WOMEN EDUCATION IN INDIA: FROM PAST

TO PRESENT
In order to awaken people it is the women who has to be awakened, once size
moves, the country moves and thus we build the India of tomorrow.
Pandit Jawnhar Lal Nehru
India is now in transition. The 21st Century is the Knowledge Century era. A
knowledge driven generation will be an asset for the progress and development
of the nation. As the social and economic development should match the
growth rates. To achieve and sustain the high growth rates access in education
should be open for entire population of the country without any discrimination.
Education unlocks the doors for progress. As women arc the dynamic
promoters of social transformation. Their education is must Mahatma Gandhi
has rightly said If you educate a woman you educate whole families but if you
educate a man you educate him only,
The following paras give picture of development of women education from past
to present.
VEDIC PERIOD
During this period women had high social and religious slams. Hence their
education was at peak. Upanayan, the Vedic initiation for girls was common.
Women were allowed for the study of Vedas and the performance of sacrificcs.
It was consistently believed that women were in no way intellectually inferior to
man. The women education has been highly appreciated in the Alhsrva Veda. It
states "The success of women in her married life depends upon her proper
training during the Brahmacharya". Rig Vedic collection contains hymans
composed by different poetesses. Vishwavarnt Apana Ghosha Lopmnudra,
Saraswati and others are the examples of women who composed commentaries

on the Vedas. Maitreyi was deeply interested in the problems of philosophy and
Gargi was a great dialectician and philosopher of religion and philosophy.
With regard to women education. Manu emphasized that it was the duty of the
parents 10 give their daughters integral education. They should he educated in
various arts. As the nature of women education differed from the masculine
education hence they should be skilled in household duties. was the
underlying philosophy of the content of the women education during that time.
There were no separate schools for girls. Women were allowed to get education
in Ashrams' along with other mule students. As Shakuntnla got education in
Ashram of Kant" and Attmi in Ashram of Balmiki. Though in majority the
centre of women education in that period was family, where they got education
from their father husband or 'Kulguru'. Perhaps no organized system of
education did existed for women during this period.
Budhist PERIOD
In this period women education was at its lowest ebb as the women had lower
Status to men. Lord Buddha regarded them as source of all evils. Hence they
were not allowed to join the Sangh or the congregntlon. But later, Lord Buddha
gave permission for women's entry to congregations. But this permission lead
to progress of education of girls and women of only noble and trading classes.
Separate monasteries were also established for their education, but very strict
rules were followed. They were not allowed to talk to male monks in loneliness
and were also kept on probation period for first two years.
MUSLIM PERIOD
Pardah system and child marriage were prevalent in both the communitiesHindu as well as Muslim. Hence the percentage of literacy among women went
down very rapidly. Excepting very young girls a big mass of women was
deprived of privilege of education. Very young girls hall some schooling, where
it was possible. Girls of royal and rich families got education in their homes.

Mughal emperors provided liberal education to their princesses. Razin Sultana,

Gulbadan Begum, Nurjahnn, Mumtaj Mahal, Jahanara Begum, Zibunmisa
Begum were the learned ladies of the royal households. Akbar set separate
chambers in Fathepur Sikri for girl's education. Daughters of Rajpul chiefs.
Bengali Zamindars were usually able to read and write.
BRITISH PERIOD
1800 - 1854
At the beginning of their reign the Britishers were not prepared to provide
public education to the Indian people. Least of all for women. When the
Charter act of 1813 compelled the East India Company to accept the
responsibility of education of Indians, women education was cleverly avoided.
Because they did not require educated women for administration purpose.
Their policy was to educate only is few people of upper caste and the education
will filter down automatically from them. Besides this, Indian musses also had
a negative attitude towards female education.
As all the established native institutions existed for the benefit of the male sex
only and the whole of the 'female sex was systematically consigned to
ignorance. (William Adam 1938). Almost complete absence of the education of
women in the Indian society of the early nineteenth century has been reported.
Conditions appear to have been particularly bad in Bengal us Adam's Second
Report testifies (vide Chapter-I). Even in the literary census that Adam
conducted. he found only 4 women literate (as against 21.907.rnen)in a total
population of 496.974. Things uppear to have been no better in Bombay.
Where no girl pupils attending the indigenous schools were reported either in
the enquiry of I823-25 or ill that of 1929 (vide Chapter I. Jervis). Reports of the
existence of domestic instruction or girls among some Muslim families and
evidence has also been found to show that u similar custom existed among
certain high caste Hindu families as well But actual numbers or women thus
educated must have been infinitely small.

