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Solgel
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Inmaterialsscience,thesolgelprocessisamethodforproducingsolidmaterialsfromsmallmolecules.
Themethodisusedforthefabricationofmetaloxides,especiallytheoxidesofsiliconandtitanium.The
processinvolvesconversionofmonomersintoacolloidalsolution(sol)thatactsastheprecursorforan
integratednetwork(orgel)ofeitherdiscreteparticlesornetworkpolymers.Typicalprecursorsaremetal
alkoxides.

Contents
1Stagesintheprocess
2Particlesandpolymers
3Polymerization
4SonoOrmosil
5Nanomaterials
6Applications
6.1Protectivecoatings
6.2Thinfilmsandfibers
6.3Nanoscalepowders
6.4Optomechanical
7Mechanicsofgelation
7.1Structuralrelaxation
7.2Phasetransition
7.3Elasticcontinuum
7.4Ultimatemicrostructure
8References
9Furtherreading
10Externallinks

Stagesintheprocess
Inthischemicalprocedure,the'sol'(orsolution)graduallyevolvestowardstheformationofagellike
diphasicsystemcontainingbothaliquidphaseandsolidphasewhosemorphologiesrangefromdiscrete
particlestocontinuouspolymernetworks.Inthecaseofthecolloid,thevolumefractionofparticles(or
particledensity)maybesolowthatasignificantamountoffluidmayneedtoberemovedinitiallyfor
thegellikepropertiestoberecognized.Thiscanbeaccomplishedinanynumberofways.Thesimplest
methodistoallowtimeforsedimentationtooccur,andthenpourofftheremainingliquid.
Centrifugationcanalsobeusedtoacceleratetheprocessofphaseseparation.

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Removaloftheremainingliquid(solvent)phaserequiresa
dryingprocess,whichistypicallyaccompaniedbyasignificant
amountofshrinkageanddensification.Therateatwhichthe
solventcanberemovedisultimatelydeterminedbythe
distributionofporosityinthegel.Theultimatemicrostructureof
thefinalcomponentwillclearlybestronglyinfluencedby
changesimposeduponthestructuraltemplateduringthisphase
ofprocessing.
Afterwards,athermaltreatment,orfiringprocess,isoften
necessaryinordertofavorfurtherpolycondensationandenhance
mechanicalpropertiesandstructuralstabilityviafinalsintering,
densificationandgraingrowth.Oneofthedistinctadvantagesof
usingthismethodologyasopposedtothemoretraditional
processingtechniquesisthatdensificationisoftenachievedata
muchlowertemperature.

Schematicrepresentationofthe
differentstagesandroutesofthesol
geltechnology.

Theprecursorsolcanbeeitherdepositedonasubstratetoformafilm(e.g.,bydipcoatingorspin
coating),castintoasuitablecontainerwiththedesiredshape(e.g.,toobtainmonolithicceramics,
glasses,fibers,membranes,aerogels),orusedtosynthesizepowders(e.g.,microspheres,nanospheres).
Thesolgelapproachisacheapandlowtemperaturetechniquethatallowsforthefinecontrolofthe
productschemicalcomposition.Evensmallquantitiesofdopants,suchasorganicdyesandrareearth
elements,canbeintroducedinthesolandendupuniformlydispersedinthefinalproduct.Itcanbeused
inceramicsprocessingandmanufacturingasaninvestmentcastingmaterial,orasameansofproducing
verythinfilmsofmetaloxidesforvariouspurposes.Solgelderivedmaterialshavediverseapplications
inoptics,electronics,energy,space,(bio)sensors,medicine(e.g.,controlleddrugrelease),reactive
materialandseparation(e.g.,chromatography)technology.
Theinterestinsolgelprocessingcanbetracedbackinthemid1800swiththeobservationthatthe
hydrolysisoftetraethylorthosilicate(TEOS)underacidicconditionsledtotheformationofSiO2inthe
formoffibersandmonoliths.Solgelresearchgrewtobesoimportantthatinthe1990smorethan
35,000paperswerepublishedworldwideontheprocess.[1][2][3]

