepossibilityof
stimulatedemission,thephysicalprocessthatmakespossiblethe
maserandthelaser.[135]Thisarticleshowedthatthestatisticsof
absorptionandemissionoflightwouldonlybeconsistentwith
Planck'sdistributionlawiftheemissionoflightintoamodewithn
photonswouldbeenhancedstatisticallycomparedtotheemissionof
lightintoanemptymode.Thispaperwasenormouslyinfluentialin
thelaterdevelopmentofquantummechanics,becauseitwasthe
firstpapertoshowthatthestatisticsofatomictransitionshadsimple
NewspaperheadlineonMay4,1935
laws.EinsteindiscoveredLouisdeBroglie'swork,andsupported
hisideas,whichwerereceivedskepticallyatfirst.Inanothermajor
paperfromthisera,EinsteingaveawaveequationfordeBrogliewaves,whichEinsteinsuggestedwasthe
HamiltonJacobiequationofmechanics.ThispaperwouldinspireSchrdinger'sworkof1926.
BoseEinsteinstatistics
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In1924,EinsteinreceivedadescriptionofastatisticalmodelfromIndianphysicistSatyendraNathBose,
basedonacountingmethodthatassumedthatlightcouldbeunderstoodasagasofindistinguishable
particles.EinsteinnotedthatBose'sstatisticsappliedtosomeatomsaswellastotheproposedlight
particles,andsubmittedhistranslationofBose'spapertotheZeitschriftfrPhysik.Einsteinalsopublished
hisownarticlesdescribingthemodelanditsimplications,amongthemtheBoseEinsteincondensate
phenomenonthatsomeparticulatesshouldappearatverylowtemperatures.[136]Itwasnotuntil1995that
thefirstsuchcondensatewasproducedexperimentallybyEricAllinCornellandCarlWiemanusingultra
coolingequipmentbuiltattheNISTJILAlaboratoryattheUniversityofColoradoatBoulder.[137]Bose
Einsteinstatisticsarenowusedtodescribethebehaviorsofanyassemblyofbosons.Einstein'ssketchesfor
thisprojectmaybeseenintheEinsteinArchiveinthelibraryoftheLeidenUniversity.[108]
Energymomentumpseudotensor
Generalrelativityincludesadynamicalspacetime,soitisdifficulttoseehowtoidentifytheconserved
energyandmomentum.Noether'stheoremallowsthesequantitiestobedeterminedfromaLagrangianwith
translationinvariance,butgeneralcovariancemakestranslationinvarianceintosomethingofagauge
symmetry.TheenergyandmomentumderivedwithingeneralrelativitybyNoether'spresecriptionsdonot
makearealtensorforthisreason.
Einsteinarguedthatthisistrueforfundamentalreasons,becausethegravitationalfieldcouldbemadeto
vanishbyachoiceofcoordinates.Hemaintainedthatthenoncovariantenergymomentumpseudotensor
wasinfactthebestdescriptionoftheenergymomentumdistributioninagravitationalfield.Thisapproach
hasbeenechoedbyLevLandauandEvgenyLifshitz,andothers,andhasbecomestandard.
Theuseofnoncovariantobjectslikepseudotensorswasheavilycriticizedin1917byErwinSchrdinger
andothers.
Unifiedfieldtheory
Followinghisresearchongeneralrelativity,Einsteinenteredintoaseriesofattemptstogeneralizehis
geometrictheoryofgravitationtoincludeelectromagnetismasanotheraspectofasingleentity.In1950,he
describedhis"unifiedfieldtheory"inaScientificAmericanarticleentitled"OntheGeneralizedTheoryof
Gravitation".[138]Althoughhecontinuedtobelaudedforhiswork,Einsteinbecameincreasinglyisolatedin
hisresearch,andhiseffortswereultimatelyunsuccessful.Inhispursuitofaunificationofthefundamental
forces,Einsteinignoredsomemainstreamdevelopmentsinphysics,mostnotablythestrongandweak
nuclearforces,whichwerenotwellunderstooduntilmanyyearsafterhisdeath.Mainstreamphysics,in
turn,largelyignoredEinstein'sapproachestounification.Einstein'sdreamofunifyingotherlawsofphysics
withgravitymotivatesmodernquestsforatheoryofeverythingandinparticularstringtheory,where
geometricalfieldsemergeinaunifiedquantummechanicalsetting.