Conditions were apparently better in Madras where Munro found that the
women of the Rajabundah and some other tribes of Hindus were generally
taught and the returns of the indigenous schools showed as many as 5,480
girls in a total enrolment of 184, t 10 (vide Chapter I). Even better is the report
from the Punjab where the existence of special girls' schools in charge of
women teachers was reported. For the rest of country. nothing is known. On
the whole. therefore, it may he concluded that barring an extremely small
number of women who received some rudimentary education either at home or
in schools. Almost the whole of the female population of the country was
deprived of formal education (Quoted from Naik & Narullah, 2005).
During the East India Company rule, there was not a single government school
for girls. East India Company was: facing a big challenge in regard to
promotion of women education. The conservative group refused to do anything
in this direction. They favoured the policy of Company of strict social and
religious neutrality; in order to please the people. Prejudices against the
education of women ruled the mentality of masses so strong that any attempt
to educate their women could create a great uproar; and hence Company
restricted itself to the education of men only who would themselves at a later
date undertake the education of their womenfolk. In breaking the conservative
outlook of male masses for women education. Lord Bentick and Lord Dalhausic
took the lead. Dalhausic decided that the open patronage of government should
he extended to the education of women. The following extract from his orders
dated 11th April 1850, gives an indication of his views on the subject.
It is the opinion of the Governor-General in Council that no single change in
the habits of the people is likely to lead more important and beneficial
consequences than the introduction of education for their female children. The
general practice is to allow them to grow up in absolute ignorance, but this
custom is not required or even sanctioned by their religion and in fact a certain
degree of education is now given to the female relatives of those who can afford
the expense of entertaining special instructors at their own houses.

The Governor-General in Council requests that the Council of education may

be informed that it is henceforward to consider its
functions as comprising the superintendence, of native female education, and
that wherever any disposition is shown by the natives to establish female
schools it win be its duty to give them all possible encouragement and further
their plans in every way that is not inconsistent with the efficiency of the
institutions already under their management. It is the wish also of the
Governor-General in Council that intimation to the same effect should be given
to the Chief Civil Officers of the Mofussil calling their attention to the growing
disposition among the natives to establish female schools and directing them to
use all means at their disposal for encouraging those institutions and for
making it generally known that the Government views them with very great
approbation' (Quoted from Naik & Narullah, 2005). His wish was later
confirmed by the Dispatch of 1854.
Missionaries were the pioneers in opening or earliest modern schools for girls,
David Hare, started a school for girls in Calcutta in (1820) and bore expenses
on his own. Moved by the pioneer works of missionaries and philanthropic
Englishmen, Like Prof. Patton several great Indians like Raja Ram Mohan Roy
and Pandit lshwarchand Vidya Sugar lent their support for opening of girls
schools.
1854-1882
Woods Despatch (1854)
The educational policy laid down by the Despatch of 1854 laid stress on the
spread of female education with regard to women education the Dispatch
observed-'The importance of female education in India cannot be overrated and
we have observed with pleasure the evidence which is now afforded of an
increased desire on the part or many of the natives of India to give a good
education to their daughters. By this means a far greater proportional impulse