Particlesandpolymers
Thesolgelprocessisawetchemicaltechniqueusedforthefabricationofbothglassyandceramic
materials.Inthisprocess,thesol(orsolution)evolvesgraduallytowardstheformationofagellike
networkcontainingbothaliquidphaseandasolidphase.Typicalprecursorsaremetalalkoxidesand
metalchlorides,whichundergohydrolysisandpolycondensationreactionstoformacolloid.Thebasic
structureormorphologyofthesolidphasecanrangeanywherefromdiscretecolloidalparticlesto
continuouschainlikepolymernetworks.[4][5]
Thetermcolloidisusedprimarilytodescribeabroadrangeofsolidliquid(and/orliquidliquid)
mixtures,allofwhichcontaindistinctsolid(and/orliquid)particleswhicharedispersedtovarious
degreesinaliquidmedium.Thetermisspecifictothesizeoftheindividualparticles,whicharelarger
thanatomicdimensionsbutsmallenoughtoexhibitBrownianmotion.Iftheparticlesarelargeenough,
thentheirdynamicbehaviorinanygivenperiodoftimeinsuspensionwouldbegovernedbyforcesof
gravityandsedimentation.Butiftheyaresmallenoughtobecolloids,thentheirirregularmotionin
suspensioncanbeattributedtothecollectivebombardmentofamyriadofthermallyagitatedmolecules
intheliquidsuspendingmedium,asdescribedoriginallybyAlbertEinsteininhisdissertation.Einstein
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concludedthatthiserraticbehaviorcouldadequatelybedescribedusingthetheoryofBrownianmotion,
withsedimentationbeingapossiblelongtermresult.Thiscriticalsizerange(orparticlediameter)
typicallyrangesfromtensofangstroms(1010m)toafewmicrometres(106m).[6]
Undercertainchemicalconditions(typicallyinbasecatalyzedsols),theparticlesmaygrowto
sufficientsizetobecomecolloids,whichareaffectedbothbysedimentationandforcesofgravity.
Stabilizedsuspensionsofsuchsubmicrometresphericalparticlesmayeventuallyresultintheir
selfassemblyyieldinghighlyorderedmicrostructuresreminiscentoftheprototypecolloidal
crystal:preciousopal.[7][8]
Undercertainchemicalconditions(typicallyinacidcatalyzedsols),theinterparticleforceshave
sufficientstrengthtocauseconsiderableaggregationand/orflocculationpriortotheirgrowth.The
formationofamoreopencontinuousnetworkoflowdensitypolymersexhibitscertain
advantageswithregardtophysicalpropertiesintheformationofhighperformanceglassand
glass/ceramiccomponentsin2and3dimensions.[9]
Ineithercase(discreteparticlesorcontinuouspolymernetwork)thesolevolvesthentowardsthe
formationofaninorganicnetworkcontainingaliquidphase(gel).Formationofametaloxideinvolves
connectingthemetalcenterswithoxo(MOM)orhydroxo(MOHM)bridges,thereforegenerating
metaloxoormetalhydroxopolymersinsolution.
Inbothcases(discreteparticlesorcontinuouspolymernetwork),thedryingprocessservestoremovethe
liquidphasefromthegel,yieldingamicroporousamorphousglassormicrocrystallineceramic.
Subsequentthermaltreatment(firing)maybeperformedinordertofavorfurtherpolycondensationand
enhancemechanicalproperties.
Withtheviscosityofasoladjustedintoaproperrange,bothopticalqualityglassfiberandrefractory
ceramicfibercanbedrawnwhichareusedforfiberopticsensorsandthermalinsulation,respectively.In
addition,uniformceramicpowdersofawiderangeofchemicalcompositioncanbeformedby
precipitation.

Polymerization
Awellstudiedalkoxideissilicontetraethoxide,ortetraethylorthosilicate(TEOS).Thechemical
formulaforTEOSisgivenbySi(OC2H5)4,orSi(OR)4,wherethealkylgroupR=C2H5.Alkoxidesare
idealchemicalprecursorsforsolgelsynthesisbecausetheyreactreadilywithwater.Thereactionis
calledhydrolysis,becauseahydroxylionbecomesattachedtothesiliconatomasfollows:
Si(OR)4+H2OHOSi(OR)3+ROH
Dependingontheamountofwaterandcatalystpresent,hydrolysismayproceedtocompletiontosilica:
Si(OR)4+2H2OSiO2+4ROH
Completehydrolysisoftenrequiresanexcessofwaterand/ortheuseofahydrolysiscatalystsuchas
aceticacidorhydrochloricacid.Intermediatespeciesincluding[(OR)2Si(OH)2]or[(OR)3Si(OH)]
mayresultasproductsofpartialhydrolysisreactions.[10]Earlyintermediatesresultfromtwopartially
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hydrolyzedmonomerslinkedviaasiloxane[SiOSi]bond:
(OR)3SiOH+HOSi(OR)3[(OR)3SiOSi(OR)3]+
HOH
or
(OR)3SiOR+HOSi(OR)3[(OR)3SiOSi(OR)3]+
ROH
Thus,polymerizationisassociatedwiththeformationofa1,2,
or3dimensionalnetworkofsiloxane[SiOSi]bonds
accompaniedbytheproductionofHOHandROHspecies.

