EC2021

ELECTRONICS

MEDICAL

VI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING

EC2021-MEDICAL ELECTRONICS

QUESTION BANK

PREPARED BY

SHAIJU RAJAN. M.E, M.B.A

Asst.Professor ECE
Vi institute of technology

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UNIT I
ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY AND BIO-POTENTIAL RECORDING
PART-A
1.Define cell.
A cell is the basic living unit of the body.
2.The entire body contains above 100 trillion cells.
3.) What is a tissue?
A group of cells of the same type is called
tissue.
4. How energy is released for cell function?
In all cells, oxygen combines with carbohydrate, fat or protein to release
the energy required for cell function.
5. Discuss briefly about cell.
Each cell consists of a centrally located nucleus (cell core) surrounded by the
cytoplasm (cell body). The nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a nuclear
membrane.
6. About 75 percent of cell is water.
7. The principle fluid medium of the cell is water.
8. What is protoplasm?
Different substances that make up the cell are collectively called protoplasm.
It consists of water, electrolytes, proteins, lipids and carbohydrates.
9. The mitochondria organelles are called power houses of the cell.
10. What is DNA?
DNA is nothing but deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) similar to that found in the
nucleus. DNA is the basic substance of the nucleus that controls replication of
the cell.
11. The structure which is present inside the nucleus is called nucleolus.
12. What is ECF?
Extra cellular fluid (ECF) is the fluid which lies outside the cell
membrane.
13. What is ICF?
Intra cellular fluid (ICF) is the fluid which lies inside the cell
membrane.

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14.What is active transport?
When a cell membrane moves molecules or ions uphill against a
concentration gradient, then the process is known as active transport.
15. What is passive transport?
The transport of the substances through the cell membrane occurs by diffusion is
called passive transport.
16. Define membrane potential.
The diffusion and drift processes give rise to membrane potential. The
various ions seek a balance between the inside and outside of the cell by
diffusion and drift.
17. Give the approximate value of the resting potential for living cell.
The approximate value of the resting potential for living cell is
70mV.
18. What is the range of resting potential?
The resting potential ranges from -60 to -100nV.
19. List the characteristics of resting potential.
The value of the resting potential is maintained as a constant until some kind
of disturbance occurs.
It is strongly depending on the temperature.
Since the permabilities of the different cell types vary, the corresponding
resting potentials vary.
20. When the cell is said to be polarized?
When the cell is in resting state, then it is said to be
polarized.
21. Define depolarization.
The process of changing from the resting potential state to the action
potential state is called depolarization.
22. State all-or nothing law.
Regardless of the method of excitation of cells or the intensity of the stimulus,
which is assumed to greater than the threshold of stimulus. The action potential
is always- the same for any given cell. This is known as all- or nothing law.
23. Define absolute refractory period.
Absolute refractory period is the time duration of the cell non response to further
stimuli. It is about 1 millisecond in nerve cell.
24. Define relative refractory period.
Following the absolute refractory period there is a brief period of time during
which another action potential can be triggered but a much stronger stimulation
is required. This period is called relative refractory period.

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25. Define conduction velocity.
The rate at which an action potential moves down a fiber of a nerve cell or is
propagated from cell to cell is called the propagation rate or conduction velocity.

26.Give the range of nerve conduction speed.

The conduction velocity varies in nerves depending on the type and diameter
of the fiber and is from 20 n/s to 140 m/s. But in heart muscle, it is very slower
ranging from 0.2 to 0.4 m/s.
27. Define depolarization and repolarization.
When the cell fires however, the outside of the cell becomes momentarily
negative with respect to the interior. A short time later, the cell regains the
normal state in which the inside is again negative with respect to outside. The
discharging and recharging of the cell is known as depolarization and
repolarization.
28. A long is called axon.
29. The nerve cell with its dendrites and fiber is called neuron.
30. A connection between two excitable cells, in the form of a contact surface
between two neurons is called synapse.
31. Discuss briefly about organ.
The organ of the body is composed of various tissues. The organ contains tissue
that furnishes some mechanical strength and specialized tissue that gives a
particular function. There are five sense organs of the body. They are eye, nose,
ear, tongue and skin.
32. The skeleton consists of 206 bones.
33. The skeletal bone are completely enclosed by a membrane called periosteum.
34. At the top of the skeleton cranium skull is placed.
35. Define inspiration and expiration.
Breathing IN is called inspiration, and breathing OUT is called expiation.
36. The central nervous system is made up of brain and spinal cord.
37. The peripheral nervous system consists of all the nerves and group of
neurons outside the brain and spinal cord.
38. Discuss about the electrodes for offline analysis.
The online recorders are directly connected with the input. Therefore one can get
the live recording at the spot itself. In the case of off-line analysis, the input

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equipment system is used to prepare data for further analysis using computers
which may be located at the same location of the input or remote.
39. List the conditions satisfied by a bio-signal amplifier.
The gain and the frequency response should be more than 100 db. So as
to amplify the bio-signal property to drive the recorder.
It should have 10 W frequency response from d.c. to required frequency of
the particular bio-signal.
The gain and the frequency response should be uniform throughout the
required bandwidth.
The output impedance of the amplifier should be very small.
The common mode rejection ratio(CNRR) should be at least a
differential amplifier.
40. For what purpose isolation amplifier is used?
Isolation amplifier is used to increase the input impedance of the monitoring
system in order to isolate the patient from the biomedical instrument.
41.Define noise figure.
The amount of degradation of the signal can be defined in terms of the
noise figure. (nj) as defined as
Noise figure = signal to noise ratio at the input signal to the output
signal.
42. For what purpose line driving amplifier is used?
Whenever a transducer has high impedance and its output voltage is so low and
if want to couple this transducer output to a load having low impedance, we can
use line driving amplifier.
43. Define CMRR.
The ability of the differential amplifier circuit to ignore common mode inputs
like
50 HZ interference from mains is known as common mode rejection ratio.
(CNRR).thus CMRR = amplification of the differential voltage amplification of
the common mode voltage.
44. Define early receptor potential. (AU June 06)
When light falls on the retina, the absorption of photons by photo pigments
localized in the outer segment of the retinas photoreceptors is taking place. This
causes the change in the membrane potential. This in turn results in the
development of action potential that is transmitted down the optic nerve. The
first part Aof the response to a brief flash light is due to early receptor
potentials.
45. Define Later receptor potential (LRP).
The second component B with a delay of 1 to 5 milliseconds is due to the
Later receptor potential (LRP).
46. Define Electrooculogram.
A record of corneal- retinal potentials associated with eye movements is called
electrooculogram.

