Contents

Preface and acknowledgments

Fundamentals of slope design

xiii

Peter Stacey

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Pit slope designs

1.2.1 Safety/social factors
1.2.2 Economic factors
1.2.3 Environmental and regulatory factors

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1.3 Terminology of slope design

1.3.1 Slope configurations
1.3.2 Instability
1.3.3 Rockfall

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1.4 Formulation of slope designs

1.4.1 Introduction
1.4.2 Geotechnical model
1.4.3 Data uncertainty (Chapter 8)
1.4.4 Acceptance criteria (Chapter 9)
1.4.5 Slope design methods (Chapter 10)
1.4.6 Design implementation (Chapter 11)
1.4.7 Slope evaluation and monitoring (Chapter 12)
1.4.8 Risk management (Chapter 13)
1.4.9 Closure (Chapter 14)

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1.5 Design requirements by project level

1.5.1 Project development
1.5.2 Study requirements

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1.6 Review
1.6.1 Overview
1.6.2 Review levels
1.6.3 Geotechnically competent person

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14

1.7 Conclusion

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Field data collection

15

John Read, Jarek Jakubec and Geoff Beale

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2.1 Introduction

15

2.2 Outcrop mapping and logging

2.2.1 Introduction
2.2.2 General geotechnical logging
2.2.3 Mapping for structural analyses
2.2.4 Surface geophysical techniques

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2.3 Overburden soils logging

2.3.1 Classification
2.3.2 Strength and relative density

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2.4 Core drilling and logging

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2.4.1
2.4.2
2.4.3
2.4.4
2.4.5
2.4.6
2.4.7
2.4.8
2.4.9
2.4.10

Introduction
Planning and scoping
Drill hole location and collar surveying
Core barrels
Downhole surveying
Core orientation
Core handling and documentation
Core sampling, storage and preservation
Core logging
Downhole geophysical techniques

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2.5 Groundwater data collection

2.5.1 Approach to groundwater data collection
2.5.2 Tests conducted during RC drilling
2.5.3 Piezometer installation
2.5.4 Guidance notes: installation of test wells for pit slope
depressurisation
2.5.5 Hydraulic tests
2.5.6 Setting up pilot depressurisation trials

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2.6 Data management

52

Endnotes

52

Geological model

53

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John Read and Luke Keeney

3.1 Introduction

53

3.2 Physical setting

53

3.3 Ore body environments

3.3.1 Introduction
3.3.2 Porphyry deposits
3.3.3 Epithermal deposits
3.3.4 Kimberlites
3.3.5 VMS deposits
3.3.6 Skarn deposits
3.3.7 Stratabound deposits

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3.4 Geotechnical requirements

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3.5 Regional seismicity

3.5.1 Distribution of earthquakes
3.5.2 Seismic risk data

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3.6 Regional stress

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Structural model

69

John Read

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4.1 Introduction

69

4.2 Model components

4.2.1 Major structures
4.2.2 Fabric

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4.3 Geological environments

4.3.1 Introduction
4.3.2 Intrusive

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4.3.3 Sedimentary
4.3.4 Metamorphic

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4.4 Structural modelling tools

4.4.1 Solid modelling
4.4.2 Stereographic projection
4.4.3 Discrete fracture network modelling

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4.5 Structural domain definition

4.5.1 General guidelines
4.5.2 Example application

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Rock mass model

83

Antonio Karzulovic and John Read

5.1 Introduction

83

5.2 Intact rock strength

5.2.1 Introduction
5.2.2 Index properties
5.2.3 Mechanical properties
5.2.4 Special conditions

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5.3 Strength of structural defects

5.3.1 Terminology and classification
5.3.2 Defect strength

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5.4 Rock mass classification

5.4.1 Introduction
5.4.2 RMR, Bieniawski
5.4.3 Laubscher IRMR and MRMR
5.4.4 Hoek-Brown GSI

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5.5 Rock mass strength

5.5.1 Introduction
5.5.2 Laubscher strength criteria
5.5.3 Hoek-Brown strength criterion
5.5.4 CNI criterion
5.5.5 Directional rock mass strength
5.5.6 Synthetic rock mass model