Simplifiedrepresentationofthe
condensationofTEOSinsolgel
process

Bydefinition,condensationliberatesasmallmolecule,suchas
wateroralcohol.Thistypeofreactioncancontinuetobuildlargerandlargersiliconcontaining
moleculesbytheprocessofpolymerization.Thus,apolymerisahugemolecule(ormacromolecule)
formedfromhundredsorthousandsofunitscalledmonomers.Thenumberofbondsthatamonomercan
formiscalleditsfunctionality.Polymerizationofsiliconalkoxide,forinstance,canleadtocomplex
branchingofthepolymer,becauseafullyhydrolyzedmonomerSi(OH)4istetrafunctional(canbranchor
bondin4differentdirections).Alternatively,undercertainconditions(e.g.,lowwaterconcentration)
fewerthan4oftheORorOHgroups(ligands)willbecapableofcondensation,sorelativelylittle
branchingwilloccur.Themechanismsofhydrolysisandcondensation,andthefactorsthatbiasthe
structuretowardlinearorbranchedstructuresarethemostcriticalissuesofsolgelscienceand
technology.Thisreactionisfavoredinbothbasicandacidicconditions.[11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18]

SonoOrmosil
Sonicationisanefficienttoolforthesynthesisofpolymers.[19]Thecavitationalshearforces,which
stretchoutandbreakthechaininanonrandomprocess,resultinaloweringofthemolecularweight
andpolydispersity.Furthermore,multiphasesystemsareveryefficientdispersedandemulsified,so
thatveryfinemixturesareprovided.Thismeansthatultrasoundincreasestherateofpolymerisation
overconventionalstirringandresultsinhighermolecularweightswithlowerpolydispersities.Ormosils
(organicallymodifiedsilicate)areobtainedwhensilaneisaddedtogelderivedsilicaduringsolgel
process.Theproductisamolecularscalecompositewithimprovedmechanicalproperties.Sono
Ormosilsarecharacterizedbyahigherdensitythanclassicgelsaswellasanimprovedthermalstability.
Anexplanationthereforemightbetheincreaseddegreeofpolymerization.[20]

Nanomaterials
Intheprocessingoffineceramics,theirregularparticlesizesandshapesinatypicalpowderoftenlead
tononuniformpackingmorphologiesthatresultinpackingdensityvariationsinthepowdercompact.
UncontrolledflocculationofpowdersduetoattractivevanderWaalsforcescanalsogiveriseto
microstructuralinhomogeneities.[22][23]
Differentialstressesthatdevelopasaresultofnonuniformdryingshrinkagearedirectlyrelatedtothe
rateatwhichthesolventcanberemoved,andthushighlydependentuponthedistributionofporosity.
Suchstresseshavebeenassociatedwithaplastictobrittletransitioninconsolidatedbodies,[24]andcan
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yieldtocrackpropagationintheunfiredbodyifnotrelieved.
Inaddition,anyfluctuationsinpackingdensityinthecompactasitispreparedforthekilnareoften
amplifiedduringthesinteringprocess,yieldinginhomogeneousdensification.Someporesandother
structuraldefectsassociatedwithdensityvariationshavebeenshowntoplayadetrimentalroleinthe
sinteringprocessbygrowingandthuslimitingendpointdensities.Differentialstressesarisingfrom
inhomogeneousdensificationhavealsobeenshowntoresultinthepropagationofinternalcracks,thus
becomingthestrengthcontrollingflaws.[25][26][27][28][29]
Itwouldthereforeappeardesirabletoprocessamaterialinsuch
awaythatitisphysicallyuniformwithregardtothedistribution
ofcomponentsandporosity,ratherthanusingparticlesize
distributionswhichwillmaximizethegreendensity.The
containmentofauniformlydispersedassemblyofstrongly
interactingparticlesinsuspensionrequirestotalcontrolover
particleparticleinteractions.Monodispersecolloidsprovidethis
potential.[7][8][30]
Monodispersepowdersofcolloidalsilica,forexample,may
thereforebestabilizedsufficientlytoensureahighdegreeof
orderinthecolloidalcrystalorpolycrystallinecolloidalsolid
Nanostructureofaresorcinol
whichresultsfromaggregation.Thedegreeoforderappearsto
formaldehydegelreconstructedfrom
belimitedbythetimeandspaceallowedforlongerrange
SmallAngleXrayScattering.This
correlationstobeestablished.Suchdefectivepolycrystalline
typeofdisorderedmorphologyis
structureswouldappeartobethebasicelementsofnanoscale
typicalofmanysolgelmaterials. [21]
materialsscience,and,therefore,providethefirststepin
developingamorerigorousunderstandingofthemechanisms
involvedinmicrostructuralevolutionininorganicsystemssuchassinteredceramicnanomaterials.[31][32]