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47.Define Electroretinography(ERG).
The recording and interpreting the electrical activity of eye is called
electrorectinography.
48. What is BRONCHOSPIROMETER?
A bronchospirometer is a dual Spirometer that measures the volumes and
capacities of each lung individually. The air-input device is a double luman tube
that divides for entry into the airway to each lung, and thus provides isolation for
differential measurement. The main function of the bronchospirometer is
preoperative evaluation of oxygen consumption of each lung.

49. Define pattern recognition.

Pattern recognition is the detection of specific waveforms by some means.
Human beings are often more efficient at recognizing specific waveforms in the
bio- signals than electronic analyzers designed for this purpose.
50. List the factors to be considered for designing medical instrument.
Accuracy, frequency response, hysteresis, isolation, linearity, sensitivity, signalto- noise ratio, simplicity, stability and precision.
51. Define signal processor.
Signal processor is an important part of the instrument system which amplifies,
modifies or changes the electrical output of the transducer in a suitable manner to
run the recording or display ratio, simplicity, stability and precision.
52. What are electrodes?
Electrodes are devices which are employed to pick up the electrical signals of the
body.
53. For what purpose electrode paste is used?
The dry outer skin of the body is highly non-conductive, and will not establish a
good electrical contact with an electrode. The skin should therefore be washed
thoroughly and rubbed briskly to remove some of the outer cells. This area
should then be coated with an electrode paste. The purpose of the electrode paste
is to make the skin electrically conductive.
54. List the types of electrodes.
There are three types of electrodes. They
are
Microelectrodes
Depth electrodes
Needle electrodes.
55. Discuss about microelectrodes.
Microelectrodes are used to measure the bioelectric potential near or within a
single cell. These are also called as intracellular electrodes. They are divided
into metallic and non-metallic electrodes.

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56. For what purpose depth and needle electrodes are used?
Depth and needle electrodes are used to measure the bioelectric potential of the
highly localized extra cellular regions in brain or bioelectrical potentials from a
specific group of muscles.
57. List the uses of surface electrodes.
Surface electrodes are used to measure the potentials available from the surface
of the skin and are used to sense the potentials from heart, brain and nerves.
58. List the types of surface electrodes.
Metal plate electrode
Suction cup electrode
Adhesive tape electrode
Multipoint electrode
Floating electrode.
59. Define electro pointing.
Electrically etching the tip of a fine tungsten or stainless steel wire to a fine
point is known as electrpointing.
60. What is the major advantage of floating type skin surface electrodes?
Floating type skin surface electrodes eliminate movement artifact by avoiding
any direct contact of the metal with skin.
61.Give the uses of silver-silver chloride electrode.
Silver-Silver

chloride

electrodes

are

used

in

bio-medical

instrumentation.
62. Define half-cell potential.
Half cell potential is defined as the voltage developed at an electrode- electrolyte
interface. It is also called as electrode potential.
63.Define electrocardiogram (ECG)
The electrocardiogram is a graphic recording or display of the time
variant voltage display produced by myocardium during cardiac cycle.

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64.Electrocardiography (ECG) deals with the study of electrical activity of
heart muscles.
65.What is arrhythmia?
Arrhythmia is the disturbances in the heart rhythm.
66.What does the ECG reflect?
The ECG reflects the rhythmic electrical depolarization and repolarization of the
myocardium (heart muscle) associated with contractions of the atria and
ventricles.

67.Draw typical ECG waveform.

The
EKG
complex.
P=P
wave,
PR=PR
interval,
QRS=QRS
complex, QT=QT
interval,
ST=ST
segment,
T=T wave

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68.List the types of electrodes systems for ECG lead configurations.
Bipolar limb leads or standard leads
Augmented unipolar limb leads
Chest leads 9or pericardial leads.

Frank lead system (or) corrected orthogonal leads.

Among these four systems, the first three are widely used.
69. How the leads taken in bipolar limb leads?
In standard leads, the potentials are tapped from 4 locations of our body. They
are (i) right arm (ii) let arm (iii) right leg (iv)left leg. Usually the right leg
electrode is acting as ground reference electrode.
70. List the colour codes used for identifying ECG potentials.
White
right
arm Black left
arm Green
right leg Red
Left
leg.
Brown- chest.
71. the graphic record of the heart sounds is called Phonogram.
72. Define phonocardiograph.
Phonocardiogram is an instrument used to measure the heart sounds. The basic
aim of phonocardiograph is to pick up the different heart sounds, filter out the
heart sounds and to display them or record them.
73.Define heart sounds.
Heart sounds are acoustic phenomena resulting from the vibrations of cardiac
structures.
74.List the classifications of heart sounds.
Heart sounds are classified into four group on the basis of their mechanism of
origin. They are
Valve closure sounds
Ventricular filling sounds
Valve opening sounds
Extra cardiac sounds.
75. Acoustic events of the heart can be divided into two categories as heart
sounds and murmurs.
76. How the heart sounds and murmurs characterized?
Heart sounds and murmurs are usually characterized by three physical
properties. They are
Frequency
Amplitude
Quality
77.List the three augmented lead connections.

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The three augmented lead connections are
Augmented voltage right arm (aVR)
Augmented voltage left arm (VL)
Augmented voltage foot (aVF).