is imparted to the educational and moral lone of the people than by the
education of men. We have already observed that schools for females are
included among those to which grants-In-aid may be given and we cannot
refrain from expressing our cordial sympathy with the efforts which are being
made in this direction. Our Governor- General in Council that has declared in
a communication to the Government of Bengal that the Government ought to
give to the native female education in India its frank and cordial support; and
in this we heartily concur and we especially approve of the bestowal of marks of
honour

upon

such

native

gentlemen

as

Rao

Bahadur

Magahunbhai

Karramchand who donated Rs. 20,000 to the foundation of two native female
schools in Ahmedabad as by such means our desire for the extension of female
education becomes generally known' (Quoted from Naik & Narullah. 2005).
However, due to disturbances of revolution of 1857 and declaration of policies
of social and religious neutrality, it was not implemented. The opening of
special primary schools, for girls between 1870 and J 882 was the results of
establishments of municipalities as well as levy of the local funds aiding the
primary education Miss Marry Carpenter the great social reformer visited India
during 1865 -1870. She observed that the main obstacle to the progress of
female education was the absence of female teachers. Due to her efforts first
training college for women primary teachers was established in 1870 for the
first time for imparting training to the women so that they could become
teachers in girls' school
1882 - 1902
Indian Education Commission (1882)
The Indian Education Commission popularly known as Hunter Commission
observed Female education is still in an extremely backward condition. Hence
we think all expedient to recommend that public funds of all kinds local.
municipal and provincial should be chargeable in an equitable proportion fur
the support of girls' schools as well as boys schools'.

For the first lime urgent need for the special treatment of the education of girls
and women was felt by the commission. It discussed problems of women
education

and

suggested

certain

measures

for

its

improvement.

The

commission felt that there was no demand for female education from the
Indians themselves. Child marriage was in practice and hence girls were
withdrawn from the schools an early stage. Further, as their was scarcity of
female teachers. The present of male Teachers prevented many parents from
sending their daughter to schools. In addition to all these the system of
education was also male friendly as curriculum suited the requirement of the
hoys and not of the girls. The commission suggested
Liberal Grants in aid to girl's schools
Appointment of lady inspectors.
Offer of freeships and scholarships
Differentiation of curricula, simpler standards of instruction.
Offer of liberal inducements to the wives of school masters.
Stipends to those widows who enroll themselves for teacher training.
Award of prizes to girls who agree to become teachers.
Some of these implementations were implemented throughout India. Girl's
schools were given more liberal grants. But due to lack of adequate funds no
substantial progress was made.
The progress of women education mostly depended on private enterprise. By
1901-1902 for 3,982 out of 5,305 primary schools, 356 out of 422 secondary
schools, 11 out of 12 women colleges and 32 out of 4S training institutions for
women were the result of private efforts. A medical college for women was also
opened. At this time 76 women were studying in medical colleges and 166 in
medical schools. The Lady Dufferin fund was created for developing medical
education for women.

19021 - 1921
This period of 1902-1921 showed better progress of women education because
of govt. efforts, First World War public awakening and rise in marriage age.
Lord Curzon got published his education policy in the form of government
resolution on 11th arch 1904, Increased Govt. expenditure on women education
was recommended. Establishment of more training schools for women
teachers. and model schools for girls, increasing the number of inspectors, for
efficient supervision of these Schools were also emphasized. In government
resolution on educational policy (21 Feb. 1913), certain principles for the
expansion and improvement of education of women were laid down as female
education was in very bad state. Resolution laid down four important principles
in respect to women education
The education of girls should have practical base.
It should not be dominated by examination system.
Special attention should be paid to hygiene and surroundings of school
life.
The services of women should be more freely utilized for teaching as well
as inspection. Inspection should be done continuously.
In 1919, the Govt. of India enunciated its policy of education in resolution. The
policy stressed more financial assistance of girl's education free education,
more scholarships and studentships and liberal grant in-aid lo girl's schools.
And as a result there was rapid and steady expansion of girl education at all
stages.
By 1921-1922 there were 21.956 primary schools for girls. 675 secondary
schools for girls and 19 colleges for women. In 1921-1922, there were 197
women in medical colleges and 334 in medical schools, 67 in colleges for
teaching and 3.903 in schools for teaching. A large number of women began to
schools commercial and technical careers. Establishment of a university for

women S.N.D.T. Indian Women's University in 1916 Bombay by Maharishi D.K.