Applications
Protectivecoatings
Theapplicationsforsolgelderivedproductsarenumerous.[33][34][35][36][37][38]Forexample,scientists
haveusedittoproducetheworldslightestmaterialsandalsosomeofitstoughestceramics.Oneofthe
largestapplicationareasisthinfilms,whichcanbeproducedonapieceofsubstratebyspincoatingor
dipcoating.Protectiveanddecorativecoatings,andelectroopticcomponentscanbeappliedtoglass,
metalandothertypesofsubstrateswiththesemethods.Castintoamold,andwithfurtherdryingand
heattreatment,denseceramicorglassarticleswithnovelpropertiescanbeformedthatcannotbe
createdbyanyothermethod.Othercoatingmethodsincludespraying,electrophoresis,inkjetprintingor
rollcoating.

Thinfilmsandfibers
Withtheviscosityofasoladjustedintoaproperrange,bothopticalandrefractoryceramicfiberscanbe
drawnwhichareusedforfiberopticsensorsandthermalinsulation,respectively.Thus,manyceramic
materials,bothglassyandcrystalline,havefounduseinvariousformsfrombulksolidstatecomponents
tohighsurfaceareaformssuchasthinfilms,coatingsandfibers.[9][39]

Nanoscalepowders
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Ultrafineanduniformceramicpowderscanbeformedbyprecipitation.Thesepowdersofsingleand
multiplecomponentcompositionscanbeproducedonananoscaleparticlesizefordentaland
biomedicalapplications.Compositepowdershavebeenpatentedforuseasagrochemicalsand
herbicides.Powderabrasives,usedinavarietyoffinishingoperations,aremadeusingasolgeltype
process.Oneofthemoreimportantapplicationsofsolgelprocessingistocarryoutzeolitesynthesis.
Otherelements(metals,metaloxides)canbeeasilyincorporatedintothefinalproductandthesilicate
solformedbythismethodisverystable.
Anotherapplicationinresearchistoentrapbiomoleculesforsensory(biosensors)orcatalyticpurposes,
byphysicallyorchemicallypreventingthemfromleachingoutand,inthecaseofproteinorchemically
linkedsmallmolecules,byshieldingthemfromtheexternalenvironmentyetallowingsmallmolecules
tobemonitored.Themajordisadvantagesarethatthechangeinlocalenvironmentmayalterthe
functionalityoftheproteinorsmallmoleculeentrappedandthatthesynthesisstepmaydamagethe
protein.Tocircumventthis,variousstrategieshavebeenexplored,suchasmonomerswithprotein
friendlyleavinggroups(e.g.glycerol)andtheinclusionofpolymerswhichstabilizeprotein(e.g.
PEG).[40]
Otherproductsfabricatedwiththisprocessincludevariousceramicmembranesformicrofiltration,
ultrafiltration,nanofiltration,pervaporationandreverseosmosis.Iftheliquidinawetgelisremoved
underasupercriticalcondition,ahighlyporousandextremelylowdensitymaterialcalledaerogelis
obtained.Dryingthegelbymeansoflowtemperaturetreatments(25100C),itispossibletoobtain
poroussolidmatricescalledxerogels.Inaddition,asolgelprocesswasdevelopedinthe1950sforthe
productionofradioactivepowdersofUO2andThO2fornuclearfuels,withoutgenerationoflarge
quantitiesofdust.