MEDICAL

78. Where we are using frank lead system?

The corrected orthogonal leads system (or) frank lead system is used in vector
cardiography.
79. How many lead selections are required for electrocardiograms?
Twelve lead selections are required to record the electrocardiogram. i.e. 3
standard bipolar leads, 3 augmented leads and 6 chest leads.
80. List the practical considerations for ECG recording.
Artifacts, wandering of base line, solid base line, frequency
response.
81.Define heart murmurs.
Heart murmurs are sounds related to non-laminar flow of blood in the heart and
great vessels.
82.Give the origin of heart sounds.
There are four basic separate heart sounds that occur during the sequence of
one complete cycle.
First heart sound: it is produced by the sudden closure of the mitral and tricuspid
valves associated with myocardial contraction.
Second heart sound : it is due to the vibration set up by the closure of semilunar
valves. i.e. the closure of arotic and pulmonary valves.
Third heart sound : It arises as the ventricles relax and the internal pressure drops
below the pressure in the atrium.
Fourth heart sound : it is also called an atrial sound. It is caused by an accelerated
flow of blood into ventricles or due to atrial contraction.
83.List the conditions that causes turbulence in blood flow.
Local obstructions to the blood flow
Abrupt changes n the diameter of the blood stream.
Pathologic communications in the cardio vascular system.
Ruptured cardiac structures
Valve insuffiency
84. For what purpose condenser microscope is used in ECG recording set up?

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The condenser microscope is used for conversion of the heart sounds into
electrical signals.
85.List the special applications of phonocardiogram.
Fetal phonocardiogram
Esophagear phonocardiogram.
Tracheal phonocardiogram.
86.Define echocardiography.
Echocardiography is also a useful technique for diagnosis of heart diseases.
Echocardiogram displays the time verses motion information about the intra
cardiac structures on slow speeds.
87.What is vectrocardiography?
In the case of electrocardiography, only the voltage is generated by the electrical
activity of the heart is recorded. But in vectrocardiography, the cardiac vector is
displayed along with its magnitude and spatial orentaion.
88. What is EEG?
The abbreviation of electroencephalograph is called EEG. It deals with the
recording and study of electrical activity of the brain.
89. How EEG is recorded?
By means of electrode attracted to the skull of a patient the brain waves can be
picked up and recorded.
90. What are brain waves?
The brain waves are the summation of neural depolarization in the brain due to
stimuli from the five senses as well as from the thought process.
91. What are graded potentials?
Graded potentials are variations around the average value of the resting
potential. Thus the EEG potentials originate with in the dendrite.
92 Define inhibitory post synaptic potential (IPSP).
If the transmitter substance in inhibitory, the membrane potential of the receptor
neuron increases in a negative direction. So that it is less likely to discharge, this
induced potential change is called inhibitory post synaptic potential.
93. Define excitory post synaptic potential(EPSP).
If the transmitter substance is excitatory, the receptor membrane potential
increases in a positive direction. So that the receptor neuron is more likely to
discharge and produces a spike potential. This induced change is called excitory
post synaptic potential(EPSP).
94.What are Evoked potentials?
Evoked potentials are the potentials developed in the brain as the responses to
external stimuli like light, sound etc. the external stimuli is detected by the sense

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organs, which cause changes in the electrical activity of the brain. Nowadays the
term event related potential has been used instead of evoked potential.

95. List the parts of the brain.

The brain consists of three parts, such as cerebrum, cerebellum and the brain
stem.
96. Give the classifications of the brain waves.
Brain waves are classified into our types. They
are
Alpha wave
Beta wave
Theta wave
Delta wave
97. How many electrodes are used in modern EEG unit?
12 electrodes are used in modern EEG unit.
98. How the EEG can be recorded?
EEG may be recorded by picking up voltage difference between an active
electrode on the scalp with respect to a reference electrode on the ear lobe or
other part of the body. This type o recording is called monopolar recording.
99. What are brain tumors?
The tumor displaces, the cortex, and if it is large enough, the electrical
activity will be absent in that part of hemisphere, since no electric potentials
originate in the tumor itself. Thus a extinguished or damped EEG over a certain
part of cortex can thus be due to brain tumor.
100. Define Epilepsy.
Epilepsy is a system for brain damage. This may be due to defects in the birth
delivery or head injury during accident or boxing. It may also be due to brain
tumor.
101. In what way EEG helps physicians?
EEG helps physicians to diagnose the level of consciousness, sleep
disorders brain death, brain tumors, epilepsy and multiple sclerosis.
102.What is EMG?
EMG- electromyography is the science of recording and interpreting the
electrical activity of muscles action potentials.
103.How EMG is recorded?
EMG is usually recorded by using surface electrodes or more often needle
electrodes may be disposable adhesive types or the ones which can be
used repeatedly.
104. List the diseases which affect the steady potential of the eye.
The effects of certain drugs on the eye movement system can be determined.
The state of semicircular canalizes analyzed by EOG.
Diagnosis of the neurological disorders may be possible.

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The level of anesthesia can be indicated by characteristic eye movements.

105. Give the EMG signal Characteristics?

Reliability and constancy of recordings of EMG signal characteristics were
investigated from the measurements taken with miniature size surface electrodes
during submaximal and maximal contraction of the rectus femoris muscle.
The following EMG variables were studied: integrated EMG (IEMG) various
bandwidths of the power spectral density function, mean power frequency
(MPF), and rise time, amplitude and number of spikes of the averaged motor
unit potential (AMUP).
The results indicated that for most of the variables studied the reproducibility of
measurements was better within the test session (reliability) than between the
differen test days (constancy).
The reliability values for IEMG, MPF and AMUP amplitude were rather high
(r=0.77- 0.93) and it is suggested that these parameters can be recommended for
use in EMG studies where recordings are repeated over a period of several days.
106. What are the different types of electrodes used in Bipolar measurement?
Bipolar measurement: Dry Electrode, Gelled Electrode.
107. Compare the signal characteristics ECG AND PCG?
ECG
PCG
Time intervals measured b/w waveform of Peripheral blood flow pulse (pp) for heart
ECG

monitoring

Record the signal included the R and T wave At the first s1 and s2 sounds are recorded
peak.

