You are on page 1of 6

International Journal of Finance and Accounting 2014, 3(6): 335-340

DOI: 10.5923/j.ijfa.20140306.01

Direct, Indirect, or Both Methods of Reporting


Operating Statement of Cash Flows
Bassam M. Abu-Abbas
Princess Sumaya University for Technology, Amman, Jordan

Abstract Both IAS 7 and SFAS 95 allow the option of reporting either the direct or indirect method when preparing

statement of cash flows. Both the IASB and the FASB consider the direct method as the preferred method of presenting cash
flows from operations. Different studies in the literature find that the majority of the companies are using only the indirect
method. The purpose of this study is to support one argument of the following: when preparing statement of cash flows, the
preparers should use the direct method, the indirect one, or both. This study summarizes the advantages of direct and indirect
methods, studies the possibility of using the information available to convert a statement of cash flows using indirect method
to direct method, studies the possibilities of using the information available in the financial statement to prepare statement of
cash flows using direct method, studies the effect of cost using either method compared with the other one. The results show
that we can estimate either the direct method or the indirect method of statement of cash flows but the estimated statement
does not give 100% accurate results. If the users of financial statements accept less than 100% accuracy in the statements,
then companies can prepare either an indirect or a direct method of statement of cash flows. Otherwise, the company should
ask prepares to prepare both methods or use a cost-benefit analysis to determine which method that should be used. My
argument ends with maximizing the benefits is achieved by providing statement of cash flows using both direct and indirect
methods.

Keywords Cash flows, Direct, Indirect

1. Introduction
Debating the form of disclosure of operating cash flows
has been central in the development of all cash flows
reporting standards over the past three decades. At the heart
of this debate has been whether to mandate or allow firms the
choice of reporting operating cash flows using the indirect or
direct method (Clacher et al., 2013). The International and
US reporting requirements are similar. The IAS 7 states that
"An entity shall report cash flows from operating activities
using either: (a) the direct method ; or (b) the indirect
method entities are encouraged to report cash flows from
operating activities using the direct method." (IAS 7, par.
18-19). Similarly, SFAS 95 encourages enterprises to report
cash flows from operating activities directly by showing
major classes of operating cash receipts and payments (the
direct method). Enterprises that choose not to show
operating cash receipts and payments are required to report
the same amount of net cash flows from operating activities
indirectly by adjusting net income to reconcile it to net cash
flows from operating activities (the indirect or reconciliation
* Corresponding author:
b.abuabbas@psut.edu.jo (Bassam M. Abu-Abbas)
Published online at http://journal.sapub.org/ijfa
Copyright 2014 Scientific & Academic Publishing. All Rights Reserved

method). Even though both standards encouraged the direct


method, Bahnson et al. (1996) report that 97.5% of sample
companies in the 1991 Accounting Trends and Techniques
publication used the indirect method alone (AICPA, 1992).
Krishnan and Largay (2000) find that 97% - 98% of firms
report their operating cash flows by the indirect method.
They find that only about 2%-3% of firms use the direct
method. Foster et al. (2012) indicates that the direct method
is more desirable and useful to third-party users; however,
most firms report using an indirect method. Brahmasrene et
al. (2004) find that, in the manager category, 82% of CEOs,
CFOs, and managers preferred the indirect method,
compared with 70.3% of investors and analysts. Overall,
78.9% of users prefer the indirect method. Although
investors reported a preference for the indirect method, they
showed a greater preference for the direct method than
managers (29.7% versus 18%).
The direct method reports the major items of cash receipts
and cash payments in the operating section of the statement.
It provides gross inflows and outflows components of cash
flows from operations (i.e., cash from customers and cash
paid to suppliers). The operating cash flows section of the
statement of cash flows under the direct method would
include: cash receipts from customers; cash paid to suppliers;
cash paid to employees; interest paid; income taxes paid; and
cash paid for other operating expenses. The indirect method

