FEEDBACK

Li

When we refer to feedback, we are talking about a process in which some portion of the
output is returned to the input to form part of the system excitation. If applied correctly,
the feedback can make a system self-regulating.

un

Consider the block diagram shown where the (negative) feedback (which can be a
voltage or current) is subtracted from the input . Positive feedback occurs, if the
feedback signal is summed with the input. If we allow = 0 , i.e the feedback factor to be
zero, then we obtain the open loop system with an open loop gain of .
If however, 0, then we have a system that operates in closed loop mode. Note that in
this case, the feedback factor, is assumed to be unilateral and independence of the
source and load impedances. Note also that the feedback factor is not the gain, of the
transistor amplifier.

Ed

From the diagram, we can link the closed loop gain to the open loop parameters:
=
=
1 + =

=
1 +
=

The closed loop gain is given by:

=

=
1 + 1 +

Where = is the loop gain or return ratio, is the open loop gain and
is the feedback factor.

An interesting situation in the closed loop case is that if

then . This implies

that the gain of the feedback amplifier is almost entirely determined by the feedback
network.

TYPES OF FEEDBACK
There are two types of feedback, positive and negative.

POSITIVE FEEDBACK
When < 0, the loop gain is less than zero, then > . This will cause instability.
For the special case in which T=-1, then oscillations in the output can occur since .

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

un

Li

When > 0, the loop gain is greater than zero and the system is stable, provided that
there is enough of a phase margin.

PROPERTIES OF NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

GAIN DESENSITISATION

We have already seen that if is sufficiently greater than unity, the closed loop gain is
relatively independent of the open loop gain. This is a property of the gain
densensitisation. If we also take the differential:

Ed

1
=
1 +

This indicates that for negative feedback where > 0, a change in will be less sensitive
to changes in by a factor of (1 + )
Any factor that affects the open loop gain has less effect on the closed loop gain:

As the signal frequency rises, may fall, but

1+

remains relatively constant.

We therefore expect that negative feedback increases the bandwidth at the cost
of gain.
If the load resistance changes, may change. Negative feedback however
makes the gain less sensitive to load variations.
The signal amplitude affects because the forward amplifier suffers from nonlinearity. Negative feedback however improves the linearity of the amplifier.

NON LINEAR DISTORTION

The transfer characteristic of an amplifier is only piecewise linear. For the most part, we
wish to maximize the range of inputs for which the amplifier behaves linearly. The use of
negative feedback achieves this objective.
Due to gain desensitization, the closed loop gain is smaller. If we refer to the differential of

, then we can see that the slope of the transfer characteristic be reduced by an amount

Li

determined by the return ratio. Since the onset of non-linearity will remain at the same
output, the input range for linear amplification has been extended.

NOISE REDUCTION

One will find that negative feedback improves the signal to noise ratio in addition to
attaining an almost constant closed loop gain. We define the signal to noise ratio to be:

un

Then for an amplifier with gain 1 that is preceded by another amplifier stage with 2 that
does not suffer from the effects of the noise that the amplifier 1 does, then applying
negative feedback around the overall cascade then:
=

1 2
1
+
1 + 1 2
1 + 1 2

Ed

Then:

Thus, a clean amplifier that precedes an amplifier that suffers from noise, can be
configured using negative feedback, to improve the signal to noise ratio. This is often done
at the power amplifier stage of an audio amplifier in which the power-supply hum is
prevalent.

BANDWIDTH EXTENSION
Consider a one pole open loop amplifier with a transfer function given by:
=

1+

1+

1+

1+

0
=

1+
+

1 + 0
=

1+
1 +

Li

Here, denotes the mid band gain and , the high corner 3 dB frequency. The closed
loop transfer function is thus obtained as:

un

The higher corner frequency for the amplifier with feedback is given by a multiple
factor of the open loop high corner frequency:
= (1 + 0 )

The low corner frequency for the amplifier with feedback is given by a fraction of
the open loop low corner frequency:

1 + 0

Ed

The result of the shifts in the low and high corner frequencies, is an increase in bandwidth
by a factor of 1 + .

FOUR BASIC TOPOLOGIES

S AMPLING V OLTAGES & C URRENTS
To sample the voltage across a port, we usually place a voltmeter in parallel (or shunted)
with the port, and require that the voltmeter have high input impedance so that it does
not disturb the circuit. By the same token, a feedback circuit sensing an output voltage
must appear in parallel with the output and ideally, exhibit an infinite impedance.