Wormholes
Einsteincollaboratedwithotherstoproduceamodelofawormhole.Hismotivationwastomodel
elementaryparticleswithchargeasasolutionofgravitationalfieldequations,inlinewiththeprogram
outlinedinthepaper"DoGravitationalFieldsplayanImportantRoleintheConstitutionoftheElementary
Particles?".ThesesolutionscutandpastedSchwarzschildblackholestomakeabridgebetweentwo
patches.
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Ifoneendofawormholewaspositivelycharged,theotherendwouldbenegativelycharged.These
propertiesledEinsteintobelievethatpairsofparticlesandantiparticlescouldbedescribedinthisway.
EinsteinCartantheory
Inordertoincorporatespinningpointparticlesintogeneralrelativity,the
affineconnectionneededtobegeneralizedtoincludeanantisymmetricpart,
calledthetorsion.ThismodificationwasmadebyEinsteinandCartaninthe
1920s.
Equationsofmotion
ThetheoryofgeneralrelativityhasafundamentallawtheEinstein
equationswhichdescribehowspacecurves,thegeodesicequationwhich
describeshowparticlesmovemaybederivedfromtheEinsteinequations.
Sincetheequationsofgeneralrelativityarenonlinear,alumpofenergy
madeoutofpuregravitationalfields,likeablackhole,wouldmoveona
trajectorywhichisdeterminedbytheEinsteinequationsthemselves,notby
anewlaw.SoEinsteinproposedthatthepathofasingularsolution,likea
blackhole,wouldbedeterminedtobeageodesicfromgeneralrelativity
itself.
Einsteinathisoffice,
UniversityofBerlin,1920
ThiswasestablishedbyEinstein,Infeld,andHoffmannforpointlikeobjectswithoutangularmomentum,
andbyRoyKerrforspinningobjects.
Otherinvestigations
Einsteinconductedotherinvestigationsthatwereunsuccessfulandabandoned.Thesepertaintoforce,
superconductivity,gravitationalwaves,andotherresearch.
Collaborationwithotherscientists
InadditiontolongtimecollaboratorsLeopoldInfeld,NathanRosen,
PeterBergmannandothers,Einsteinalsohadsomeoneshot
collaborationswithvariousscientists.
EinsteindeHaasexperiment
EinsteinandDeHaasdemonstratedthatmagnetizationisduetothe
motionofelectrons,nowadaysknowntobethespin.Inorderto
showthis,theyreversedthemagnetizationinanironbarsuspended
onatorsionpendulum.Theyconfirmedthatthisleadsthebarto
rotate,becausetheelectron'sangularmomentumchangesasthe
magnetizationchanges.Thisexperimentneededtobesensitive,
The1927SolvayConferencein
Brussels,agatheringoftheworld's
topphysicists.Einsteininthecenter.
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becausetheangularmomentumassociatedwithelectronsissmall,butitdefinitivelyestablishedthat
electronmotionofsomekindisresponsibleformagnetization.
Schrdingergasmodel
EinsteinsuggestedtoErwinSchrdingerthathemightbeabletoreproducethestatisticsofaBoseEinstein
gasbyconsideringabox.Thentoeachpossiblequantummotionofaparticleinaboxassociatean
independentharmonicoscillator.Quantizingtheseoscillators,eachlevelwillhaveanintegeroccupation
number,whichwillbethenumberofparticlesinit.