Karve was an important event of this lime.
Further as mentioned above rise of age of marriage, another important
development of this period increased the opportunities for girls education. The
demand of educated man for educated wives also furthered education of
women. Parents begin to desire for educating their daughters for marriage
market.
Calcutta University Commission (1917-1919)
Calcutta University Commission also caned Sadler Commission was appointed
to enquire into the conditions and prospects of Calcutta University in 1917.
Besides, discussing the condition of education at the university, the
commission also made certain suggestions with regard to women education
Establishment of Pardah school for girls of conservative families.
Establishment of Board of Women Education in Calcutta University to
safeguard the interests of women education. The Board was given power
to frame special courses of study suitable to women. Women should be
given education in medicine and teacher's training.
Co-education should be started and women should be encouraged fur
pursuing education in these institutions.
1921-1937
Further rise in the age of marriage, teachings of Mahatma Gandhi, awakening
of Indian womanhood and the introduction of Provincial Autonomy in 1937,
were aiding to progress of women education. The importance of women
education was also recognized by provincial as well as central governments.
Hartog Committee (1929)
The Committee recommended the policy of consolidation rather than expansion
in regard to women education and stated the education of a girl meant the

education of a mother and the education of her children'. The committee felt
that the importance of girl's education needed no new emphasis. The
suggestions were Whole lime women officer of high standing and experience should be
appointed to prepare a plan and programme of girl's education.
Courses in domestic sciences, hygiene, music etc. should be recognized.
To overcome the shortage of women teachers, special attention should be
paid for the training of girls from rural areas for appointment as primary
schools teachers.
Women should be represented in all local bodies.
Report on the Post War Educational Development (1944)
The Report on the Post War Educational Development (1944), the last
important educational document before independence, concluded as regards
women education that it should not be treated as special. The report further
stated that 'whatever was needed for boys and men, not less well be required
for girls and women'.
This period was of political struggle. But inspite of all these difficulties, women
education made considerable progress. In 1946-47 there were 59 arts and
science colleges for women, 2,370 secondary schools for girls. 21.479 primary
schools for girls and 4,288 institutions for professional technical and special
education for women. During this period trend towards co-education can also
be observed.
Scenario of Women Education after Independence
The education of girls increased considerably after independence. There was a
phenomenal increase in the number of girls in schools. This increase was
mainly

due

to

implementation

of

the

recommendations

of

various

Commissions. Committees and five year plans. The number of girls increased
not only in the schools and colleges for general education, but also in

professional and vocational institutions. The opposition to girls education is

disappearing though slowly except in the lower classes und that too because
they themselves are uneducated and have Indifferent attitude towards
education.
Views of Important Committees &, Commissions with Regard to Women
Education
Here views expressed by different committees and commissions with regard to
women education have been summarizedUniversity Education Commission (1948-49)
This commission was appointed under the chairmanship of Dr. S. Radha
Krishnan through a resolution of the Central Ministry of Education on
November 4. 1948 to study the problems of university education in the country
and suggest measures for its reform. Some of the important recommendations
with regard to women education were

Education of women may be similar to that of man in certain aspects,

but it should be different also in some other aspects because of different
nature of their duties.

Provision of more facilities for promotion of women education.

Availability of experienced teachers to help and guide women in the

selection of their courses.

Provision of special facilities in co-educational institutions.

The Commission laid stress on the necessity of education in domestic

science.

Women should be well informed about their rights and duties pertaining
to the society and nation.