Li

To measure current, we usually place a current meter in series with the wiring connecting
a two port network. Thus, a feedback circuit sensing an output current must appear in
series with the output, and ideally exhibit zero impedance.
Hence, when we sample voltage, the topology on the output is shunt, whereas sampling
current requires a series topology.

A DDING V OLTAGES & C URRENTS

To add voltages from a feedback network and an input, the feedback network voltage
must appear in series with the input signal. On the other hand, adding currents involves
connecting the feedback network ports such that it is parallel with the input signal.

un

Hence, when adding voltages, we need a series topology, and current summing requires a
shunt topology.

SERIES-SHUNT (VOLTAGE SAMPLE VOLTAGE SUM)

A series-shunt topology, has its input connected in series (hence voltage sum) and its
output connected in parallel (hence voltage sample).

Ed

The feedback network is an example of a two port network. We can therefore use one of
the two port network models to redraw the feedback network. Since we have a series
network at port 1 and a parallel network at port 2 we shall use the h-parameters.

We assume that feedback is unilateral, so 21 = 0. For the other two port parameters
then:

11 =

12 =
| =0

=
=0

22 =

=0

SHUNT-SERIES (CURRENT SAMPLE- CURRENT SUM)

Li

Consider a current amplifier. In this case, we wish to sample the output current in series,
and feed it back to the amplifier in shunt. This results in a current sample-current sum
topology shunt series configuration.

un

The two port network for shunt series is the g-parameters. Again, due to the unilateral
assumption, 21 = 0

12 =

| =0

=0

22 =

=0

Ed

11 =

SERIES-SERIES CONFIGURATION (CURRENT SAMPLE-VOLTAGE SUM)

Assume that we have a transadmittance amplifier voltage signal input and a current
signal output. It follows that the appropriate feedback topology for this amplifier is
current sampling, voltage summing series, series configuration.
Since we have series network for both ports, then we have the z parameters. One way to

| =0

, which gives an impedance parameter.

12 =

| =0

=0

un

11 =

Li

remember this is to look at 12 =

22 =

=0

SHUNT-SHUNT (VOLTAGE SAMPLE - CURRENT SUM)

Assume that we have a transimpedance

amplifier current signal input, voltage signal
output. This requires a voltage sample,
current sum configuration, or alternatively,
the shunt-shunt configuration.

The feedback network is redrawn by using the

y-parameters. To remember this, we note

| =0

, which is an admittance

Ed

that 12 =

parameter.

11 =

12 =
| =0

=
=0

22 =

=0

DETERMINING THE FEEDBACK TOPOLOGY

As we have mentioned previously, we make the following assumptions:

The basic amplifier is unilateral

The feedback network is unilateral. This corresponds to the two port parameter
21 = 0 which is the feed-forward transmission through the network.

INPUT
There are generally two cases that occur in the input loop:

If the input loop contains a voltage source and either:

Li

The input loop is defined as the loop containing the applied signal source.

un

a) Base to emitter region of BJT (with the feedback element possibly

connected to the emitter)
b) Gate to Source region in a MOSFET (with the feedback element possibly
connected to the source)
c) The section between the two inputs of a differential or operational
amplifier
d) The feedback voltage
In series with the voltage source, then the input connection is defined as series.

Shunt-series

Note that we dont have the gate-source

in series at input, and grounding does
not inhibit a feedback signal

Replacing a voltage source in the input loop with a current source, if a

connection exists between the output circuit and an input node such as:

a) The base of the first BJT (with the feedback element possibly
connected to the emitter)
b) The gate of the first MOSFET (with the feedback element possibly
connected to the emitter)
c) The inverting terminal of a differential or operational amplifier

The configuration is identified as shunt.

Ed

OUTPUT

Series-Series
The base-emitter, voltage source and the
feedback voltage is in series at input. We
stop the feedback signal by open circuit
the output loop. Hence series output.

We define as the voltage across the load of the circuit and as the current flowing
through the load of the circuit.

If the feedback signal becomes zero when we ground such that

= 0, then the connection is sampling voltage shunt.

If the feedback signal becomes zero when we open circuit the output
loop such that = 0, then the connection is sampling current series.