PCG.

Difference b/w the measured intervals were The relationship b/w the measured intervals
revealed by studying changes due to were found to be independent of PCG
exercise and different body position

location.

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108. Draw the waveform of
(P.2.39)
109.

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a typical PCG signal and label its components?

What are the requirements of biological amplifier?

The gain and the frequency response should be more than 100 db.
So as to amplify the bio-signal property to drive the recorder.
It should have 10 W frequency response from d.c. to required
frequency of the particular bio-signal.
The gain and the frequency response should be uniform throughout the
required bandwidth.
The output impedance of the amplifier should be very small.
The common mode rejection ratio(CNRR) should be at least a
differential amplifier.

PART-B
1. Explain in detail various types of biopotential electrodes Write short notes on
electromyogram
2. Draw an action potential waveform and discuss in detail about polarization and re
polarization
3. Draw the bipolar limb lead system of an ECG.
4. Draw the action potential waveform and explain the following terms.resting potential
;absolute refractory period and relative refractory period.
5. Draw the 12 lead system used in ECG.
6. How the PCG signals are generated ?explain the measurement of PCG.
7. Explain the origin of biopotential.(may /june 2012)
8. Compare the signal characteristics of ECG and EMG.
9. Draw the biploar lead system used in ECG and give its significances.
10. Explain the 10-20 electrode placement used in ECG.
11. What should be the the characteristics of biopotential amplifier?
12. write about 10-20 system of recording EEG?
13. Explain The Orgin Of Biopotential?
14. Draw The Typical ECG Wave Form and marks the important features and the associated
function of the heart.

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15. Discuss about the different types of electrodes used in biopotential measurement.(may/june
2013)
16.

Explain the measurement of EMG.

17. Draw And Explain The Different Lead Configurations And Its Significances In ECG.

UNT II
BIO-CHEMICAL AND NON ELECTRICAL PARAMETER
MEASUREMENT
PART-A
1) What is meant by arterial pressure?
Arterial pressure is weighted average pressure of systolic and diastolic pressure.
2) How is the pulse rate measured?
We can sense the pulse by placing our fingertip over the radial artery in the wrist.
pulse travels at the speed of 5 to 15 meters/second. photoelectric method is commonly
employed to measure the pulse.
3) What is stroke volume?
Stroke volume is defined as the amount of blood that is ejected during each heart
beat.
Stroke volume = Cardiac output / number of beats/ min.
4) What transducer is used for measuring temperature ?why?
Thermistor is used for measuring temperature. Its resistance varies with the
temperature.
This is mostly preferred in the biomedical field compared with thermocouple.
5) What is the principle used in pulse rate measurement?
We can sense the pulse by placing our finger tip over the radial artery in the wrist.
Pulse travels at the speed of 5 to 15 meters/second. photoelectric method is
Commonly employed to measure the pulse.

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6) What is an Autoanalyser? what are the essential units it?

MEDICAL

Auto analyzer Is used to measure blood chemistry and display that on a graphic
recorder. The essential units are sampler, dialyzer, heating bath, colorimeter
7) Give the typical values of blood pressure and pulse rate of an adult?
Normal diastolic pressure ranges from 60 to 90 mmHg.systolic blood pressure in
the normal

adult from 95 to 140 mmHg. A normal resting heart rate for adults

ranges from 60 to 100 beats a minute.

8) Specify the frequencies used for bio telemetry?
(I)Radio frequency used is 100 to 250MHZ (II)Frequency range is 001HZ to 20
KHZ
9) What are the components of blood?
The blood cells have important functions in our body. The red blood cell is used
for the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide. The white blood cells are part of the
bodys defense against infections and foreign substances. The platelet are involved
in the clotting of blood.
10.

What is stroke volume?

Stroke volume is defined as the amount of blood that is ejected during each heart
beat.
Stroke volume = Cardiac output / number of beats/ min.

11. If systolic and diastolic blood pressure are given as 110mmHg and 82 mmHg,
calculate mean arterial pressure?
12. Mention the basic principle behind electrochemical PH determination.
An electrochemical cell for pH measurement always consists of an indicating electrode
whose potential is directly proportional to pH, a reference electrode whose potential is
independent of pH, and the aqueous sample to be measured. If all three parts are in contact
with each other, a potential can be measured between the indicating electrode and the
reference electrode, which depends on the pH of the sample and its temperature. Because
of the complexity of a pH measurement, the combination of indicating and reference
electrode must be calibrated in advance, to compensate for slight changes over time. The
relation between measured potential E (mV), pH and temperature (K) is the Nernst
equation.
13) Define PH. How it is related with blood?

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The PH is defined as the logarithm of the reciprocal of W ion concentration.
i.e. PH = log10 (1/W) = - log10 (W)
the chemical balance of the body is identified by the measurement of PH of
blood and other body fluids.
14) 108.The PH. value of venous blood is about 7.35. and for atrial blood it is about
7.40.
15) The glass electrode is normally used as PH. electrode.
16) For what purpose chemical electrodes are used?
Chemical electrodes are generally used to measure PH and PO2 of the blood.
They are also used to determine the oxygen tension or carbon dioxide tension
in the blood.
17) The hydrogen electrode is also called a reference electrode.
18) For what purpose silver-silver chloride is used?
The silver silver chloride is used as a reference electrode due to its smaller and
stable half cell potential.
19) Define electrophoresis.
Electrophoresis is a method for separating and analyzing macromolecular
substances such as plasma proteins. The method is based on the fact that, the
molecules carry electric charges and therefore migrate in a electric field.
20) In the electrophoresis, macromolecular substances are analyzed by determining
their
migration velocity
21) Discuss about PCO2 electrode.
It consists of a standard glass pH

electrode covered with the rubber

membrane permeable to CO2, between the glass surface and membrane; there is a
thin film of water. The solution under test which contains dissolved CO2 is
presented to the outer surface of the rubber membrane. After equilibrium, pH of
the aqueous film is measured by the glass electrode and interpreted log PCO2 and
pH of the solution.