National Committee on Women Education 1958

In t 958, a National Committee on Women Education was appointed by the
Government of India under the chairmanship of Smt. Durgabai Deshmukb.
Hence it is also known a Deshmukh Committee. This Committee was requested
to look into the problems of women education which hindered the progress of
girls education and to give suggestions to the government regarding this and
also to bring girls education at par with that of boys specially in primary and
secondary stages. The important suggestions are:

Special treatment to women education in the years to come and

allotment of special funds in the five year plans.

Establishment of National Council for Education or Women at the Centre

and State Councils for Education of Women in all States and Union
Territories. The main in object of these councils will be to bring officials
and non-officials engaged in the work together on a common plate form
for the development of girls education and advise the Government of
India and the State Governments on the measures for rapid progress in
girl's education.

Establishment of special unit in the Government of India to look after the

programmes of education Appointment of a special officer at the
Directorate level as incharge of programmes relating to the education of
girls.

Strengthening of Inspectorate of girl's school.

Preparation and employment of women teachers and provision of special

aminities for girls such as grant of free books and writing material.
scholarships, clothing or provision for mid-day-meals.

Establishment of more and more co-educational institutions. Separate

schoo1s for girls should be established specially in rural areas at
secondary stage.

Identical curriculum for boys and girls at the primary stage, but subjects
like music, painting, sewing needle work, simple hand work and cooking
should be introduced to make the courses more suitable for the girls.

The ministry of education should carry special studies for the problem of
wastage and stagnation.

Committee for Girl's Education and Public Co-operation (1963-65)

The National Council for Women's Education appointed a Committee in May
1963 to look into the causes for lack of public support particularly in the rural
areas, for girls education and to enlist the public co-operation. under the
chairmanship of Shri M. Bhaskavalsalam chief Minister of Madras 16 suggest
ways and means of achieving substantial progress in this field. The committee
submitted its report in 1964 and it was published in 1965. The major
recommendations with regard to girls and women education are1. Public Co-operation
Direct co-operation of the public should be encouraged in the following fields

Establishing private schools and putting up of schools buildings;

Contributing voluntary labour for construction of school buildings and

helping in the maintenance of school buildings;

Helping in providing suitable accommodation for teachers and students,

particularly in the rural areas.

Creating public opinion in favour of the teaching profession and to give

greater respect to the teacher in the community;

Popularizing co-education at the primary stage;

To popularize profession of teaching for women and encouraging married

women to take up at least part time teaching in village school and to
work as school mothers:

Initiating action and participating in educative propaganda to break

down traditional prejudices against girls' education.

Supplying mid-day meals; supplying uniforms. free text books and

writing materials to needy children.

2. State Council Women Education

The State Council for women education should function with district courts.
Manila Manclals voluntary bodies of the town and village levels to mobilize the
community effort and creating public opinion to promote girls education as
their main and primary responsibility.
3. State's Responsibility
The State should create public opinion in favour of girls' education through

School improvement conferences and Seminars;

Radio talk audio-visual aids and distribution of informative pamphlets;

Enrolment drives generally in June and special additional drives for girls'
education during Dussehra and

Assisting voluntary, welfare and other organizations, private individuals

and associations engaged in the field of education of girls and women.

4. School Improvement Conferences

In these conferences, assistance of people in contribution of educational
awakening and advancement can be taken. For attaining this purpose, the
school conferences can be held throughout different states.
5. Recruitment of Women Teachers
The state should appoint women teachers in primary schools and a greater
number in mixed schools. Their presence will further enrolment of children
specially that of girls.

6. Curriculum
Curriculum for boys and girls can be same at the primary and middle stages,
provision should be made for some elective subjects of interest of girls with
regard to the nature of their life activities.
7. Secondary Education
Free education for all girls up to the end of secondary stages.
Committee on Differentiation of Curricula (1964)
On the recommendation of National Council for Womens Education, a
committee to look into the differentiation of curricula for boys and girls was
appointed under the chairmanship of Smt. Hansa Mehta, Hence this committee
is also popularly known as Hansa Mehta Committee after the name of its
chairperson. The main recommendations are

In the democratic and socialistic pattern of society which we visualize,

education will be related to individual capacities aptitudes and interest
which are not strictly related to sex. There would, therefore, be no need
In such a society to differentiate curricula on the basis of sex.