A short cut is to determine whether the feedback network is connected to the load circuit
at . If this is the case, then there is a good chance that it is a shunt configuration

Other short cuts

If the feedback element is connected to
the emitter/source, then it is probably a
series configuration. If it is connected to
the collector or drain, then it is probably
shunt.

INPUT & OUTPUT IMPEDANCES

Another effect negative feedback produces is the control of input and output impedances.
There are really only two cases to deal with:

In a series connection, the input/output impedance is increased by a factor of

1 +
In a shunt connection, the input/output impedance is decreased by a factor of
1 +

Li

INPUT
S ERIES

Consider the following series connection on the input. Since:

+ =

= +
= 1 +

We denote as the input impedance without feedback and as

un

the input impedance with feedback. Thus:

=

1 +
=
= 1 +

S HUNT

Ed

Consider a shunt input configuration.

=
=
= 1 1 +
=

=
1 +

OUTPUT
S HUNT

With the source set to zero, the output impedance is defined as:
=

But recall that:

Li

Consider the shunt output configuration. Since the basic

amplifier is unilateral then we note that the two port parameter
21 = 0. We place a test voltage since we have a shunt
configuration.

= =
And from the diagram:

1 +
=

un

S ERIES

1 +

Consider a series connection on the output. Due to unilateral

assumptions we have 21 = 0 or 21 = 0. We place a test current since
we have a series topology.
= +

Ed

= =

= +

= 1 +

10

FEEDBACK ANALYSIS
1.

Identify the feedback topology. Note that if the feedback network is connected to
the emitter of a BJT, then the emitter resistors are also part of the feedback
network.

2.

Determine the two port network to use. Calculate the two port parameters: the
feedback loading on input, 11 , the feedback factor: 12 , the output loading: 22

3.

Redraw the circuit into a small signal model.

If there is no =

Li

a.

, =

in the hybrid model then we use the

DC analysis to work them out.

b.

If there is no =

or =

( ) in the MOSFET

small signal model, then we use DC analysis to work it out.

Calculate the mid-band open loop gain with the loading effects of 11 22 .

5.

Calculate the closed loop gain using:

4.

1 +

un

It may be also required in the question that you work out the input and output
impedances of the basic amplifier with the loading effects of the feedback
network.

6.

If necessary, calculate the closed loop input and output impedances:

In series: = (1 + )

Ed

In Shunt: =

1+

Where is the input/output impedances of the basic amplifier with the loading
effects of the feedback network.

SHUNT-SHUNT CASE

Identify the feedback topology

The circuit shows a shunt-shunt topology since:
The base-emitter of the BJT is not in series with the voltage source and it does
not sum up the feedback voltage across . If the voltage source is replaced with
a current source, we find that part of this current goes to the output circuit and
also to the input node the base of the BJT. Hence, the input is shunted.

Li

1.

The output circuit is a shunt configuration. If we take to ground, we find that

the feedback current is disabled. Hence it is voltage sampling shunt. Another
trick is to note that if the feedback network is directly connected to the output,
then chances are, it will be a shunt configuration at output.

Determine the two port network to use.

2.

un

We can redraw the circuit like this, but we are really after the circuit with
feedback loading, rather than actual feedback.

Ed

Since it is a shunt-shunt case, then we use the y parameters.

11 =

=0

= 12 =

22 =

1
=
| =0

1
= =
| =0

12

3.

The small signal model is thus:

Li

Note that by convention, if the input is shunt, we replace the input source with
the Norton equivalent circuit such that the independent source is transformed to
a current source. This is because we are after a trans-impedance open loop gain:
=

Calculate and input and output impedances with the feedback loading.

4.

= || ||

= || ||

un

Now at the output side of the circuit:

=

But:

Find the closed loop gain.

Ed

5.

6.

=

1 +
1 +

Find the closed loop input and output impedances

=

1+

1+

Note that we have included the collector resistor and source resistor in the calculation.
We can remove this by noting that they both appear in parallel so:
1

and

SERIES-SERIES CASE
Consider the common-emitter amplifier with an emitter resistor.
1.

Identify the feedback topology.

Li

Note that from this circuit, it is very difficult to determine the topology. Hence, we
take the Thevenin equivalent circuit of everything to the left of the base of the BJT.
We also note that all DC voltage sources appear as AC ground. This results in:

1 ||2

+ 1 ||2

= 1 2

Now we look at the input loop. Note that the voltage source is now in series with the
resistor , which is feeding back voltage from the output circuit. Hence, the input is a
series configuration.

