CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Cady EF Hart, Brian L Tracy (2008) Exercise training programs can increase
strength and improve submaximal force control, but the effects of yoga as an
alternative form of steadiness training are not well described. The purpose was
to explore the effect of a popular type of yoga (Bikram) on strength, steadiness,
and balance.
Young adults performed yoga training (n = 10, 29 + / - 6 years, 24 yoga
sessions in 8 weeks) or served as controls (n ~ 11. 26 + / - 7 years).Y ga
sessions consisted of; 1.5 hours of supervised, standardized postures:
Measures before and after training included maximum voluntary contraction
(MVC) force of the elbow flexors (EF) and knee extensors (KE), steadiness of
isometric EF and (KE) contractions, steadiness of concentric (CON) and
eccentric (ECC) KE contractions, and timed balance. The, standard deviation
(SD) and coefficient of variation (CV, SO/mean force) of isometric force and the
(SD) of acceleration during CON and ECC contractions were, measured. After
yoga training, MVC force increased 14% for KE (479+/-175 to 544 +/- 187 N, P
< 0.95) and was unchanged for the EF muscles (219 + / - 85 to 230 +! -' 72 N,
P :>' 0.05). The CV of force was unchanged for SF (1.68 to 1.73%, P >I 0.05)
but was reduced in the KE muscles similarly for yoga and control groups (2.04
to 1.55%, p < 0.05). The variability of CON and ECC contractions was
unchanged. For the yoga group improvement in KEJ steadiness was correlated

with pre-training steadiness (r =-0.62 to -0.184, P < 0.05); subjects with the
greatest KE force fluctuations before training experienced the greatest
reductions with training. Percent change in balance time for individual yoga
subjects averaged +228% (19.5 +/ - 14 to 34.3 + 1- 18 seconds p < 0.05), with
no change in controls. For young adults, a short-term yoga program of this
type can improve balance substantially, produce modest improvements in leg
strength, and improve leg muscle control for less-steady subjects.
Gaganpreet Kaur (2007) The present study investigate the differences in armhand steadiness arising out of individuals subjected to different training
conditions mid to investigate for gender differences in performance. The
samples for the study are 1300 normal, healthy subjects aged between 18-35
years and 100 subjects each from Armed Forces, Punjab Police and Civilians
(control). Subjects are tested on a standard laboratory 9 hole steadiness tester
for their ability to hold a stylus in a series of holes decreasing from 12.5 mm to
2.5 mm without touching the sides of the holes. The number of contacts and
the contact time during the test are noted. It has been observed that the armed
forces are steadiest and statistically significant differences in all the holes at
p0.001. Also females are steadier than their male counterparts with
statistically significant differences in all the holes at p0.001. It is concluded
that the Armed Forces are steadier t0an the Punjab personnel due to the strict
Selection criteria and the regular training they received. And females are
steadier than males due to non-prevalence of alcohol and drug abuse of any
kind. Potential application of the research includes the validation of strict

selection criteria and various psychomotor tests in armed focus. Also there
needs to be an increase in the female work force in the tasks requiring a
greater degree of Arm-Hand Steadiness.
Manuel Sillero Quintana and et al (2-6Q;) A simple method was designed to
evaluate visual abilities such as distance visual acuity, binocular horizontal
visual field, simple and choice visual reaction times, and stereoscopic vision in
skilled] 1- to 13-yr.-old basketball battery, visual abilities were monitored in
473 players of the Spanish Basketball Federation over a 5-yr. period. The
players showed outstanding scores on distance visual acuity and stereoscopic
Vision, and good visual reaction times and horizontal visual fields. When scores
were compared by sex and age, significant differences on certain visual
measures were observed.
E K Skordilis et 2006 The purpose of the study was to examine differences in
depth perception of students classified according to their gross locomotors
skills. The seven qualitative gross locomotors tasks of Ulrich's Test of Gross
and Motor Development were used to classify 162 students as either motor I
impaired (n 1 =27) or no impaired (n2= 135). The Howatd Dollman . Apparatus
was used to measure depth perception. Analysis showed that the motorimpaired group scored significantly lower than the non impaired group on
depth perception. Discriminate function analysis indicated that only the
ruining task separate the students by depth perception scores. Subsequent
multiple regression analysis confirmed that the running task along with sliding

and galloping, were significant predictors of the students. Perception of the

third dimension. Physical educators working with students with gross
locomotors

impairments or low perception of the third dimension need to

adjust their teaching and offer opportunities for successful involvement in

physical education classes and sports .
Mark Wexler (2005) the connection between perception and action has.
classically been studied in one direction only: the effect of perception on
subsequent action. Although our actions can modify our perceptions
externally, by modifying the world or our view of it, it has recently become clear
that even without this external feedback the preparation and execution of a'
variety, of motor actions can have an effect on three-dimensional perceptual
processes. Here, we review the ways in which an observer's motor actionslocomotion, head and eye movements, and object manipulation - affect his or
her perception and representation of three dimensional objects and space.
Allowing observers to act can drastically change the way they perceive the third
dimension, as well as how scientists view depth perception
D H Laidlaw, M Bilodeau and R M .Enoka (2000) The purpose of this study was
to compare the steadiness and discharge rate of motor units during
submaximal contractions performed by young and old adults. Subjects
performed isometric and slow shortening and lengthening contractions with the
first dorsal interosseous muscle. The steadiness of the isometric and slow
anisometric contractions was less for the old subjects compared with young