336

Bassam M. Abu-Abbas: Direct, Indirect, or Both Methods of Reporting Operating Statement of Cash Flows

adjusts accrual basis net profit or loss for the effects of


non-cash transactions. It reconciles net income with the cash
flows from operations. The operating cash flows section of
the statement of cash flows under the indirect method is
determined by adjusting profit or loss for the effects of: (a)
changes during the period in inventories and operating
receivables and payables; (b) non-cash items such as
depreciation, provisions, deferred taxes, unrealized foreign
currency gains and losses, undistributed profits of associates,
and non-controlling interests; and (c) all other items for
which the cash effects are investing or financing cash flows
(IAS 7, par. 20). Therefore, direct and indirect refer to
methods of presentation of cash flows statements.

2. Advantages of Direct Method


1. The direct method is more consistent with the objective
of a statement of cash flows "to provide information
about cash receipts and cash payments - than the
indirect method, which does not report operating cash
receipts and payments" (FASB, 1987, par. 111).
2. Assists in prediction models: Empirical studies
conclude that direct method disclosures assist with
prediction models (e.g., Orpurt and Zang, 2009; Cheng
and Hollie, 2008; Clinch et al., 2002; and Krishnan and
Largay, 2000). If direct method information is
important, sophisticated users may be able to use their
influence to obtain the needed information from
reporting entities. Orpurt and Zang (2009) conclude
that the improved stockprice informativeness of the
direct method provides investors with a useful basis for
estimating future earnings and cash flows. This
information is incremental to the information presented
in indirect cash flows.
3. Tells the reader whether cash collections from
customers are increasing or (decreasing), (Foster et al.,
2012).
4. Ability to compare similar types of cash receipts and
payments across companies at least annually
(Richardson, 1991).
5. Better representation of an entity's cash cycle for
credit-grantors and more user-friendly format for
managers not possessing substantial accounting
knowledge (O'Leary, 1988).
6. Helpful in cash flows variance analysis as the cash
budget can be tied into the cash flows report thereby
drawing attention to the real source of any problems
(Trout et al., 1993).
7. Facilitates sensitivity analysis of cash flows to volume
changes as gross cash receipts and cash payments may
respond differently to changes in activity (Cornell and
Apostolou, 1992).
8. Provides more useful information to both creditors and
investors than does the indirect method (Paton, 1963;
Sorter, 1982; Thomas, 1982; Nurnberg, 1983; and
Heath, 1987).

In summary, the direct method is more consistent with the


objective of a statement of cash flows, improves the
prediction ability of future operating cash flows, and
Provides more useful information to both creditors and
investors.

3. Advantages of Indirect Method


1. Provides more meaningful information (FASB, 1987,
par. 113).
2.Tells the reader if sales are increasing or (decreasing),
(Foster et al., 2012).
3. Easier for preparers to create: Golub and Huffman
(1984) argue that the indirect method is easier for
preparers to create.
4. Simple for users to analyze: Rosen and DeCoster,
(1969) argue that the indirect method is simple for
users to analyze.
5. Highlighting the differences between net income and
net cash from operating activities (the FASB, 1987,
par. 108, states that the indirect method is most
useful in extracting the lead and lag between cash
flows and income information).
6. Highlighting the operating changes in noncash
working capital accounts (Krishnan and Largay,
2000).
7. Less cost to implement (Krishnan and Largay, 2000).
8. Assists the users in determining the reasons for the
difference between net income and associated cash
receipts and payments to provide a basis for
evaluating the quality of income (Carslaw and Mills,
1991).
In summary, the indirect method is easier for preparers to
create, simple for users to analyze, highlights the differences
between net income and net cash from operating activities,
and less cost to implement.