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138

Hydrogeological model

141

Geoff Beale
6.1 Hydrogeology and slope engineering
141
6.1.1 Introduction
141
6.1.2 Porosity and pore pressure
141
6.1.3 General mine dewatering and localised pore pressure control 146
6.1.4 Making the decision to depressurise
148
6.1.5 Developing a slope depressurisation program
151
6.2 Background to groundwater hydraulics
6.2.1 Groundwater flow
6.2.2 Porous-medium (intergranular) groundwater settings
6.2.3 Fracture-flow groundwater settings
6.2.4 Influences on fracturing and groundwater
6.2.5 Mechanisms controlling pore pressure reduction

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6.3 Developing a conceptual hydrogeological model of pit slopes 166

6.3.1 Integrating the pit slope model into the regional model
166
6.3.2 Conceptual mine scale hydrogeological model
166
6.3.3 Detailed hydrogeological model of pit slopes
167
6.4 Numerical hydrogeological models
168
6.4.1 Introduction
168
6.4.2 Numerical hydrogeological models for mine scale dewatering
applications
169
6.4.3 Pit slope scale numerical modelling
173
6.4.4 Numerical modelling for pit slope pore pressures
175
6.4.5 Coupling pore pressure and geotechnical models
179

6.5 Implementing a slope depressurisation program

6.5.1 General mine dewatering
6.5.2 Specific programs for control of pit slope pressures
6.5.3 Selecting a slope depressurisation method
6.5.4 Use of blasting to open up drainage pathways
6.5.5 Water management and control

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6.6 Areas for future research

6.6.1 Introduction
6.6.2 Relative pore pressure behaviour between high-order and loworder fractures
6.6.3 Standardising the interaction between pore pressure and
geotechnical models
6.6.4 Investigation of transient pore pressures
6.6.5 Coupled pore pressure and geotechnical modelling

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Geotechnical model

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201

Alan Guest and John Read

7.1 Introduction

201

7.2 Constructing the geotechnical model

7.2.1 Required output
7.2.2 Model development
7.2.3 Building the model
7.2.4 Block modelling approach

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7.3 Applying the geotechnical model

7.3.1 Scale effects
7.3.2 Classification systems
7.3.3 Hoek-Brown rock mass strength criterion
7.3.4 Pore pressure considerations

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Data uncertainty

213

John Read

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8.1 Introduction

213

8.2 Causes of data uncertainty

213

8.3 Impact of data uncertainty

213

8.4 Quantifying data uncertainty

8.4.1 Overview
8.4.2 Subjective assessment

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8.4.3 Relative frequency concepts

216

8.5 Reporting data uncertainty

8.5.1 Geotechnical reporting system
8.5.2 Assessment criteria checklist

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8.6 Summary and conclusions

219

Acceptance criteria

ix

221

Johan Wesseloo and John Read

9.1 Introduction

221

9.2 Factor of safety

9.2.1 FoS as a design criterion
9.2.2 Tolerable factors of safety

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9.3 Probability of failure

9.3.1 PoF as a design criterion
9.3.2 Acceptable levels of PoF

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9.4 Risk model

9.4.1 Introduction
9.4.2 Costbenefit analysis
9.4.3 Risk model process
9.4.4 Formulating acceptance criteria
9.4.5 Slope angles and levels of confidence

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9.5 Summary

235

10 Slope design methods

237

Loren Lorig, Peter Stacey and John Read

10.1 Introduction
10.1.1 Design steps
10.1.2 Design analyses

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10.2 Kinematic analyses

10.2.1 Benches
10.2.2 Inter-ramp slopes

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10.3 Rock mass analyses

10.3.1 Overview
10.3.2 Empirical methods
10.3.3 Limit equilibrium methods
10.3.4 Numerical methods
10.3.5 Summary recommendations