In the transitional phase in which we are at present certain psychological

difference between men and women as well as certain divisions of social
functions based on them win have to be accepted as a matter of fact and
as a practical basis for building up the curricula for boys and girls. While
doing so, however, care should be taken to see that values and attitudes
which are essential in the long run arc increasingly built up in men and
women and that no step is taken which will tend to perpetuate or
intensity the existing difference among boys and girls,

Provision of coeducation at primary level.

Provision of choice to managers and parents for establishing separate

schools or co-educational schools of secondary and college levels as they
desire.

Different curriculum at primary and middle level should not be

permitted.

Education Commission (1964)

The Government of India appointed an Education Commission in 1964 under
the chairmanship or Dr. D.S. Kothari. This commission is also popularly
known as Kothari Commission. The purpose of the Commission was to study
the various problems of education in the country and suggest measures for
their removal. Giving the views on role of women in society the Education
Commission stated 'for full development of our human resources, the
improvement of homes and for moulding the character of children during the
most impressionable years of infancy the education of women is of even greater
importance than that of man'. Suggestions of the 'National Committee on
women

with

regard

to

women

educat.ion

should

be

followed.

The

recommendations given by the commission regarding women education arc

summarized as

To attain the goal of compulsory education for girls special efforts should
be made for its expansion of primary education,

Formation of public opinion for sending girls In mixed schools at primary

level.

Supply of free text books, writing material, dress material to encourage

primary education.

Provision of facilities for hostel and conveyance

Provision of scholarships.

Part-time employment of married and full time for unmarried women.

Expansion in girl's education at secondary level should be and the

present ratio of girls may change from 1:2 at lower secondary level and
1:3 at higher secondary level.

Hansa Mehta's Committee suggestions for syllabi for women's education

should be followed. Domestic Science should be an optional subject.

Besides, facilities regarding study of music, aft. mathematics and

sciences should be increased.

Programmes of adult education to educate adult rural women can be

organized.

Establishment of research centres for studying problems of education al

two universities,

Liberal grant in-aid for expansion of women education,

Special plans for removal of gap between education of male and female,

Supervision of women education at Centre and state level.

Committee on the Status of Women (1971-74)

As the social and economic conditions of the country were changing fast, the
appointment of a committee to look into the various problems with regard to
rights and status of women in vie\v of the changes, was the need of hour.
Therefore, the Government of India, Ministry of Education and Social Welfare,
constituted 'Committee on the Status of Women on September 22. 1971. The
committee submitted its report entitled 'Towards Equality' in December 1974.
Dr. (SmL) Phul Renu Guhu was its chairperson. Some important suggestions
with regard to women education arc listed belowJ. Co-education

Co-education should he adopted as a general policy at the primary level.

At middle and secondary stages separate school may be opened

depending upon their demand.

No ban on admission of girls to hoys institutions.

Wherever, separate schools/colleges for girls arc established. It has to be

ensured that they must maintain required standards with regard 10 the
quality of staff provision of facilities relevant courses und co-curricular
activities.

Appointment of mixed staff should be the recognition condition for mixed

schools.

Wherever there are mixed schools separate toilet facilities and retiring
rooms for girls should be provided,

2. Curriculum

Provision of common course for general education for both the gender up
to class X

Simple needle craft music and dancing should be taught to boys and
girls at primary level.

Opportunity should be given to girls in class Xl-XII for choosing

vocational and technical courses according to local conditions needs and
aptitudes.

At the university stage, there is need to introduce more relevant and

useful course for all students.

3. Universalization of education for the age group 6-14

Provision of primary schools within walking distance from the home of

every child within next five years.