Optomechanical
Macroscopicopticalelementsandactiveopticalcomponentsaswellaslargeareahotmirrors,cold
mirrors,lensesandbeamsplittersallwithoptimalgeometrycanbemadequicklyandatlowcostviathe
solgelroute.Intheprocessingofhighperformanceceramicnanomaterialswithsuperioropto
mechanicalpropertiesunderadverseconditions,thesizeofthecrystallinegrainsisdeterminedlargely
bythesizeofthecrystallineparticlespresentintherawmaterialduringthesynthesisorformationofthe
object.Thusareductionoftheoriginalparticlesizewellbelowthewavelengthofvisiblelight
(~500nm)eliminatesmuchofthelightscattering,resultinginatranslucentoreventransparentmaterial.
Furthermore,resultsindicatethatmicroscopicporesinsinteredceramicnanomaterials,mainlytrappedat
thejunctionsofmicrocrystallinegrains,causelighttoscatterandpreventedtruetransparency.ithas
beenobservedthatthetotalvolumefractionofthesenanoscalepores(bothintergranularand
intragranularporosity)mustbelessthan1%forhighqualityopticaltransmission.I.E.Thedensityhasto
be99.99%ofthetheoreticalcrystallinedensity.[15][16]

Mechanicsofgelation
Inastaticsense,thefundamentaldifferencebetweenaliquidandasolidisthatthesolidhaselastic
resistanceagainstashearingstresswhilealiquiddoesnot.Thus,asimpleliquidwillnottypically
supportatransverseacousticphonon,orshearwave.GelshavebeendescribedbyBornasliquidsin
whichanelasticresistanceagainstshearingsurvives,yieldingbothviscousandelasticproperties.Ithas
beenshowntheoreticallythatinacertainlowfrequencyrange,polymericgelsshouldpropagateshear
waveswithrelativelylowdamping.Thedistinctionbetweenasol(solution)andagelthereforeappears
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tobeunderstoodinamanneranalogoustothepracticaldistinctionbetweentheelasticandplastic
deformationrangesofametal.Thedistinctionliesintheabilitytorespondtoanappliedshearforcevia
macroscopicviscousflow.[41][42]
Inadynamicsense,theresponseofageltoanalternatingforce(oscillationorvibration)willdepend
upontheperiodorfrequencyofvibration.Asindicatedhere,evenmostsimpleliquidswillexhibitsome
elasticresponseatshearratesorfrequenciesexceeding5x106cyclespersecond.Experimentsonsuch
shorttimescalesprobethefundamentalmotionsoftheprimaryparticles(orparticleclusters)which
constitutethelatticestructureoraggregate.Theincreasingresistanceofcertainliquidstoflowathigh
stirringspeedsisonemanifestationofthisphenomenon.Theabilityofacondensedbodytorespondtoa
mechanicalforcebyviscousflowisthusstronglydependentonthetimescaleoverwhichtheloadis
applied,andthusthefrequencyandamplitudeofthestresswaveinoscillatoryexperiments.[43][44]

Structuralrelaxation
Thestructuralrelaxationofaviscoelasticgelhasbeenidentifiedasprimarymechanismresponsiblefor
densificationandassociatedporeevolutioninbothcolloidalandpolymericsilicagels.[1]Experimentsin
theviscoelasticpropertiesofsuchskeletalnetworksonvarioustimescalesrequireaforcevaryingwitha
period(orfrequency)appropriatetotherelaxationtimeofthephenomenoninvestigated,andinversely
proportionaltothedistanceoverwhichsuchrelaxationoccurs.Highfrequenciesassociatedwith
ultrasonicwaveshavebeenusedextensivelyinthehandlingofpolymersolutions,liquidsandgelsand
thedeterminationoftheirviscoelasticproperties.Staticmeasurementsoftheshearmodulushavebeen
made,[45]aswellasdynamicmeasurementsofthespeedofpropagationofshearwaves,[46][47][48][49]a
measurementwhichthenyieldsthedynamicmodulusofrigidity.DynamicLightScattering(DLS)
techniqueshavebeenutilizedinordertomonitorthedynamicsofdensityfluctuationsthroughthe
behavioroftheautocorrelationfunctionnearthepointofgelation.