4. Can We Use the Information


Available to Convert an Indirect
Method Operations Section to a
Direct Method?
Since most companies prepare the statements of cash
flows using indirect method even though the accounting
standards (IAS 7 and SFAS 95) encourage using direct
method, the question is: Can we use the information
available to convert an indirect method operations section to
a direct method? In other words, if the company prepares the
statement of cash flows using indirect method, can the users
develop the direct method presentation from the indirect
presentation?
The statement of cash flows using direct method is
including "major classes of gross cash receipts and gross
cash payments" (IAS 7, para 18). Most likely, the major
items that are included in operating section are: cash

International Journal of Finance and Accounting 2014, 3(6): 335-340

received from customers, cash paid to suppliers, cash paid to


employees, interest received, interest paid, income tax paid,
and any other operating cash components that are not
included in the above.

337

burdensome costs (FASB 1987, pars. 116-118). The authors


argue that evidence on this assertion is important because, if
accurate forecasts of gross cash collections and cash
payments can be developed using information contained in
First, cash received from customers may be calculated using the income statement and balance sheet, then users of
financial statements may not be at a loss when preparers do
equation (1) below:
not use the direct method presentation. They find that the
Customer collections = Accounts receivable beginning
median measurement error for cash collected from customers
balance + Sales - Accounts receivable ending balance. (1) is less than one percent for the pooled sample. For cash paid
Second, cash paid to suppliers may be calculated using to suppliers and employees, it is 4.40%. For nearly
two-thirds of the sample, the measurement error for cash
equation (2) below:
paid to suppliers and employees is greater than 3%.Krishnan
Suppliers payments = Accounts payable
and Largay (2000) results supports the FASB assertion that
beginning balance + purchases
- Accounts payable ending balance.
(2) direct method cash flows information can be determined
indirectly but the numbers are not accurate 100%.
Third, cash paid to employees may be calculated using
Bahnson et al. (1996) refute the widespread presumption
equation (3) below:
that the direct method presentation can be easily developed
from the indirect presentation. Bradbury (2011) finds that
Employees payments = Wages payable
operating cash flows and direct cash flows components (cash
beginning balance + Wages expenses
- Wages payable ending balance.
(3) from customers and cash paid to suppliers) cannot be reliably
Fourth, interest received may be calculated using equation (4) estimated from mechanical balance sheet (accruals reversal)
procedures. Furthermore, the errorrates are greater when
below:
firm-specific events arise (such as acquisitions, discontinued
Interest received = Interest receivable beginning balance
operations and asset growth). Bradbury (2011) argues that
+ Interest revenueInterest receivable ending balance. (4) studies employing data from the indirect method suffer from
Fifth, interest paid may be calculated using equation (5) estimation and articulation problems leading to unreliable
estimates of direct cash flows. Clinch et al. (2002) find that
below:
reported direct cash flows components have incremental
Interest paid = Interest payable beginning balance
explanatory power of returns compared to estimates of these
+ Interest expense Interest payable ending balance. (5)
components (using accrual reversal methods). Golub and
Finally, Income tax paid may be calculated using equation (6) Huffman (1984) show that analysts cannot accurately
below:
estimate reported direct cash components.
In summary, we can say that estimating the direct method
Income tax paid = Income tax payable beginning
of statement of cash flows does not give accurate results. If,
balance + Income tax expense
Income tax payable ending balance.
(6) as information users, we accept 95% accuracy in the data,
Similar equations also may be applicable to any other then we can prepare a direct method of statement of cash
flows using the indirect method and other data available in
operating cash components.
In summary, we may conclude that, in an efficient market the financial statements.
where information is publicly available, the disclosures
available in indirect method of statement of cash flows,
6. Can Users Prepare Statement of Cash
income statement, comparative balance sheet and notes
Flows Using Indirect Method if it is
disclosures are enough in order to develop the direct method
not Disclosed?
presentation from the indirect presentation. In other words,
this supports the arguments that there are no benefits for
If the answer is yes, this means that the direct cash flows
making the direct cash flows statement mandatory.
statement is redundant and there is no benefit for making the
direct cash flows statement mandatory. In other words, if
analysts can estimate direct cash flows information from the
5. Does It Accurate?
income statement, the change in balance sheet items and
If accurate forecasts of cash collections and cash payments notes, then there is no benefit for making the direct cash
can be developed using information contained in the flows statement mandatory. While if the answer is no, this
financial statements, then the users will not have problems will support the argument: . . . direct method provides
when preparers use the indirect method presentation. In other information which may be useful in estimating future cash
words, the direct cash flows disclosures are redundant. flows and which is not available under the indirect method
Krishnan and Largay (2000) provide evidence on the validity (IAS 7 para 19).
a FASB assertion that direct method cash flows information
Some evidence supporting the indirect method is provided
can be determined indirectly without incurring unduly by Rue and Kirk (1996), who find that direct cash flows