Sustained propaganda by nil types of persons, preferably women officials

and non-officials, social and political workers, to bring every girl into
school in class I preferably at the age of 6.

Provision of incentives to prevent drop out like midday meal free

uniforms scholarship or stipends and free supply of books and other
study material.

Special incentives for areas where girl's enrolment is low.

Introduction of part-time education system fur the girls who are unable
to attend the school on a fun lime basis.

Adoption of a multiple entry system for girls who could not attend school
earlier or had to dropout before becoming functionally literate,

Facility of provision of additional space for the girls who can bring
younger brothers and sisters to be looked after either by themselves by
turn or by some local women.

National Policy on Education (1986) and Programme or Action (POA)

(1992)
The call for National Policy on Education (986) popularly known as the New
Education Policy was first given by the then Prime Minister of India. Sri Rajeev
Gandhi, in his first broadcast to the nation on January 5. 1985. The need for
new policy was felt because the implementation of 1968 policy was incomplete
and uneven, as no plan or action was prepared for its implementation for
adequate funds were made available for the purpose. Meanwhile the world was
going under tremendous changes, new technologies were emerging, The
Ministry of Education in August 1985 released a 119 pages document entitled
"The challenge of Education in a policy Perspective". It evoked a nationwide
debate on the need and contents of the policy. The draft of the policy was
discussed in the apex body on education viz. The Central Advisory Board of the
Education and the National Development Council. All these endeavors lead to
National Policy on Education passed by the Lok Sabha on May 13, 1986. In
August 1986 the Parliament approved the programme of Action for shaping the
new thrusts.
Part--IV Education for Women's Equality
4.2 Education will be used as agent of basic change in the status of women. In
order to neutralise the accumulated distortions of the past there will be a well
conceived edge in favour of women. The National Education System will play a
positive, interventionist role in the empowerment of women. It win foster the
development of new values through redesigned curricula, textbooks. the
training and orientation of teachers, decision-makers and administrators and
the active involvement of educational institutions. This will be an act of faith
and social engineering. Womens studies will be promoted as a part of various

courses and educational institutions encouraged to take up active programmes

to further women development.
4.3 The removal of women's illiteracy and obstacles inhibiting their access to
and retention in elementary education will receive overriding priority, through
provision of special support services, selling of lime targets, and effective
monitoring. Major emphasis will be laid on women's participation in vocational
technical and professional education at different levels, The policy nondiscrimination will be pursued vigorously to eliminate sex stereo-typing in
vocational and professional courses and to promote women's participation in
non-traditional occupations, as well as in existing and emergent technology.
The main features of the project entitled Education for Women Equality' based
on NPE and POA are

Enhancing the participation of girls at the elementary stage by provision

of support services, provision of local women teachers and effective non
format education programmes.

Setting up of literacy centres as places for education, recreation and the

forum for an understanding of the process of development to enable
women to actively participate in it. The State Resource Centres will be
asked to develop special learning material for these adult education
centres.

Providing special vocational and pre-vocational programmes to all girls'

secondary and higher secondary schools. These courses will be related (0
the work opportunities into the region. It is expected that four vocational
courses will he introduced in 50 secondary higher secondary schools. A
variety of pan-time non-formal vocational courses will also he organized.

Encouraging the institutions of Social Science Research and of higher

education to take up programmes of women's studies, research and
training and education of various programmes taken up under this
projects.

District institutes of Education (DIETs) will be required to sub-serve to

the object of the project, namely, be an instrument for women's
empowerment.

In the project districts there will be a strong wing on women's education.

Academics interested in women's development and women activists will
have n dominant say in this wing.

The programmes meant for women's development with be closely monitored

and arrangements provided for introduction of mid-term correctives.
As regards to women education us the policy already emphasized (part -iv 4.2)
that education will he used as an agent of basic change in the status of women
and women empowerment. A component of women's development is being
added to all the on going programmes of the Department.