Phasetransition
Tanaka,etal.,emphasizethatthediscreteandreversiblevolumetransitionswhichoccurinpartially
hydrolyzedacrylimidegelscanbeinterpretedintermsofaphasetransitionofthesystemconsistingof
thechargedpolymernetwork,hydrogen(counter)ionsandliquidmatrix.Thephasetransitionisa
manifestationofcompetitionamongthethreeforceswhichcontributetotheosmoticpressureinthegel:
1. Thepositiveosmoticpressureof(+)hydrogenions
2. Thenegativepressureduetopolymerpolymeraffinity
3. Therubberlikeelasticityofthepolymernetwork
Thebalanceoftheseforcesvarieswithchangeintemperatureorsolventproperties.Thetotalosmotic
pressureactingonthesystemisthesumosmoticpressureofthegel.Itisfurthershownthatthephase
transitioncanbeinducedbytheapplicationofanelectricalfieldacrossthegel.Thevolumechangeat
thetransitionpointiseitherdiscrete(asinafirstorderEhrenfesttransition)orcontinuous(secondorder
Ehrenfestanalogy),dependingonthedegreeofionizationofthegelandonthesolvent
composition.[50][51][52][53]

Elasticcontinuum

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Thegelisthusinterpretedasanelasticcontinuumwhichdeformswhensubjectedtoexternallyapplied
shearforces,butisincompressibleuponapplicationofhydrostaticpressure.Thiscombinationoffluidity
andrigidityisexplainedintermsofthegelstructure:thatofaliquidcontainedwithinafibrouspolymer
networkormatrixbytheextremelylargefrictionbetweentheliquidandthefiberorpolymernetwork.
Thermalfluctuationsmayproduceinfinitesimalexpansionorcontractionwithinthenetwork,andthe
evolutionofsuchfluctuationswillultimatelydeterminethemolecularmorphologyandthedegreeof
hydrationofthebody.
Quasielasticlightscatteringoffersdirectexperimentalaccesstomeasurementofthewavelengthand
lifetimesofcriticalfluctuations,whicharegovernedbytheviscoelasticpropertiesofthegel.Itis
reasonabletoexpectarelationshipbetweentheamplitudeofsuchfluctuationsandtheelasticityofthe
network.Sincetheelasticitymeasurestheresistanceofthenetworktoeitherelastic(reversible)or
plastic(irreversible)deformation,thefluctuationsshouldgrowlargerastheelasticitydeclines.The
divergenceofthescatteredlightintensityatafinitecriticaltemperatureimpliesthattheelasticity
approacheszero,orthecompressibilitybecomesinfinite,whichisthetypicallyobservedbehaviorofa
systematthepointofinstability.Thus,atthecriticalpoint,thepolymernetworkoffersnoresistanceat
alltoanyformofdeformation.

Ultimatemicrostructure
Therateofrelaxationofdensityfluctuationswillberapidiftherestoringforce,whichdependsuponthe
networkelasticity,islargeandifthefrictionbetweenthenetworkandtheinterstitialfluidissmall.
Thetheorysuggeststhattherateisdirectlyproportionaltotheelasticityandinverselyproportionaltothe
frictionalforce.Thefrictioninturndependsuponboththeviscosityofthefluidandtheaveragesizeof
theporescontainedwithinthepolymernetwork.
Thus,iftheelasticityisinferredfromthemeasurementsofthescatteringintensity,andtheviscosityis
determinedindependently(viamechanicalmethodssuchasultrasonicattenuation)measurementofthe
relaxationrateyieldsinformationontheporesizedistributioncontainedwithinthepolymernetwork,e.g
largefluctuationsinpolymerdensitynearthecriticalpointyieldlargedensitydifferentialswitha
correspondingbimodaldistributionofporosity.Thedifferenceinaveragesizebetweenthesmallerpores
(inthehighlydenseregions)andthelargerpores(inregionsofloweraveragedensity)willtherefore
dependuponthedegreeofphaseseparationwhichisallowedtooccurbeforesuchfluctuationsbecome
thermallyarrestedor"frozenin"atornearthecriticalpointofthetransition.

References
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Furtherreading
ColloidalDispersions,Russel,W.B.,etal.,Eds.,CambridgeUniversityPress(1989)
GlassesandtheVitreousState,Zarzycki.J.,CambridgeUniversityPress,1991

Externallinks
InternationalSolGelSociety(http://www.isgs.org/)
TheSolGelGateway(http://www.solgel.com/)
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