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Similarly to the approach taken in sliding mode control, in this section we wish to exploit
the form of the system equations to modify the dynamics to something more convenient.
We consider a class of nonlinear systems of the form
x = f ( x) + G ( x)u
y = h ( x)
u = ( x) + ( x) v
and a change of variables
z = T ( x)
that transforms the nonlinear system into an equivalent linear system.
If the answer to this question is positive, we can induce linear behavior in nonlinear
systems and apply the large number of tools and the well established theory of linear
control to develop stabilizing controllers.
1.1 Motivation
Example 1.1: To introduce the idea of feedback linearization, let us start with the
problem of stabilizing the origin of the pendulum equation.
x1 = x2
a
v
sin ( x1 + ) sin +
c
c
We can cancel the nonlinear term a sin ( x1 + ) sin . This cancellation results in the
linear system
-1-
x1 = x2
x2 = bx2 + v
Thus, the stabilization problem for the nonlinear system has been reduced to a
stabilization problem for a controllable linear system. We can proceed to design a
stabilizing linear state feedback control
v = k1 x1 k2 x2
to locate the eigenvalues of the closed loop system
x1 = x2
x2 = k1 x1 ( k2 + b ) x2
in the open left half plane. The overall state feedback control law is given by
u=
a
c
sin ( x1 + ) sin
1
( k1 x1 + k2 x2 )
c
and : n p p are defined in the domain D n that contains the origin, and the
matrix ( x ) is nonsingular for every x D . If the state equation takes the form
x = Ax + B ( x ) u ( x ) , then we can linearize it via the state feedback
u = ( x) + ( x) v
where ( x ) = 1 ( x ) , to obtain the linear state equation
x = Ax + Bv
For stabilizing, we design v = Kx such that A BK is Hurwitz. The overall nonlinear
stabilizing state feedback control is
-2-
u = ( x ) ( x ) Kx
Suppose the nonlinear state equation does not have the required structure. Does this mean
we cannot linearize the system via feedback? The answer is no. Even if the state equation
does not have the required structure for one choice of variables, it might do so for another
choice.
Example 1.2: Consider, for example the system
x1 = a sin x2
x2 = x12 + u
We cannot simply choose u to cancel the nonlinear term a sin x2 . However, if we first
change the variables by the transformation
z1 = x1
z 2 = a sin x 2 = x1
then z1 and z2 satisfy
z1 = z 2
z 2 = a cos x 2 .x 2 = a cos sin 1
z2
(u z12 )
a
1
v
a cos x2
which is well defined for 2 < x2 < 2 . The state equation in the new coordinates can
z2
a
which is well defined for a < z2 < a . The transformed state equation is given by
-3-
z1 = z2
z2 = a cos sin 1
z2
a
(z
+u
x = f ( x) + G ( x) u
where f : D n and G : D n p are sufficiently smooth on a domain D n , is
said to be feedback linearizable (or input state linearizable) if there exists a
diffeomorphism T : D n such that Dz = T ( D ) contains the origin and a change of
x1 = a sin x2
x2 = x12 + u
If the system has an output y = x2 , then the change of variables and state feedback control
z1 = x1 , z2 = a sin x2 , and u = x12 +
1
v
a cos x2
-4-
yield
z1 = z2
z2 = v
y = sin 1
z2
a
While the state equation is linear, solving a tracking control problem for y is still
complicated by the nonlinearity of the output equation.
x = f ( x) + G ( x) u
into the new system
z = Az + B ( x)(u ( x) )
Given the previous system with a coordinate transformation z = T ( x ) we derive
T ( x)
T ( x)
x=
( f ( x) + G( x)u )
z=
x
x
= Az + B ( x)(u ( x) )
= AT ( x) + B ( x)(u ( x) )
and obtain a system of partial differential equations
T
f ( x) = AT ( x) B ( x) ( x)
x
T
G ( x ) = B ( x )
x
By solving this set of partial differential equations for T(x), the transformation is found.
Remark 1.2: T ( x ) is not uniquely defined by this system of differential equations as
We use this fact to choose the matrix A and B to be in the canonical controllability form.