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22) For what purpose PO2 electrode is used?

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PO2 electrode is used to determine the oxygen tension in the blood. It is a piece
of platinum wire embedded in an insulating glass holder with the end of
wire exposed to the electrolyte into which the oxygen from the solution under
measurement is allowed to diffuse through the membrane.
23) Discuss about blood cells.
The blood cells have important functions in our body. The red blood cell is
used for the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide. The white blood cells are
part of the bodys defense against infections and foreign substances. The platelet
are involved in the clotting of blood.
24) Give the changes in the hemoglobin content of red blood cells.
When the body produces too many red blood cells, the amount of hemoglobin in
the blood increases, and a chronic disease called polycythemia or dehydration is
produced. When the hemoglobin in the blood decreases, anemia is produced.
25) Define cardiac output.
Cardiac output is the amount of blood delivered by the heart to the arota per
minute.
26) For what purpose colorimeters and photometers are used?
Colorimeters and photometers are used to measure he transmitted and absorbed
light as it passes through a sample.
27) What is SEN?
The SEN is scanning microscope. The SEN is recently developed electron
microscope. Here the image is built up by using an electron probe of very small
diameter which scans the specimen surface in parallel straight lines as does a
television camera.
28) In what way the composition of blood sample is determined?
The

composition

of

blood

serum

is

determined

by

specialized

chemical techniques. The different components of biological substances can e

determined by measuring how they either absorb or emit visible light.
29) Define transmittance and absorbance.
The transmittance is defined as the ratio of transmitted light intensity to the
incident light intensity.

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30) For what purpose flame photometer is used?

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Flame photometer is used to analyze urine or blood in order to determine the

concentration of potassium (K), sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), and lithium (Li).
31) What is flame photometer?
By measuring optical density or absorbance A, the concentration of given
substance in the sample can be determined. Colorimeters can be in the filter
photometer or spectrophotometer. When an interference filter is used to select a
given wavelength, it is called filter photometer.
32) In what way cardiac output is used?
Using implanted electromagnetic fine probe on the arota, we can find the cardiac
output per minute directly by multiplying the stroke volume with the heart beat
rate per minute.
33) Define stroke volume.
Stroke volume is defined as the amount of blood that is ejected during each heart
beat.
Stroke volume = Cardiac output / number of beats/ min.

34) Define total lung capacity.

Total lung capacity (TLC) is the amount of gas contained in the lungs at the
end of maximal inspiration. It is the sum of vital capacity and residual volume.
35) Define vital capacity.
The vital capacity (VC) is the maximum volume of gas that can be expelled
from the lungs after a maximal inspiration.
36) Define residual volume.
The residual volume is the volume of gas remaining in the lungs at the end of a
maximal expiration.
37) Define inspiratory reserve volume (IRV).
It is the extra volume of gas that can be inspired with maximal effort
after reaching the normal end of inspiratory level.
38) Define expiratory reserve volume(ERV).
It is the extra volume of gas that can be expired with maximum effort beyond
reaching the normal end of expiratory level.

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39) Define mean velocity of blood.

Mean velocity = blood flow through a vessel cross sectional area of the
vessel.
40) Define mean circulation time.
Mean circulation time is defined as the total amount of blood in the
circulation divided by the cardiac output.
41) For what purpose Spirometer is used?
Spirometer is mainly used to measure the respiratory volume
measurement.
42) Define pneumotachograph.
Pneumotachograph is an instrument to measure the patients air flow rate
during respiration and vital air capacity of the lung.
43) Give the uses of gas analyzers.
Gas analyzers are used to determine the quantitative composition of inspired
and expired gas to assess the lung function.
44) Define systole.
Systole is defined as the period of contraction of the heart muscles,
specifically the ventricular muscle at which time blood is pumped into
pulmonary artery and the aorta.
45) Define diastole.
Diastole is defined as the period of dilation of the heart cavities as they fill
with blood.
46) Give the uses of blood flow meters.
Blood flow meters are used to monitor the blood flow in various blood
vessels and to measure caridiac output.
47) Name three methods to obtain the direct measurement of blood pressure.

Percutaneous insertion

Catheterization

Implantation of a transducer.

48) Normal diastolic pressure ranges from 60 to 90 mmHg.

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49) What is the range of systolic blood pressure in the normal adult?
95 to 140 mmHg.
50) When does heart block occurs?
Heart block occurs when the internal electro conduction system of heart
is interrupted.
51) What are tachycardia and bradycardia?
The human hear rate varies normally over a range of 60 to 110 BPM. Rate faster
than 110 BPM is called tachycardia. Heart rate slower than 60 BPM is called
bradycardia.
52) Name the four physical principles based on which blood flow meters
are constructed.
The blood flow meter is constructed based on the following principles:

Electromagnetic induction.

Ultrasonic principle (Transmit type, Doppler type)

Thermal convection

Radiograpic principle

Indicated dilution principle.

PART-B
1. Explain the working principle of an electromagnetic blood flow meter.
2. Describe the operation of blood cell counter.
3. Define the terms residual volume, tidal volume, vital capacity and total lung capacity.
4. Discuss ficks method for determining cardiac output.
5.

Explain The Blood Flow Measurement using following technique

(I)

Electro Magnetic Principle

(II)

Thermo dilution

6. Explain the principle of following

(i) Photometer

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(ii) Autoanalyzer

MEDICAL

7. Explain the principle of operation of coulter counter .what is its application?

8. Explain the working principle of electromagnetic blood flow meter .what are its
advantages and disadvantages?
9. Explain the following
(i)

ficks method for the determination of cardiac output

(ii)

(ii) ultrasonic blood flow meter.