Thisformulationisaformofsecondquantization,butitpredatesmodernquantummechanics.Erwin
Schrdingerappliedthistoderivethethermodynamicpropertiesofasemiclassicalidealgas.Schrdinger
urgedEinsteintoaddhisnameascoauthor,althoughEinsteindeclinedtheinvitation.[139]
Einsteinrefrigerator
In1926,EinsteinandhisformerstudentLeSzilrdcoinvented(andin1930,patented)theEinstein
refrigerator.Thisabsorptionrefrigeratorwasthenrevolutionaryforhavingnomovingpartsandusingonly
heatasaninput.[140]On11November1930,U.S.Patent1,781,541
(https://www.google.com/patents/US1781541)wasawardedtoAlbertEinsteinandLeSzilrdforthe
refrigerator.Theirinventionwasnotimmediatelyputintocommercialproduction,asthemostpromisingof
theirpatentswerequicklyboughtupbytheSwedishcompanyElectroluxtoprotectitsrefrigeration
technologyfromcompetition.[141]
BohrversusEinstein
TheBohrEinsteindebateswereaseriesofpublicdisputesaboutquantum
mechanicsbetweenAlbertEinsteinandNielsBohrwhoweretwoofits
founders.Theirdebatesarerememberedbecauseoftheirimportancetothe
philosophyofscience.[142][143][144]
EinsteinPodolskyRosenparadox
In1935,Einsteinreturnedtothequestionofquantummechanics.He
consideredhowameasurementononeoftwoentangledparticleswould
affecttheother.Henoted,alongwithhiscollaborators,thatbyperforming
differentmeasurementsonthedistantparticle,eitherofpositionor
momentum,differentpropertiesoftheentangledpartnercouldbe
discoveredwithoutdisturbingitinanyway.
EinsteinandNielsBohr,
Hethenusedahypothesisoflocalrealismtoconcludethattheotherparticle
1925
hadthesepropertiesalreadydetermined.Theprincipleheproposedisthatif
itispossibletodeterminewhattheanswertoapositionormomentum
measurementwouldbe,withoutinanywaydisturbingtheparticle,thentheparticleactuallyhasvaluesof
positionormomentum.
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ThisprincipledistilledtheessenceofEinstein'sobjectiontoquantummechanics.Asaphysicalprinciple,it
wasshowntobeincorrectwhentheAspectexperimentof1982confirmedBell'stheorem,whichhadbeen
promulgatedin1964.
Nonscientificlegacy
Whiletraveling,EinsteinwrotedailytohiswifeElsaandadoptedstepdaughtersMargotandIlse.The
letterswereincludedinthepapersbequeathedtoTheHebrewUniversity.MargotEinsteinpermittedthe
personalletterstobemadeavailabletothepublic,butrequestedthatitnotbedoneuntiltwentyyearsafter
herdeath(shediedin1986[145]).BarbaraWolff,ofTheHebrewUniversity'sAlbertEinsteinArchives,told
theBBCthatthereareabout3,500pagesofprivatecorrespondencewrittenbetween1912and1955.[146]
Corbis,successortoTheRogerRichmanAgency,licensestheuseofhisnameandassociatedimagery,as
agentfortheuniversity.[147]
Inpopularculture
IntheperiodbeforeWorldWarII,theNewYorkTimespublishedavignetteintheir"TheTalkofthe
Town"featuresayingthatEinsteinwassowellknowninAmericathathewouldbestoppedonthestreetby
peoplewantinghimtoexplain"thattheory".Hefinallyfiguredoutawaytohandletheincessantinquiries.
Hetoldhisinquirers"Pardonme,sorry!AlwaysIammistakenforProfessorEinstein."[148]
Einsteinhasbeenthesubjectoforinspirationformanynovels,films,plays,andworksofmusic.[149]Heis
afavoritemodelfordepictionsofmadscientistsandabsentmindedprofessorshisexpressivefaceand
distinctivehairstylehavebeenwidelycopiedandexaggerated.Timemagazine'sFredericGoldenwrotethat
Einsteinwas"acartoonist'sdreamcometrue".[150]
Awardsandhonors
Einsteinreceivednumerousawardsandhonors,includingtheNobelPrizeinPhysics.
Publications
ThefollowingpublicationsbyAlbertEinsteinarereferencedinthisarticle.Amorecompletelistof
hispublicationsmaybefoundatListofscientificpublicationsbyAlbertEinstein.