338

Bassam M. Abu-Abbas: Direct, Indirect, or Both Methods of Reporting Operating Statement of Cash Flows

disclosures are not significantly different from estimates


made using other available financial statement information,
suggesting that the direct cash flows disclosures are
redundant.
Bradbury (2011) finds that operating cash flows and direct
cash flows components (cash from customers and cash paid
to suppliers) cannot be reliably estimated from mechanical
balance sheet (accruals reversal) procedures. Furthermore,
the error rates are greater when firm-specific events arise
(such as acquisitions, discontinued operations and asset
growth).
In summary, 1 find that the results are mixed relating to
the ability of estimating direct cash flows information from
financial statements. Similar to the results above, we can say
that estimating the indirect method of statement of cash
flows does not give accurate results. If the users of financial
statements accept less than 100% accuracy in the statements,
then we can prepare an indirect method of statement of cash
flows using the direct method and other data available in the
financial statements.

7. Does Cost Matter?


The FASB is concerned about costs and benefits of
accounting standards. Users of financial statements incur
costs of collecting, processing, analyzing and interpreting
information. The FASB (1987, par. 133-140) states that from
society's perspective, such costs should be minimized where
possible. Users of financial statements not disclosing direct
method information incur additional costs by estimating and
collecting this information (Krishnan and Largay, 2000).
Golub and Huffman (1984) find that there is not much
evidence on the cost of preparing the direct cash flows
statement relative to the indirect method. The too costly
argument should account for the analysts costs of
processing information. If firms provide the information,
there are potentially large savings relating to analysts
processing costs. For firms that already report the direct
method, the marginal cost of retaining the direct cash flows
statements is zero. While the marginal cost to the preparer of
voluntarily switching to the indirect method might be low,
the collective cost of financial analysts wishing to use direct
cash flows data will be high.
Under the cost, I am raising two issues: First, is it costly
for the preparers to develop both direct and indirect methods
presentation? The answer is easy. The cost will be higher
(but not much) for the preparers but lower for the users. The
question now is the priority for minimizing the cost will be
given to the preparers or to the users? Definitely the users are
more important. In paragraph 12 of the section entitled The
Objective of financial Statements, International Accounting
Standard Board's Conceptual Framework (IASBs CF) stated
that "The objectives of financial statements is to provide
information about financial position, performance and
changes in financial position of an entity that is useful to a
wide range of users in making economic decisions" (IASB,

2006, p. 36).The objectives of financial statements according


to the AICPA is "to provide users with information for
predicting, comparing, and evaluating enterprise earning
power (AICPA, 1973, p. 21)". In addition, SFAC No. 1 states
that Financial reporting should provide information to help
present and potential investors and creditors and other users
in assessing the amounts, timing, and uncertainty of
prospective cash receipts from dividends or interest and the
proceeds from the sale, redemption, or maturity of securities
or loans (FASB, 2008, objective No. 2, par. 37, p.11).
According to this issue, we can conclude that preparers
should provide the statement of cash flows to users using
both direct and indirect methods.
Second, if the company decides to use one method, direct
or indirect, is it costly for the users to develop the direct
method presentation from the indirect or vice versa? If the
users are internal with enough excess to the company
database, the cost will be almost zero given that the company
has a computerized accounting system and the systems
contains a report writer software that helps in preparing
similar reports. If the users are external or without excess to
the company database, the cost will be low since it is easy to
develop the direct method presentation from the indirect
presentation or vice versa but the problem will be in the
accuracy. Prepares will get problem if they are looking for
100% accuracy in their data.