Stress on women teachers white providing an additional teacher under

Operation Blackboard.

Non formal Education to be treated as a programme of women's

development by linking it with condensed courses and special training of
women instructors.

National Literacy Mission to have a special focus on women's equality

and running or centres for women.

In vocationalisation, programmes for women's vocationalization have

been given special stress.

A large programme of women's polytechnics is being taken up in

technical education.

Women's studies would continue to receive attention in higher education.

The content and processes of education are being modified to introduce the
value of women's equality at an stages of education, in format as well as non
formal education.

Elementary Education

Provision of free and compulsory education to all the children until they
complete the age of 14 years is a Directive Principle of the Constitution.
Determined efforts have been made since independence towards the
achievement

of

the

goal.

NPE

gives

an

unqualified

priority

to

universalisation of elementary education (UEE), The thrust in elementary

education emphasizes: (l) Universal enrolment and universal retention of
children up to 14 years of age and on a substantial improvement in the
quality of education.

The child-centred approach commended in NPE attempts 10 build the

academic programme and school activities around the child, The policy
also recognizes that unattractive school environment, unsatisfactory
condition of buildings and insufficiency of instructional material function
as demotivating factors for children and their parents. The policy
therefore calls for a drive for a substantial improvement of primary
schools and provision of support services. A variety of measures have
been proposed for securing participation of girls.

Since NPE Jays down that children who complete It stage of education
would have achieved certain prescribed skills and competencies, the
emphasis will now shift from sheer enrolment to retention and quality of
education, A comprehensive system of incentives and support services
will, be provided for girls and children of the economically weaker
sections of society, as provision to the girls of all, families below
thepoverty line two sets of free uniforms, free textbooks and stationery as
attendance incentives, and free transportation in state roadway buses to
children attending elementary schools.

Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (2001)

The Sarv Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) or Education for All with very ambitious goals
was launched in 2001. SSA is an initiative to universalise and improve the

quality elementary education in a mission mode within a clear time frame

through decentralized context specific planning and implementation strategy.
The programme envisages partnership between the central government stale
governments, local bodies and the community. The programme aims at
community involvement in school interventions through active participation of
the Panchayati Raj Institutions, school management committees. Village and
urban slum level education committees parent-teacher associations, tribal
autonomous district council and other grass root level structures engaged in
the management of elementary schools. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan aims to provide
quality elementary education to all children belonging to the age-group 6-14
years by 2010. Education of girls particularly those belonging to scheduled
castes scheduled tribes and minorities is one or the principal concern of SSA.
Specific programme within SSA (National Programme for Education of Girls at
Elementary Level (NPEGEL) and Kasturba Gandhi Ba1ika Vidyalaya) focus
exclusively on girls in educationally hack ward districts. positive measures
have led to improvements in enrolment at the primary level from 97.4 million
(40.40 girls, 57 boys) in 1990-91 (to 122.40 million (57.3 girls and 65.1 boys in
2002-03 (Selected Educational Statistics. 2003).
National Knowledge Commission (2006)
This commission was set up by the Prime minister Dr. Man Mohan Singh,
under the chairmanship of Dr. Sam Pitroda, as an advisory body to the prime
minister with a mandate to guide policy and direct reforms. It has a designated
time frame of (Oct. 2, 2005 to Oct. 2, 2008) and has kept in focus
transformation of India into vibrant knowledge-based society. The first report
of' the NKC submitted in 2006 and published in 2007 has dealt with five
aspects of the knowledge paradigm viz. access to knowledge, knowledge
concepts, knowledge-creation, knowledge-application and development of
better knowledge services.

Recommendations have been made in the first report under nine heads viz.,
Libraries. Translation. Language. Knowledge Network. Right to Education,
Vocational Education , Higher Education. National Science and Social Science
Foundation and E-governance. More reports concerning other areas including
'Literacy'.

'School

education'

and

'gender

including

education-specific

constraints to education of girls' arc to be brought out in due course of time.