10. Explain the principle of following

(i)

sphygmomanometer

(ii)

(ii) measurement of PHCO3

UNIT-III
BIO-CHEMICAL AND NON ELECTRICAL PARAMETERS
PART-A
1)

Distinguish b/w internal pacemakers and external pacemaker.

External pacemaker
It does not necessitate open heart surgery

Internal pacemaker
The pacemaker is surgically implanted

beneath
The skin near the chest or abdomen with its It requires open chest minor surgery to
output leads are connected directly to he place the circuit
heart muscle

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These are used
irregularities.

MEDICAL
for

There

temporary
is

no

heart These

safety

pacemaker.

are

used

for

permanent

heart

or damages. There is cent percent safety for

circuit from external disturbances

During the placement . swelling and pain do During the placement . swelling and pain
not arise due to minimum foreign body arise due to minimum foreign body reaction
2)reaction
Explain the principle of telestimulation.
Telemedicine is rapidly developing application of clinical medicine where medical
information is transferred via telephone, internet or other networks for the purpose of
consulting and remote medical procedure or examination.
3)

Draw the circuit of DC defibrillator and give its output specifications.(PAG

NO.5.15)

4)

List the applications of Bio-telemetry?

(i)

Bio-telemetry is the measurement of biological parameters over long distance.

(ii)For conveying biological information from a living organism and its environment to
a different location where this can be recorded.
5)

What is radio pill?

A device used for bio-telemetry for monitoring physiological activity of an animal such
as Ph value of stomach acid. This is a radio transmitter small enough to be swallowed,
which may operate from inside the body.

6)

What are the batteries used for implantable pacemaker?

The first implanted cardiac pacemaker used nickel-cadmium rechargeable battery,
later on zinc-mercury battery was developed and used which lasted for over 2 years.
Lithium iodine battery invented and used by Wilson Greatbatch and his team in 1972
made the real impact

to implantable cardiac pacemakers. This battery lasts for about

10 years and even today is the power source for many manufacturers of cardiac
pacemakers
7) List the applications of bio telemetry?

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Medical attendant or computer can easily diagnose the nature of disease by
seeing the telemetered bio signals without attending patient room.
Patient is not disturbed during recording.
Particularly for research ,biotelemetry is greatly used.
8)

What are pacemakers?

Pacemaker is an electrical pulse generator for starting and for maintaining the
normal heart beat. Like all the muscle tissues, the heart muscle can be stimulated
with an electric shock. The minimum energy required to excite the heart
muscle is about 10 joules. There are two types of stimulation or pacing. External
stimulation and internal stimulation

9)

List the two types of multiplexing involved in multichannel wireless telemetry.

frequency division multiplexing.
Time division multiplexing.

10)

What is meant by a demand pacemaker?

The inhibited pacemaker allows the heart to pace at its normal rhythm when it is able to
if the R wave is missing for a preset period of time, then pacemaker will turn on and
provide the heart a stimulus. hence it is termed as demand pacemaker.
11)

For what purpose pacemaker is used?

Pacemaker is an electrical pulse generator for starting and for maintaining the
normal heart beat.

12)

How the heart muscle can be stimulated?

Like all the muscle tissues, the heart muscle can be stimulated with an electric
shock. The minimum energy required to excite the heart muscle is about
10 joules.

13)

List the methods of stimulating the heart muscles.

There are two types of stimulation or pacing. External stimulation and internal
stimulation.

14)

For what purpose external stimulation and internal stimulation are

employed?
External stimulation is employed to restart the normal rhythm of the heart in the
case of cardiac standstill. Internal stimulation is employed in cases requiring

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long term pacing because of permanent damage that prevents normal self
triggering of the heart.
15)

List the modes of operation of pacemakers.

Based on the modes of operation of the pacemakers, they can be divided into
five types. They are:

Ventricular asynchronous pacemaker(fixed rate pacemaker)

Ventricular synchronous pacemaker.

Ventridefibrillator inhibited pacemaker (demand pacemaker)

Atrial synchronous pacemaker.

Atrial sequential ventricular inhibited pacemaker.

The other name for asynchronous pacing is competitive pacing.

16)

Based on the placement of the pacemaker, how we are classifying it?

Based on the placement of the pacemaker, there are two types as
external pacemaker and internal pacemaker.

17)

Compare external pacemaker and internal pacemaker.

External pacemaker
It does not necessitate open heart surgery

Internal pacemaker
The pacemaker is surgically implanted

beneath
The skin near the chest or abdomen with its It requires open chest minor surgery to
output leads are connected directly to he place the circuit
heart muscle
These
are used for temporary heart These are used for permanent heart
irregularities.

There

is

no

pacemaker.
18)

safety

or damages. There is cent percent safety for

circuit from external disturbances

What is fibrillation? What are the types of fibrillation?

The condition at which the necessary synchronizing action of the heart is

lost is known as fibrillation.

types of fibrillation are : 1. Atrial fibrillation and ventricular fibrillation.
19)

What are the various electrodes used for defibrillation?

Internal(spoon shaped) electrodes and external (paddle shaped) electrodes are

used for defibrillation.

20)

What is counter shock?

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The phenomenon of application of an electrical shock to resynchronize the
heart is known as counter shock.
21)

What is IPP?
IPP means intermittent positive pressure. Positive pressure ventilators are used
to inflate the lungs with IPP.

22)

What is meant by monophasic waveform?

Monophasic means most of the excursion of curve is above the base line.

23)

What is the need for ventilator?

It is used to provide artificial respiration. Artificial respiration should be

applied to the patient, whenever respiration is suspended due to reasons like gas
poisoning, electric shock etc.
24)

What is meant by defibrillation?