8. Conclusions
Both the IASB and the FASB consider the direct method
as the preferred method of presenting cash flows from
operations. The IAS 7 states that "An entity shall report cash
flows from operating activities using either: (a) the direct
method ; or (b) the indirect method entities are
encouraged to report cash flows from operating activities
using the direct method." (IAS 7, par. 18-19). Similarly,
SFAS 95 encourages enterprises to report cash flows from
operating activities directly by showing major classes of
operating cash receipts and payments (the direct method).
Previous literature find that the direct method is more
consistent with the objective of a statement of cash flows,
improve the prediction ability of future operating cash flows,
and provides more useful information to both creditors and
investors. On the other hand, the indirect method is easier for
preparers to create, simple for users to analyze, highlights the
differences between net income and net cash from operating
activities, and less cost to implement.
The purpose of this study is to support one argument of the
following: when preparing statement of cash flows, the
preparers should use the direct method, the indirect one, or
both. The FASB (1987, para. 110) concluded that neither
method provides benefits sufficient to justify requiring one
and prohibiting the other and that both the direct and the
indirect methods provide potentially important information
(FASB 1987, para. 119). However, the Board believes that
the direct method provides more useful information and

International Journal of Finance and Accounting 2014, 3(6): 335-340

encourages firms to follow the direct method (Krishnan and


Largay, 2000).
The FASB requires that a reconciliation of net income to
net cash flows from operating activities be reported in a
separate supplementary schedule when using the direct
method. The indirect method of reporting operating cash
flows, which is identical to the required supplementary
schedule in the direct method, reconciles net income to net
cash flows from operations (Flecher and Ulrich, 2010). This
reconciliation is considered as a preparation of statement of
cash flows using indirect method. This means that if the
companies choose the direct method, they have to prepare
using indirect method.
This paper provides evidence that the disclosures available
in indirect method of statement of cash flows, income
statement, comparative balance sheet and notes disclosures
are enough in order to develop the direct method
presentation from the indirect presentation. On the other
hand, previous literature find some evidence supporting that
direct cash flows disclosures are not significantly different
from estimates made using other available financial
statement information.
Overall, the results show that we can estimate either the
direct method or the indirect method of statement of cash
flows but the estimated statement does not give 100%
accurate results. If the users of financial statements accept
less than 100% accuracy in the statements, then companies
can prepare either an indirect or a direct method of statement
of cash flows. Otherwise, the company should ask prepares
to prepare both methods (even though this may increase the
cost for preparers but decrease it for users because both
IASB and FASB give users priorities over preparers)or use a
cost-benefit analysis to determine which method that should
be used.
In summary, we can say direct or indirect or both is a
dilemma but it seems that maximizing the benefits is
achieved by providing statement of cash flows using both
direct and indirect methods.
The limitation of this study is that it is only a descriptive
analysis study that does not provide empirical evidence to
support part of the conclusions. Because providing empirical
evidence is not one of the objectives of this study, it will be
forthcoming in a separate paper.

REFERENCES
[1]

AICPA (1973). Objectives of Financial Statements. Report of


the Study Group on the Objectives of Financial Statements.

[2]

American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA).


(1992). Accounting Trends and Techniques. 46th ed. Jersey
City, NJ: AICPA.

[3]

Bahnson, P. R., P. B. Miller and B. P. Budge. (1996).


Nonarticulation in Cash Flow Statements and Implications for
Education, Research and Practice. Accounting Horizons 10:

339

115.
[4]

Bradbury, M. (2011). Direct or Indirect Cash Flow


Statements? Australian Accounting Review. 21(2): 124-130.

[5]

Brahmasrene, T., C. D. Strupeck, and D. Whitten. (2004).


Examining Preferences in Cash Flow Statement Format. The
CPA Journal. October, 2004.