Einstein,Albert(1901),"FolgerungenausdenCapillarittserscheinungen(ConclusionsDrawnfromthe
PhenomenaofCapillarity)",AnnalenderPhysik4(3):513,Bibcode:1901AnP...309..513E
(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1901AnP...309..513E),doi:10.1002/andp.19013090306
(http://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.19013090306)
Einstein,Albert(1905a),"bereinendieErzeugungundVerwandlungdesLichtesbetreffendenheuristischen
Gesichtspunkt(OnaHeuristicViewpointConcerningtheProductionandTransformationofLight)"
(http://www.physik.uniaugsburg.de/annalen/history/einsteinpapers/1905_17_132148.pdf),AnnalenderPhysik
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17(6):132148,Bibcode:1905AnP...322..132E(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1905AnP...322..132E),
doi:10.1002/andp.19053220607(http://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.19053220607)Thisannusmirabilispaperon
thephotoelectriceffectwasreceivedbyAnnalenderPhysik18March.
Einstein,Albert(1905b),Anewdeterminationofmoleculardimensions.ThisPhDthesiswascompleted30April
andsubmitted20July.
Einstein,Albert(1905c),"OntheMotionRequiredbytheMolecularKineticTheoryofHeatofSmall
ParticlesSuspendedinaStationaryLiquid",AnnalenderPhysik17(8):549560,Bibcode:1905AnP...322..549E
(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1905AnP...322..549E),doi:10.1002/andp.19053220806
(http://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.19053220806).ThisannusmirabilispaperonBrownianmotionwasreceived
11May.
Einstein,Albert(1905d),"OntheElectrodynamicsofMovingBodies",AnnalenderPhysik17(10):891921,
Bibcode:1905AnP...322..891E(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1905AnP...322..891E),
doi:10.1002/andp.19053221004(http://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.19053221004).Thisannusmirabilispaperon
specialrelativitywasreceived30June.
Einstein,Albert(1905e),"DoestheInertiaofaBodyDependUponItsEnergyContent?",AnnalenderPhysik18
(13):639641,Bibcode:1905AnP...323..639E(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1905AnP...323..639E),
doi:10.1002/andp.19053231314(http://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.19053231314).Thisannusmirabilispaperon
massenergyequivalencewasreceived27September.
Einstein,Albert(1915),"DieFeldgleichungenderGravitation(TheFieldEquationsofGravitation)",Kniglich
PreussischeAkademiederWissenschaften:844847
Einstein,Albert(1917a),"KosmologischeBetrachtungenzurallgemeinenRelativittstheorie(Cosmological
ConsiderationsintheGeneralTheoryofRelativity)",KniglichPreussischeAkademiederWissenschaften
Einstein,Albert(1917b),"ZurQuantentheoriederStrahlung(OntheQuantumMechanicsofRadiation)",
PhysikalischeZeitschrift18:121128,Bibcode:1917PhyZ...18..121E
(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1917PhyZ...18..121E)
Einstein,Albert(11July1923),"FundamentalIdeasandProblemsoftheTheoryofRelativity",NobelLectures,
Physics19011921(http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einsteinlecture.pdf),Amsterdam:
ElsevierPublishingCompany,archived
(http://web.archive.org/web/20070210054832/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein
lecture.pdf)fromtheoriginalon10February2007,retrieved25March2007
Einstein,Albert(1924),"QuantentheoriedeseinatomigenidealenGases(Quantumtheoryofmonatomicideal
gases)",SitzungsberichtederPreussichenAkademiederWissenschaftenPhysikalischMathematischeKlasse:
261267.Firstofaseriesofpapersonthistopic.
Einstein,Albert(1926),"DieUrsachederManderbildungderFlusslufeunddessogenanntenBaerschen
Gesetzes",DieNaturwissenschaften14(11):223224,Bibcode:1926NW.....14..223E
(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1926NW.....14..223E),doi:10.1007/BF01510300
(http://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01510300).OnBaer'slawandmeandersinthecoursesofrivers.