Ventricular fibrillation can be converted into a more efficient rhythm by

applying a high energy shock to the heart. This sudden surge across the heart causes
all muscle fibers to contract simultaneously. The fibres may then respond to normal
physicological pace making pulses. the instrument administering the shock is
known as defibrillator. This process is known as defibrillation.
25)

What is the need for pre-amplifier?

Isolation amplifiers are used as pre-amplifiers. It is used to increase the input

impedance of the monitoring system, so that the stray currents can be reduced. The
isolation amplifiers are used in ECG measurement.
26)

What is the need for earthing of medical instruments?

Grounding is needed in medical equipments to avoid the macro and micro

shocks. The leakage current is also reduced by proper grounding.

27)

What is a defibrillator? State its use.

The condition of heart at which the necessary synchronism is lost is known as

fibrillation. Defibrillation is the application of an electric shock to the area of the heart.
that is, it is an electronic device that creates a sustained myocardial depolarization of a
patients heart in order to stop ventricular fibrillation and atrial fibrillation.

28)

What is angiography?

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Angiogram: It is a special- x-ray imaging technique through which high contrast
can be obtained. The outlines of the blood vessels also visible in angiogram.
29)

State the principle by which body organs could be visualized by

radioisotope method.
The body organs could be visualized in X-ray by using the principle of energy

absorption. Two types of radiations are used.

30)

Name the principal ions involved in the phenomena of producing cell

potentials.
Sodium and potassium ions.

31)

Why glass electrode is very much preferred as active electrode in a pH meter?

The glass electrode provides a membrane interface for H+ ions. so that, it is

preferred as an active electrode in pH measurement. The pH meter with

hydroscopic glass observes the water readily and provides best pH value.
32)

Define cardiac output.

Cardiac output is the amount of blood delivered by the heart to the aorta per

minute. for normal adult, the cardiac output is 4-6 litres/min. The measurement of
cardiac output is due to low blood pressure, reduced tissue oxygenationnnn, poor renal
function, shock and acidosis.
33)

What is the pH value of arterial blood and venous blood?

pH value of venous blood=
7.35 pH value of arterial
blood = 7.40

34)

What is the use of biphasic D.C. defibrillator?

It is used to correct the fibrillation effectively.
PART-B

1. Explain the function of synchronized DC defibrillator with neat diagram.

2. Discuss about radio pill.
3. What is the need of pacemaker? Explain the different types of pacemakers?
4. what is pacemaker? what are the different types of pacemaker? expalin the R wave
inhibited pacemaker with neat block diagram?
5. Explain the single channel ECG bio telemetry susyem with neat block diagram?

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6. Describe the function of ventricular inhibited pacemaker?

MEDICAL

7. What is radio pill? Explain with the help of an example.

8. How is atrial fibrillation arrested? Explain with the help of relevant diagram of the
setup?
9. Explain The Following
(I)

R-wave inhibited pacemaker.

(II)

DE defibrillator

10. Explain The Multichannel Bio telemetry system with neat diagram.

UNIT IV
RADIOLOGICAL EQUIPMENT
PART-A
1) Distinguish radiographic and fluoroscopic techniques.
Radiography
The patient dose is very low.
Wide range of contrast can be obtained.

Fluoroscopy
The patient dose is very high.
Less contrast and it can be improved by

High resolution in images can be obtained.

introducing electromagnetic intensifier.

Fair resolution in images can be obtained.

Permanent record is available.

Permanent record can be made by inserting

video tape-recorder,
X- ray images developed by photographic X-ray images developed by fluorescent
or photosensitive film.

principle and photoelectric effect on the

fluorescent
Patient is not exposed to X-rays during Patient
is screen.
exposed

to

x-ray

during

examination of the X-ray image.

examination.

Efficient is more.

Efficient is less in direct fluoroscopy but it

can be increased by using the modern

television system.
The image can be obtained after developing Immediately
the image can be seen and
the film and examination cannot be made examination can be finished within short
before developing
thecannot
film. be observed.
Movement
of organs

time.
Movement
of organs can be observed.

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2) List out the precautions that should be followed during handling of radio isotopes.
(i)

Radioactive materials are kept in thick walled lead containers .s that radiation
cannot penetrate them.

(ii)

Lead aprons and lead gloves are worn.

(iii)

All radioactive samples are handled by a special remote control process using
robots.

3) What is radiation therapy?

Treating certain diseases, using radiation (X-rays) is called radiation therapy .The
ionizing effect of X-rays is used for the treatment of tumors. In dermatology ,soft Xrays are used for the treatment of skin disease. Hard x-rays are used in the therapy of
deep seated tumors.
4) What is the need for cooling systems in x-ray tube?
An external cooling unit circulating a flow of coolant proximate to the x-ray tube so
that said coolant removes at least some heat from x-ray tube.
5) How the radio isotopes are used for therapy?
Nuclear medicine uses radiation to provide diagnostic information about the functioning
of a person's specific organs, or to treat them. Diagnostic procedures are now routine.
Radiotherapy can be used to treat some medical conditions, especially cancer, using
radiation to weaken or destroy particular targeted cells. Tens of millions of nuclear
medicine procedures are performed each year, and demand for radioisotopes is increasing
rapidly.

Radioisotope technique are based on counting the number of nuclear

disintegration that

occur in a radioactive sample during the time interval. Nuclear

radiation detector used in

medical applications will utilize the light flashes caused by

radiation in a suitable medium.

6) Mention the different types of radiation generated from radio isotopes?
Gamma emission.
Beta emission.
Alpha emission
7) List the characteristics of x-rays?

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X-Ray are invisible.

MEDICAL

X-Ray have no mass.

X-Ray travel at the speed of light.
X-Ray cannot be optically focused.
X-Ray travels in straight lines.
X-Rays are electrically neutral .they have neither a positive nor negative charge
.They cannot be accelerated or made to change direction by a electrical field.

8) What is mean by ionizing radiation?