For simplicity we consider this for a single-input system. In this case, the control
canonical form is as follows.
0
1
0
0
AC =
1
0
, BC =
n 1
0
1
n 1
i =0
i si
Note that ( AC , BC ) is feedback equivalent to a chain of integrators. i.e. with the mapping
u
u+
n 1
i =0
A0 =
1
0
0
, B0 =
0
1
Then with
T ( x) =
T1 ( x )
Tn ( x )
we obtain
T2 ( x)
A0T ( x) B ( x) =
Tn ( x)
T
f ( x)
x
( x) ( x)
0
B0 ( x ) =
T
G ( x)
x
( x)
Solving this system of partial differential equations we can find T ( x ) .
-6-
The following theorem, stated without proof, gives necessary and sufficient conditions for
feedback linearizability of a single-input affine-in-control nonlinear system.
We need some notations first. Let f, g be smooth vector fields on
and g is defined as
.
We also define
. The Lie-bracket of f
A distribution D is a mapping that assigns to each point in the state space a subspace of
the tangent space at that point. In other words, a distribution is a family of smooth vector
fields that span a subspace of
at each point. A distribution is involutive if the Lie
bracket of any two vector fields in the distribution lies in the distribution. To wit, if D is
, then for each i, j, x, we have
spanned by
where
are smooth functions. Note that this is a natural generalization of the concept of
linear dependence of vectors. We define the following special distributions:
y = h ( x)
h
f ( x ) + g ( x ) u = L f h ( x ) + Lg h ( x ) u
x
where
-7-
h
f ( x) = Lf h ( x)
x
y( ) =
2
( Lf h)
f ( x ) + g ( x ) u = L2f h ( x ) + Lg L f h ( x ) u
Lg Lif1h ( x ) = 0 , i = 1, 2,..., 1 ; Lg Lf 1h ( x ) 0
then u does not appear in the equations of y , y ,, y ( 1) and appears in the equation of
y ( p ) with a nonzero coefficient:
y ( ) = Lf h ( x ) + Lg Lf 1h ( x ) u
p
The forgoing equation shows clearly that the system is input-output linearizable, since the
state feedback control
u=
Lg L f h ( x )
1
Lf h ( x ) + v
which is a chain of integrators. In this case, the integer is called the relative degree
of the system.
x1 = x2
x2 = x1 + (1 x12 ) x2 + u
with output y = x1 . Calculating the derivatives of the output, we obtain
-8-
y = x1 = x2
y = x2 = x1 + (1 x12 ) x2 + u
Hence, the system has relative degree two in 2 . For the output y = x1 + x2 2 ,
y = x2 + 2 x2 x1 + 1 x12 x2 + u
where
A=
0
a0
C = [b0
a1
bm
am
0
, B=
an 1
n n
n1
0]1n
-9-
and the relative degree of the system is n m (the difference between the degrees of the
denominator and numerator polynomials of H ( s ) ).
Now let
1 ( x )
z = T ( x) =
n ( x )
h ( x)
( x)
def
def
= =
( x)
Lf 1h ( x )
1
g ( x ) = 0 , for 1 i n
x
This condition ensures that when we calculate
f ( x) + g ( x)u
x
the term u cancels out. It is now easy to verify that the change of variables z = T ( x )
transforms the system into
- 10 -
= f0 ( , )
= Ac + BC ( x ) u ( x )
y = CC
f ( x)
x
x =T 1 ( z )
( x ) = Lg L f h ( x ) and ( x ) =
1
Lf h ( x )
Lg Lf 1h ( x )
We have kept and expressed in the original coordinates. These functions are
uniquely determined in terms of f , g , and h . They are independent of the choice of .
They can be expressed in the new coordinates by setting
0 ( , ) = (T 1 ( z ) ) and 0 ( , ) = (T 1 ( z ) )
which, of course, will depend on the choice of . In this case, the equation can be
rewritten as
= Ac + BC 0 ( , ) u 0 ( , )
The three equations of the new system are said to be in the normal form. This form
decomposes the system into an external part and an internal part . The external part is
linearized by the state feedback control
u = ( x) + ( x) v
where ( x ) = 1 ( x ) , while the internal part is made unobservable by the same control.