Einstein,AlbertPodolsky,BorisRosen,Nathan(15May1935),"CanQuantumMechanicalDescriptionof
PhysicalRealityBeConsideredComplete?",PhysicalReview47(10):777780,Bibcode:1935PhRv...47..777E
(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1935PhRv...47..777E),doi:10.1103/PhysRev.47.777
(http://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.47.777)
Einstein,Albert(1940),"OnScienceandReligion",Nature(Edinburgh:ScottishAcademic)146(3706):605,
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Einstein,Albert(1940),"OnScienceandReligion",Nature(Edinburgh:ScottishAcademic)146(3706):605,
Bibcode:1940Natur.146..605E(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1940Natur.146..605E),doi:10.1038/146605a0
(http://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2F146605a0),ISBN0707304539
Einstein,Albertetal.(4December1948),"Totheeditors"
(http://phys4.harvard.edu/~wilson/NYTimes1948.html),NewYorkTimes(Melville,NewYork:AIP,American
Inst.ofPhysics),ISBN0735403597
Einstein,Albert(May1949),"WhySocialism?"(http://www.monthlyreview.org/598einst.htm),MonthlyReview,
archived(http://web.archive.org/web/20060111081948/http://www.monthlyreview.org/598einst.htm)fromthe
originalon11January2006,retrieved16January2006
Einstein,Albert(1950),"OntheGeneralizedTheoryofGravitation",ScientificAmerican,CLXXXII(4):1317
Einstein,Albert(1954),IdeasandOpinions,NewYork:RandomHouse,ISBN0517003937
Einstein,Albert(1969),AlbertEinstein,HedwigundMaxBorn:Briefwechsel19161955(inGerman),Munich:
NymphenburgerVerlagshandlung,ISBN388682005X
Einstein,Albert(1979),AutobiographicalNotes,PaulArthurSchilpp(Centennialed.),Chicago:OpenCourt,
ISBN0875483526.Thechasingalightbeamthoughtexperimentisdescribedonpages4851.
CollectedPapers:Stachel,John,MartinJ.Klein,a.J.Kox,MichelJanssen,R.Schulmann,DianaKomos
Buchwaldandothers(Eds.)(19872006),TheCollectedPapersofAlbertEinstein,Vol.110
(http://press.princeton.edu/einstein/writings.html#papers),PrincetonUniversityPressFurtherinformationabout
thevolumespublishedsofarcanbefoundonthewebpagesoftheEinsteinPapersProject
(http://www.einstein.caltech.edu/index.html)andonthePrincetonUniversityPressEinsteinPage
(http://press.princeton.edu/einstein/)
Seealso
AlbertEinstein'sbrain
Einsteinnotation
Einsteinsolid
TheEinsteinTheoryofRelativity(educationalfilmaboutthetheoryofrelativity)
HeinrichBurkhardt
HistoricalMuseumofBern(Einsteinmuseum)
Historyofgravitationaltheory
Introductiontospecialrelativity
Listofcoupledcousins
ListofGermaninventorsanddiscoverers
JewishNobellaureates
Listofpeaceactivists
Relativityprioritydispute
Stickybeadargument
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Notes
1. ^"Albert'sintellectualgrowthwasstronglyfosteredathome.Hismother,atalentedpianist,ensuredthe
children'smusicaleducation.HisfatherregularlyreadthepoetsSchillerandHeinealoudtothefamily.Uncle
JakobchallengedAlbertwithmathematicalproblems,whichhesolvedwith'adeepfeelingofhappiness'."When
Einsteinwas10yearsold,MaxTalmud(laterchangedtoMaxTalmey),apoorJewishmedicalstudentfrom
Poland,wasintroducedtotheEinsteinfamilybyhisbrother.Duringweeklyvisitsoverthenextfiveyears,1889
to1894,hegaveEinsteinpopularbooksonscience,mathematicaltextsandphilosophicalwritings.These
includedImmanuelKant'sCritiqueofPureReason,andEuclid'sElements(whichEinsteincalledthe"holylittle
geometrybook").[19][20]MaxTalmud'stextsandconversationsbroughttoanendashortlivedreligiousphase,
convincingEinsteinthat'alotintheBiblestoriescouldnotbetrue'.Theboyquicklyworkedthroughatextbook
ofplanegeometry,leadingtoanavidselfstudyofmathematics,severalyearsaheadoftheschoolcurriculum.[21]
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Furtherreading
Brian,Denis(1996).Einstein:ALife.NewYork:JohnWiley.
Clark,Ronald(1971).Einstein:TheLifeandTimes.NewYork:AvonBooks.
Flsing,Albrecht(1997):AlbertEinstein:ABiography.NewYork:PenguinViking.(Translatedandabridged
fromtheGermanbyEwaldOsers.)ISBN9780670855452
Highfield,RogerCarter,Paul(1993).ThePrivateLivesofAlbertEinstein.London:FaberandFaber.