X-Rays are generated when fast moving electron are suddenly deaccelerated by
impinging on a target. The intensity of x-ray depends on the current through the
tube.
9) What is a Betatron? what is its application?
Betatron is a x-ray electron energy as high as 45ueV.I t Is Used For Beating
Tumors of bunk and pelvis.
10) What are soft and hard x-rays?
Treating certain diseases, using radiation (X-rays) is called radiation therapy .The
ionizing effect of X-rays is used for the treatment of tumors. In dermatology ,soft
X-rays are used for the treatment of skin disease. Hard x-rays are used in the
therapy of deep seated tumors.
11) Mention the characteristics required for the radio isotope to be used for medical
imaging.
Radioactivity is the release of energy and matter due to a change in the
nucleus of an atom.
Radioisotopes are isotopes that are unstable and release radiation. All
isotopes are not radioisotopes.
Transmutation occurs when a radioactive element attempts to become
stabilized and transforms into a new element.
12) State the components of ionizing radiation.
Alpha particles
Beta particles
Gamma rays (or photons)

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X-Rays (or photons)

MEDICAL

Neutrons

13) Specify the need for SPECT.

A nuclear medicine tomographic imaging technique using gamma rays. It is very similar to
conventional nuclear medicine planar imaging using a gamma camera. However, it is able to
provide true 3D information. This information is typically presented as cross-sectional slices
through the patient, but can be freely reformatted or manipulated as required. The basic
technique requires delivery of a gamma emitting radioisotope (called radionuclide) into the
patient, normally through injection into the bloodstream. On occasion, the radioisotope is a
simple soluble dissolved ion, such as a radioisotope of gallium(III), which happens to also have
chemical properties that allow it to be concentrated in ways of medical interest for

disease

detection.
PART-B
1. Draw the block diagram of x-ray imaging system and

explain its components.

2. Explain production, properties, isotopes used and applications of the following

radiations.
(i)

Alpha

(ii)

Beta.

(iii)

Gamma

3. Explain about the following in X-Ray imaging system?

(i) collimator,
(ii) bucky grid
4. Explain how the gamma radiation is used for imaging.
5. Draw the setup of typical diagnostic X-ray unit and explain ,with proper justification ,
the need for each components in it?
6. Explain the principle of operation of scintillation detectors. how is it modified for in
vivo application?

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7. Explain the need of following in the x-ray imaging system.
(i)

MEDICAL

Collimator

(ii) bucky grid

(iii) image intensifier
8. Explain the principle of nuclear Imaging with neat diagram.

UNIT V
RECENT TRENDS IN MEDICAL INSTRUMENTS
PART-A
1)

What is diathermy? List its types.

Diathermy is the treatment process by which cutting, coagulation of tissues are
obtained. Its various types are:

2)

Shortwave diathermy.

Microwave diathermy

Ultrasonic diathermy.

Ultrasonic diathermy.

Distinguish between microshock and macroshock.

A physiological response to a current applied to the surface of the body that

produces unwanted stimulation like tissue injury or muscle contractions is called

as macro shock.
A physiological response to a current applied to the surface of the heart
that results in unnecessary stimulation like muscle contractions or tissue injury is called
as microshock.
3) Mention the advantages of performing surgery using LASER.
(i)

Highly sterile

(ii)

highly localized and precise

(iii)

non contact surgery

(iv)

Dry-field, almost bloodless surgery

(v)

Short periods of surgical time

4) Define let go current.

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Let go current is the minimum current to produce muscular contraction.
For men : about 16mA
For women: about 10.5 Ma
5) What is micro shock?
A physiological response to a current applied to the surface of the heart that
results in unnecessary stimulation like muscle contractions or tissue injury is
called a microshock.

6) Which laser is used for surgery?

Pulsed Nd- YaG laser.(ii)continuous wave co2 laser.(iii) continuous wave organ ion
laser.
7) What is thermograph?
Thermograph is process of recording true images of the surfaces of object under
study. Thermography is an important diagnostic aid in many disease especially in
breast cancer and pneumatic
8) Give the types and frequencies of operation of diathermy units?
Short wave diathermy- 27.12 MHZ and wave length 11m.
Microwave diathermy- 2450 MHZ and wave length 12.25m.
Ultrasonic diathermy- 800 KHZ to 1 MHZ
Surgical diathermy- 1 TO 3 MHZ
9) Mention the applications of laser in Ophthalmology.
(i)Variety of eye problem including retinal bleeding,
(ii)Excess growth of blood vessels in eye in diabetic patients are ratified
(iii)Laser is also used for spot welding
(iv)Reattaching retina.
10) List the parts of endoscope unit.
An instrument used to examine the interior of a hollow organ or cavity of the body. The
endoscope is only one element of the system. Other required elements are a light source,
video processor, monitor and water bottle.
11) What is macro shock?

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A physiological response to a current applied to the surface of the body that produces
unwanted stimulation like tissue injury or muscle contractions is called as
macro shock.
12) Bring out the need for patient plate in surgical diathermy?
(i)prevents the contamination of bacteria
(ii)saves time
(iii)bleeding can be arrested immediately by touching the spot with coagulation
electrode provide simple and effortless surgery.

13) What are the precautions necessary to avoid microshock?

Ground fault interrupter.
Isolation transformer.
1.

PART-B
Explain the function of surgical diathermy and various modes of operation.

2.

Write notes on following.

3.

(i)

Thermograph.

(ii)

Ground fault interrupter.

Write brief notes on

(i)

endoscopy

(ii)

surgical diathermy

4.

Explain the different types of laser used in medicine

5.

Discuss about electrical safety in medical equipments?

6.

What is an endoscope? justify the need for each of the essential components in it.
What are the application of endoscope?

7.

Draw the basic setup of medical thermograph unit and explain the function of each
unit in it. mention the application of thermograph.

8.

Write brief notes on:

(i) thermograph
(ii) endoscopy unit

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9.
Explain
(i)

surgical diathermy

(ii)

argon laser and its medical application

MEDICAL