Ed

un

We look at the output loop. If we bring to ground, feedback current still flows
through , hence it cannot be a shunt connection. If we however open circuit the
output such that = 0, then = 0 and we thus have a series connection.

2.

Determine the two port network parameters.

Since it is series-series, this means we expect to use the z parameters. The feedback
network is purely since that was part of the input and output circuit.

11 =

22 =

| =0

= 12 =

=
=0

=
=0

14

The small signal model is thus:

4.

Find the open loop mid band gain.

We expect a transadmittance gain since:

Li

3.

+ +

un

Now:

At the output loop, current division yields:

=

+ +

We can now find the open loop gain:

=

+ + + +

Ed

If we make the approximation that + then:

=

+ +

The input and output impedances are:

= + +
= + +

Note that the impedance found by the feedback analysis is often not the impedance we
are after. As we will see, an adjustment must be made to correct this. We are taking in
this case to be the load of the circuit.

5.

Find the Closed loop gain

This is just an application of: =

1+

+ +
=

+ + 1 +
+ +

+ + 1 +

Calculate the closed loop input and output impedance

6.

Li

Recall that = of the BJT. Again if +

= 1 + = + + 1 + ( + + )

un

= 1 + = + + 1 + ( + + )
If we assume that +

= + + 1 +

= + + + 1 +
These results take into account the source resistance and effect of . We can
remove the effect of these resistors and hence:

Ed

16

SERIES SHUNT CASE

1.

Li

Consider the non-inverting opamp circuit.

Identify the feedback topology.

At the input, the input loop is in series with the voltage source, and part of the feedback
network resistor 1 and 2 . Note that it is also connected to the output voltage of the
op-amp. Hence it is summing voltage series.

At the output, we short circuit .There is now no feedback voltage and hence this is a
shunt configuration. Also note that the feedback network is directly connected to the
output terminal a subtle indicator that this is a shunt configuration at the output.
Determine the two port network parameters.

un

2.

We use the h-parameters for a series-shunt case.

11 =

= 1 ||2 ,

22 =

| =0

= 1 + 2 ,

= 12 =

=0

=
=0

The small signal model is thus:

3.

Ed

4.

Find the open loop mid band gain.

Since we have a series shunt case then: =

. On the input side we have:

1 =

+ + 1 ||2

2 + 1 ||

+ 2 + 1 || 1

On the output side we have:

2 + 1 ||
=

+ + 1 ||2 + 2 + 1 ||

1
1 + 2

Now as and 0 we find that the open loop gain is approximately the gain of
the opamp found in the datasheets: .
We can easily find the input and output impedances:
= + + 1 ||2
To find the output impedance, we look into the output terminal and disable all
independent sources, thus 1 = 0.

Find the Closed loop gain

=

If we assume that , =

1
1 +2

6.

then:

1 + 2

1
1
1+
1 + 2

un

1 +

5.

Li

= (1 + 2 )

Calculate the closed loop input and output impedance

= 1 + = 1 +

(1 + 2 )
=
1
1 +
1+
1 + 2

1
( + + 1 | 2
1 + 2

Ed

Again, these impedances have taken into account the source resistance and the output
resistance . We remove these impedances since they are not really part of our circuit
impedances by using the following results:

= ||

18

SHUNT-SERIES CASE

Identify the feedback topology.

un

1.

Li

Consider the circuit shown.

Since we only consider the mid band gain, all external capacitors (except for the shunt
capacitors that contribute to the high frequency corner point) will be shorted. The
capacitors are used to isolate the DC biasing of the different parts of the circuit.

We look at the input loop. The voltage source is not in series with the base-emitter of the
first BJT and does not add up feedback voltage in series. If we replace the voltage source
with a current source, we find that the current flows to the input node (base of the
transistor) and also through the feedback network, to the output circuit, the input is a
shunt configuration.

Ed

We look at the output circuit. We first note that the feedback network is not connected to
the output terminal. This already indicates that it is a series configuration. We check by
shorting to ground, feedback current still flows through the feedback network. If we
open circuit the output node, then no current flows through or through . Hence this
is a series topology current sampling.

2.

Determine the two port network parameters.