ISBN9780571167449.
Hoffmann,Banesh,withthecollaborationofHelenDukas(1972):AlbertEinstein:CreatorandRebel.London:
HartDavis,MacGibbonLtd.ISBN9780670111817
Isaacson,Walter(2007):Einstein:HisLifeandUniverse.Simon&SchusterPaperbacks,NewYork.ISBN978
0743264730
Moring,Gary(2004):Thecompleteidiot'sguidetounderstandingEinstein(http://books.google.com/books?
id=875TTxildJ0C&dq=idiots+guide+to+einstein&printsec=frontcover)(1sted.2000).IndianapolisIN:Alpha
books(MacmillanUSA).ISBN0028631803
Neffe,Jrgen(2007).Einstein:ABiography(https://books.google.com/books?id=B8K6n177ZwcC).Translated
byShelleyFrisch.Farrar,StrausandGiroux.ISBN9780374146641.
Pais,Abraham(1982):SubtleistheLord:ThescienceandthelifeofAlbertEinstein.OxfordUniversityPress.
ISBN9780198539070.Thedefinitivebiographytodate.
Pais,Abraham(1994):EinsteinLivedHere.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN0192806726
Parker,Barry(2000):Einstein'sBrainchild:RelativityMadeRelativelyEasy!.PrometheusBooks.Illustratedby
LoriScoffieldBeer.AreviewofEinstein'scareerandaccomplishments,writtenforthelaypublic.ISBN9781
591025221
Rogers,DonaldW.,Einstein's"Other"Theory:ThePlanckBoseEinsteinTheoryofHeatCapacity,Princeton
UniversityPress,2005.ISBN9780691118260
Schweber,SylvanS.(2008):EinsteinandOppenheimer:TheMeaningofGenius.HarvardUniversityPress.
ISBN9780674028289.
37/39
1/5/2015
Oppenheimer,J.R.(1971):"OnAlbertEinstein",p.812inScienceandsynthesis:aninternationalcolloquium
organizedbyUnescoonthetenthanniversaryofthedeathofAlbertEinsteinandTeilharddeChardin,Springer
Verlag,1971,208pp.(LecturedeliveredattheUNESCOHouseinParison13December1965.)Alsopublished
inTheNewYorkReviewofBooks,17March1966,OnAlbertEinsteinbyRobertOppenheimer
(http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/1966/mar/17/onalberteinstein/?pagination=false)
Stone,A.Douglas(2013):EinsteinandtheQuantum,PrincetonUniversityPress.ISBN9780691139685
Externallinks
WorksbyAlbertEinstein(http://www.gutenberg.org/author/Albert_Einstein)atProjectGutenberg
WorksbyoraboutAlbertEinstein(https://archive.org/search.php?query=
(subject%3A%22Einstein%2C%20Albert%2C%201879
1955%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Einstein%2C%20Albert%2C%201879
1955%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Albert%20Einstein%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Albert%20E
instein%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Albert%20Einstein%22))atInternetArchive
WorksbyAlbertEinstein(http://librivox.org/author/1035)atLibriVox(publicdomainaudiobooks)
WorksbyAlbertEinstein(publicdomaininCanada)
AlbertEinstein(https://www.dmoz.org/Science/Physics/History/People/Einstein%2C_Albert/)at
DMOZ
Einstein'sPersonalCorrespondence:Religion,Politics,TheHolocaust,andPhilosophy
(http://www.shapell.org/exhibitions.aspx?einsteinoriginallettersinaidofhisbrethren)Shapell
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Einsteinandhisloveofmusic(http://www.pha.jhu.edu/einstein/stuff/einstein&music.pdf),Physics
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AlbertEinstein(http://www.history.com/topics/alberteinstein),videosonHistory.com
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2006/)attheWaybackMachine(archivedJune8,2011)freestudycoursethatexploresthe
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March2012(http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/46785542/ns/technology_and_sciencescience/))
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DigitalEinstein(http://einsteinpapers.press.princeton.edu/)atPrincetonUniversity
Retrievedfrom"http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Albert_Einstein&oldid=640914601"
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