[6]

Carslaw, C. A. and J. R. Mills. (1991). Including the Cash


Flow Statement in Financial Analysis. Executive Accountant:
14-16.

[7]

Cheng, C.S.A., and D. Hollie. (2008). Do Core and Non-Core


Cash Flows from Operations Persist Differentially in
Predicting Future Cash Flows? Review of Quantitative
Finance and Accounting, 31(1): 29-53.

[8]

Clinch, G., B. Sidhu, and S. Sin. (2002). The Usefulness of


Direct and Indirect Cash Flow Disclosures. Review of
Accounting Studies, 7: 383-404.

[9]

Clacher, I., A. D. Ricquebourg, and A. Hodgson. (2013). The


Value Relevance of Direct Cash Flows under International
Financial Reporting Standards. ABACUS, 49 (3): 367-396.

[10] Cornell, D. W. and B. Apostolo. (1992). Direct Method to


Cash Flows Enhances Credit Analysis. Business Credit, 94:
10-13.
[11] Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB). (1987).
Statement of Cash Flows. Statement of Financial Accounting
Standards No. 95.
[12] Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB). (2008).
Statement of Financial Accounting Concepts No. 1. Original
Pronouncement as Amended. www.fasb.org/pdf/aop_CON1.
pdf.
[13] Fletcher, H., and T. Ulrich (2010). The Statement of Cash
Flows Using Financial Statement Equations. Business
Education & Accreditation. 2(1): 15-26.
[14] Foster, T. W., L. K. McNelis, and W. L. Smith. (2012). The
Statement of Cash Flows: An Indirect to Direct Conversion
Tool to Enhance User Understanding and Analysis. Journal of
Accounting and Finance, 12(2): 94-119.
[15] Golub, S.J. and H. S. Huffman. (1984). Cash Flow, Why it
Should be Stressed in Financial Reporting, Financial
Executive, 52: 3440.
[16] Heath, L. (1987). Cash Flow Reporting: Bankers Need a
Direct Method. The Accounting Review, 69: 50-59.
[17] International Accounting Standard Board (IASB). (2006).
International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRSs).
International Accounting Standards Foundation. ASCF
Publication. London.
[18] Krishnan. G. V., and J. A. Largay. (2000). The Predictive
Ability of Direct Method Cash Flow Information. Journal of
Business Finance & Accounting, 27(1) & (2): 215-245.
[19] Nurnberg, H. (1983). Issues in Funds Statement Presentation.
The Accounting Review, 58: 799-812.
[20] OLeary, C. (1988). Cash Flow Reporting Part 1: An
Overview of SFAS 95. Journal of Commercial Bank Lending,
70:2228.
[21] Orpurt, S. F., and Y. Zang. (2009). Do Direct Cash Flow

340

Bassam M. Abu-Abbas: Direct, Indirect, or Both Methods of Reporting Operating Statement of Cash Flows

Disclosures Help Predict Future Operating Cash Flow and


Earnings? The Accounting Review, 84(3): 893-935.
[22] Paton, W. (1963). The Cash Flow Illusion. The Accounting
Review, Vol. 38: 243-51.
[23] Richardson, P. (1991). Does FASB Statement No. 95 Really
Help Lenders?' The Journal of Commercial Bank Lending, 73:
49-54.
[24] Rosen, L.S. and D. De Coster. (1969). Funds Statements: A
Historical Perspective, The Accounting Review, 44:
124236.

[25] Rue, J. C. and F. Kirk. (1996). Settling the Cash Flow


Statement Dispute. National Public Accountant, 1719:
3840.
[26] Sorter, G. (1982). The Emphasis on Cash and the Impact on
the Funds Statement-Sense and Nonsense. Journal of
Accounting, Auditing, and Finance, 5: 188-94.
[27] Thomas, B. S. (1982). Reporting Cash Flow Information.
Journal of Accountancy, 154: 98-103.
[28] Trout, K., M. Tanner, and L. Nicholas. (1993). On Track with
Direct Cash Flow. Management Accounting, 75: 2327.

You might also like