Subjects, especially at the lower target forces and with the lightest loads.
Furthermore, the steadiness of the lengthening contractions was less compared
with the shortening contractions for the old subjects. Although the mean
discharge rates of motor units were not different for the two groups of subjects,
the variability of the discharge rates' was greater for the old subjects, during,
the isometric and anisometric contractioi1. We conclude that a more variable
discharge by single motor units probably contributes to the reduced ability of
old adults to perform steady muscle contractions.
Markus Lappe, Frank Bremmer and A,V. van den Berg(1999) Accurate and
efficient control of self-motion is an important requirement ,for our, daily
behavior. Visual feedback about self- motion is provided, by optic flow. Optic
flow can be used to estimate the direction of self-motion ('heading') rapidly and
efficiently. Analysis of oculomotor behavior reveals that eye movements usually
accompany self-motion. Such eye movements introduce additional retinal
image mo ion so that the flow pattern on the retina usually consists of a com
bination of self-movement and eye movement components: The question of
whether this 'retinal flow' alone allows the brain to estimate heading, or
whether an additional extraretinal eye movement signal is needed, has been
controversial. This article reviews recent studies that suggest that heading can
be estimated visually but extra retinal signals are used to disambiguate
problematic situations. The dorsal stream of primate cortex contains motion
processing areas that are selective for optic flow and self-motion. Models that
link the properties of neurons in these areas to the properties of heading

perception suggest possible underlying mechanisms of the visual perception of

self-motion.
B Abernethy and R J Neal (1999) A comprehensive battery of standardized
visual tests \vas administered to 11 skilled and 12 novice clay target shooters
in an attempt to determine the distinctive visual characteristics of expert
performers in this sport. The static and dynamic visual acuity, ocular muscle
balance ocular dominance depth perception and color vision of each of the
subjects was measured in addition to their performance on simple and choice
reaction

time,

peripheral

response

time

rapid

tachistoscopic

detection

coincidence timing and eye movement Skills tasks Expert superiority as

observed on the simple reaction time measure only, and the novices actually
outperformed he skilled subjects on a number of the other visual measures
(viz., Static acuity at near distance , dynamic acuity vertical ocular muscle
balance, choice reaction time and rapid target detection discriminability).
Scores on all measures for both within the expected normal range indicating
that normal and not necessarily above average basic visual functioning is
sufficient to support skilled clay target shooting. An important implication of
the finding that skilled shooters are not characterized by supernormal levels of
basic visual functioning is the recognition that any attempt to improve shooting
performance through training of general attributes of vision. to supernormal
levels is likely to be unproductive .

Christopher et aI., (1997) Study concluded that there were no gender

differences in arm-hand steadiness, In lieu of the conflicting literature on the
effect of gender differences on anti-hand steadiness in an individual the
present study was undertaken . Factors that can influence arm-hand
steadiness are an individual's physique and mental set up. Kin anthropometric
parameters such as weight, height, length of upper limb etc can also be
influential. Another factor that influences arm-hand steadiness is age. As with
aging process there is decline in nearly all the systems of the body e the
performance in such a task will also be affected by the age of an individual. As
arm-hand steadiness is a psychomotor function it is influenced by various
psychological factors and anything that will affect the psychomotor system will
hence affect arm-hand steadiness

C D Stine, M R Arterburn and N S Stern :11982) The basis for training visual
abilities to enhance sports performance is explored. Optometric intervention in
sports assumes the following statements to be true. 1. Athletes have better
visual abilities than non athletes and better athletes have better visual abili1ies
than the poorer athletes 2. Visual abilities are trainable and 3. Visual training
is transferable to the performance of the athlete. The literature demonstrates
that athletes have better visual abilities than non-athletes. Studies have shown
this to be true in the following areas of vision: Larger extent of visual fields,
larger fields of recognition (peripheral acuity), larger motion perception fields,

lower amounts of heterophoria at near and far, mare consistent simultaneous

visios, mare accurate depth perception, better dynamic visual acuity and better
ocular motilities. The literature also shows that all of the above skills are
trainable. Two studies are cited that support the belief that visual training is
transferable to athletic performance but they suffer from' inadequate
experimental design.
G Borg and H Sjoberg (1981) The performance of 12 subjects in a hand
steadiness task was compared at different workloads. Hand steadiness
expressed in the form of values of hand shakiness was found not to increase
linearly' with work intensity. On the contrary, the relation between hand
shakiness and activation level, induced by physical work, was found to be
positively accelerated by an exponent 1.6. Subjective effort measured by a ratio
estimation method

grew likewise, according to a positively accelerating.

function with an exponent of about 1.6, while subjective effort according to the
"RPE" category scale like hear rate grew linearly with workload .
P Deshaies and D Pargman (1977) Relationships between visual abilities and
athletic

performance

have

been

examined

but

reported

findings

are

inconclusive and inconsistent. Data were collected Vision, vertical peripheral

Vision, depth perception, and visual disembodying. No, differences were found
between varsity and junior varsity football players, indicating' that relatively
more successful players are not characterized by I greater visual perception
attributes.

Digiovanna(1943)conducted a study that substantiated the common study cl