A shunt-series topology requires the g parameters:

11 =

1
=
| =0 + 2

22 =

= 12 =

= ||2
| =0

2
=
| =0
+ 2

The small signal model is thus:

4.

Find the open loop mid band gain.

Li

3.

We expect = . On the input side:

1 = (1 ||( + 2 )|| | =

un

At point M (the resistance at the base is given by: 2 + 1 + 2 2 2 )

= 1 1 (1 ||1 ||(2 + 1 + 2 2 2 )
= 1 1
Now:

2 = 1 1

2 + 1 + 2 2 2 ||

KVL around the output circuit yields:

2 + 2 2 2 + +

2
( | = 0
2

Rearranging and assuming that 2 , 2 , 2 :

Ed

2 ||
2 2
= 2 2
2 2
2 + 2 + (2 || )
2

Thus the open loop gain is:

=

2 2
2
= 1 2
1
2 + 1 + 2 2 2 ||

20

5.

Find the Closed loop gain

Recall that:
=

1 +
1 2

2
2
1 2
+ 2
2 + 1 + 2 2 2 ||

Li

2
2 + 1 + 2 2 2 ||

The open loop input impedance with feedback loading is:

= | |1 || + 2

To find the output impedance, we must now disable the independent source, and use a
test voltage. The test voltage should be connected in series, since the topology was
series on the output.
2 + 1 ||1 )

= 2 + 2 2 2 + ( 2
Note that we must now remove the 2 term so that we can get
2
2
2 + 1 ||1

un
2 =

2 + 1 ||1

so:

Substituting this in, we get:

1 + 2 2 2
= 2 + 2 +
2

2 + 1 ||1

6.

2 + 1 ||1

Calculate the closed loop input and output impedance

Ed

We use:

, = 1 +
1 +

For the input resistance, the input is current summing and we have a current source as the
applied signal. We must now remove the effect of the source resistance, and note that:

=
||

Where, is the input impedance of the actual amplifier circuit. Similarly for the output:

= 2

STABILITY
A system can be made instable because of the differences in phase between the input and
output. In a situation where the phase change is 360, then we attain positive feedback,
T<0 (since by convention we take T>0 to be negative feedback). If the loop gain is less than
unity, we still find stability, whereas a loop gain equal to unity leads to () to tend to
infinity, and we get an oscillator.

SINGLE POLE SYSTEM

Li

EFFECT OF FEEDBACK ON AMPLIFIER POLES

A single pole system is unconditionally stable since the phase shift is at most 90. Consider
a single pole system with an open loop gain of:
=

1+

1 +

1+

1 +
1+

un

The closed loop feedback is thus:

+ 1 +

/(1 + )
=

1+
1 +

The feedback moves the pole along the negative real axis to a frequency of:
1 +

Ed

What we find is that 1 + is positive, and yet lies on the negative real axis. The
feedback move thus keeps the pole on the left side of the s-plane.
One can also show that at high frequencies where (1 + ), the closed loop
transfer function is approximated to:

()

22

TWO POLE SYSTEM

A two pole system is stable regardless of how much negative feedback is employed since
the maximum phase shift of () is 180 when = . Consider:

=
1+

1+

1+
+

Li

Where:

1 2 1 +
=

1 + 2

Thus, the poles of () are given by:

un

1
1
=

1 + 42

2 2

1 + 2 1 + 2

1 42
2
2

If:

= 0 there is no feedback
As | | is increased, the poles are brought closer together until they coincide, in
which point the poles then become complex conjugate and move along a vertical
line, as shown in the root-locus diagram

Ed

We can determine the frequency response by letting =

1
2

1
1

2 2

+ 4 2

= tan

If 0.707, then we find that the response of the feedback amplifier

has no peaking, with K=0.707 being the maximally flat response.