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11 Design implementation

265

Peter Williams, John Floyd, Gideon Chitombo and Trevor Maton

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11.1 Introduction

265

11.2 Mine planning aspects of slope design

11.2.1 Introduction
11.2.2 Open pit design philosophy
11.2.3 Open pit design process
11.2.4 Application of slope design criteria in mine design
11.2.5 Summary and conclusions

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11.3 Controlled blasting

11.3.1 Introduction
11.3.2 Design terminology
11.3.3 Blast damage mechanisms
11.3.4 Influence of geology on blast-induced damage
11.3.5 Controlled blasting techniques
11.3.6 Delay configuration
11.3.7 Design implementation
11.3.8 Performance monitoring and analysis
11.3.9 Design refinement
11.3.10 Design platform
11.3.11 Planning and optimisation cycle

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11.4 Excavation and scaling

11.4.1 Excavation
11.4.2 Scaling and bench cleanup
11.4.3 Evaluation of bench design achievement

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11.5 Artificial support

11.5.1 Basic approaches
11.5.2 Stabilisation, repair and support methods
11.5.3 Design considerations
11.5.4 Economic considerations
11.5.5 Safety considerations
11.5.6 Specific situations
11.5.7 Reinforcement measures
11.5.8 Rockfall protection measures

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12 Performance assessment and monitoring

327

Mark Hawley, Scott Marisett, Geoff Beale and Peter Stacey

12.1 Assessing slope performance
12.1.1 Introduction
12.1.2 Geotechnical model validation and refinement
12.1.3 Bench performance
12.1.4 Inter-ramp slope performance
12.1.5 Overall slope performance
12.1.6 Summary and conclusions

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12.2 Slope monitoring

12.2.1 Introduction
12.2.2 Movement monitoring systems
12.2.3 Guidelines on the execution of monitoring programs

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363

12.3 Ground control management plans

12.3.1 Introduction
12.3.2 Hazard management plan

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13 Risk management

381

Ted Brown and Alison Booth

13.1 Introduction
13.1.1 Background
13.1.2 Purpose and content of this chapter
13.1.3 Sources of information

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13.2 Overview of risk management

13.2.1 Definitions
13.2.2 General risk management process
13.2.3 Risk management in the minerals industry

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13.3 Geotechnical risk management for open pit slopes

385

13.4 Risk assessment methodologies

13.4.1 Approaches to risk assessment
13.4.2 Risk identification
13.4.3 Risk analysis
13.4.4 Risk evaluation

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13.5 Risk mitigation

13.5.1 Overview
13.5.2 Hierarchy of controls
13.5.3 Geotechnical control measures
13.5.4 Mitigation plans
13.5.5 Monitoring, review and feedback

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14 Open pit closure

xi

401

Dirk van Zyl

14.1 Introduction

401

14.2 Mine closure planning for open pits

14.2.1 Introduction
14.2.2 Closure planning for new mines
14.2.3 Closure planning for existing mines
14.2.4 Risk assessment and management

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14.3 Open pit closure planning

14.3.1 Closure goals and criteria
14.3.2 Site characterisation
14.3.3 Ore body characteristics and mining approach
14.3.4 Surface water diversion
14.3.5 Pit water balance
14.3.6 Pit lake water quality
14.3.7 Ecological risk assessment
14.3.8 Pit wall stability
14.3.9 Pit access
14.3.10 Reality of open pit closure

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14.4 Open pit closure activities and post-closure monitoring

14.4.1 Closure activities
14.4.2 Post-closure monitoring

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14.5 Conclusions

412

Endnotes

413

Appendix 1

415

Groundwater data collection

Appendix 2

431

Essential statistical and probability theory

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Guidelines for Open Pit Slope Design

Appendix 3

437

Influence of in situ stresses on open pit design

Evert Hoek, Jean Hutchinson, Kathy Kalenchuk and Mark Diederichs

Appendix 4

447

Risk management: geotechnical hazard checklists

Appendix 5
Example regulations for open pit closure
Terminology and definitions
References
Index

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