= f 0 ( , 0 )
which is called the zero dynamics of the system. If the zero dynamics of the system are
(globally) asymptotically stable, the system is called minimum phase.
- 11 -
= f 0 ( , 0 )
In other words, a minimum phase input-output linearizable system can be stabilized by a
feedback law
u = ( x) ( x) KT ( x)
Proof
The idea is to construct a special Lyapunov function. By the converse Lyapunov theorem
V1 ( ) such that
V1
f ( , 0 ) < 3 (
V1
k
f ( , ) +
T P ( A BK ) + ( A BK ) P
T
2 P
I
V1
V
k
f 0 ( , 0 ) + 1 ( f 0 ( , 0 ) f ( , ) )
T
T
2 P
k1
3 ( ) + k k1
We see that if k < k1 , then V < 0 .
- 12 -
( A BK )
quickly approach the solution of = f 0 ( , 0 ) , which is well behaved, because its origin is
globally asymptotically stable.
1
(1 + 2 ) 3
2
1 = 2
2 = v
The linear feedback control
def
v = k 21 2k 2 = K
A BK =
0
k 2
0
2k
(1 + kt ) e kt
k 2te kt
te kt
(1 kt ) e kt
shows that as k , the solution ( t ) will decay to zero arbitrarily fast. Notice,
however, that the coefficient of the ( 2,1) element of the exponential matrix is a quadratic
function of k . It can be shown that the absolute value of this element reaches a maximum
- 13 -
value k / e at 1 k . While this term can be made to decay to zero arbitrarily fast by
choosing k large, its transient behavior exhibits a peak of the order of k . The interaction
of peaking with nonlinear growth could destabilize the system. In particular, for the initial
states ( 0 ) = 0 , 1 ( 0 ) = 1 , and 2 ( 0 ) = 0 , we have 2 ( t ) = k 2te kt and
1
1 k 2te kt 3
2
(t ) =
2
0 2
1 + 0 2 t + (1 + kt ) e kt 1
shows that if 0 2 > 1 , the system will have a finite escape time if k is chosen large
enough.
Remark 1.5: It is useful to know that the zero dynamics can be characterized in the
original coordinates. Noting that
y (t ) 0
(t ) 0
u (t ) ( x (t ))
we see that if the output is identically zero, the solution of the state equation must be
confined to the set
Z * = { x D0 h ( x ) = L f h ( x ) =
= Lf 1h ( x ) = 0}
u = u * ( x ) = ( x ) xZ *
- 14 -
x1 = x1 +
2 + x32
u
1 + x32
x2 = x3
x3 = x1 x3 + u
y = x2
has an open-loop equilibrium point at the origin. The derivatives of the output are
y = x2 = x3
y = x3 = x1 x3 + u
Therefore, the system has relative degree two in 3 . Using Lg L f h ( x ) = 1 and
L2f h ( x ) = x1 x3 , we obtain
= 1 and ( x ) = x1 x3
To characterize the zero dynamics, restrict to
Z * = { x x2 = x3 = 0}
(0) = 0 ,
g ( x) = 0
x
and
T ( x ) = ( x ) x2
x3
( x ) = x1 + x3 + tan 1 x3
which satisfies the condition ( 0 ) = 0 . The mapping T ( x ) is a global diffeomorphism, as
can be seen by the fact that for any z 3 , the equation T ( x ) = z has a unique solution.
Thus, the normal form
= ( + 2 + tan 1 x3 ) 1 +
2 + 22
2
1 + 22
1 = 2
2 = ( + 2 + tan 1 2 ) 2 + u
y = 1
is defined globally.
u = KT2
and the closed loop system
= f ( , )
= A + B ( x ) ( ) KT2
Adding and subtracting BK to the equation we obtain
= f ( , )
= ( A BK ) + B ( z )
where
( z ) = ( ) KT2 K T2 T2
The local closed loop system differs from the nominal one by an additive perturbation.
Thus, it is often assumed that in most cases no serious problems are to be expected.
- 16 -
Remark 1.7: In some cases it might be useful not to cancel all nonlinearities. For instance
x = ax bx 3 + u
- 17 -