THREE POLES
Since a three pole system can have a maximum phase shift of 270, positive feedback is
possible, and can either give:

Poor transient response

Oscillations

Li

STABILITY CRITERIA
Recall that:

Negative feedback > 0 , <

Positive feedback < 0, >

Oscillatory = 1

A system is stable if a transient disturbance of finite duration results in a response

which dies out. This is achieved by making sure that the poles reside on the left half of
the complex frequency s-plane.

un

Note that a system with complex conjugate poles = has a transient response of
the form:
= + = 2 cos
()
Hence if:

< 0, the transient response is decaying

> 0, the transient response is exponentially increasing
= 0, the transient response is oscillatory

Ed

A subtle note is that the poles of an amplifier are the zeros of 1 + . Thus, the zeros of
1 + must lie on the left side of the s-plane

24

NYQUIST PLOTS
The Nyquist plot is a polar plot of the loop gain with frequency used as a parameter. The
solid line is for positive frequencies. Since the gain function of a physical network has a
magnitude that is an even function and a phase that is an odd function of frequency, the
plot for negative frequencies is a mirror image through the real axis (in dotted lines).

Li

The Nyquist criterion states that if the plot encircles the point (-1,0), then the system is
unstable since the magnitude of the loop gain is greater than unity. Note also that the
intersection of the negative real axis corresponds to the frequency 180 .

GAIN & PHASE MARGIN

An alternative approach to determining stability is through the use of bode plots, gain and
phase margins.
We define:

The plot shows an unstable

amplifier.

as the frequency in which the Nyquist plot intersects the unit circle
as the frequency in which the Nyquist plot crosses the negative real axis.

un

As already stated, a stable amplifier crosses the negative real axis to the right of (-1,0).
This corresponds to the situation in which < .
We thus define the phase margin to be:

= + 180

The magnitude the amplitude bode plot shows the curve above 180 at , the
frequency at which the loop gain of the amplifier is unity and log = 0.
Stability is achieved if > 0

The gain margin is how far the loop gain is below unity (log = 0) at , when the

Ed

phase is at 180.

= 20log||

The gain margin is positive when the system is stable since the transient response will
still die down when the magnitude of the loop gain is less than unity.

Li
d

Example

un

Consider the bode plot given of the open loop amplifier. If = 100 for
an amplifier, what feedback factor do we need for = 72?

Note that the phase margin is defined as how far above 180 the phase
curve is when gain is unity. Hence:
= 180 + 72 = 108

We then find that this corresponds to a frequency of about 3.2 106

and an open loop gain of 85 dB. Since we want = 72 we must find for
which = 1:
20 log = 0

20 log = 20 log

Ed

85 = 20 log
85

= 1020 = 5.6 105

26

FREQUENCY COMPENSATION
The purpose of compensation is to reshape the magnitude and phase response () in
such a way that < 1 when = 180. This is normally done by introducing a low
frequency pole.

DOMINANT POLE COMPENSATION

Li

Consider an amplifier with an open loop gain large enough such that = 1/. If we
choose 1 such that the phase margin is zero, then we are on the edge of instability. This
is also the case with 2 . Thus, if we require a stable amplifier with feedback and a loop
gain greater than 1 , we must make the phase margin greater by compensating the
amplifier.

Ed

un

A dominant pole is deliberately introduced into the open loop amplifier to force the phase
margin to be above 180 when the loop gain is 1. Consider the case for unity gain
feedback = 1. The loop gain curve is thus identical to the open loop gain curve of the
amplifier.

Miller-effect compensation on 741

opamp. The open loop gain rolls off
at 20 dB/dec such that the non
dominant pole is shifted far away and
a phase margin of about 90 is
achieved

As the figure shows above, compensation is achieved by introducing a new dominant pole
at a frequency . If is chosen so that is unity at frequency 1 , then the loop gain T
is also unity at 1 for the assume case of unity feedback with = 1. The phase change is
now 45 and this indicates stability.
The drawback with dominant pole compensation is that:

There is a significant reduction in the unity-gain bandwidth: from 3 to 1

With feedback applied, the loop gain begins to decrease at a frequency and all
the benefits of feedback diminishes as the loop gain increases.

SLEW RATE

Li

One of the characteristics that results from the presence of a compensation capacitor is
the slew rate limitation. The slew rate is the time rate of change the closed loop amplifier
output voltage can change in V/sec.

/
Is S is the specified slew rate of the amplifier then:

Consider a sinusoidal input = (), the maximum rate of change of input signal
is:

un

< <

Thus, the maximum frequency achievable with a sinusoidal input amplitude of k is:

GAIN BANDWIDTH PRODUCT

The unity gain frequency is given by:

Ed

When the amplifier gain falls to 1, the frequency is given by the product of the cut
off frequency and the low frequency gain.

The closed loop bandwidth is given approximately by:

=

Where is the feedback ratio

28