ECE137A Notes Set 1:

Bipolar Transistors Characteristics

Mark Rodwell
University of California, Santa Barbara

rodwell@ece.ucsb.edu
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page 1

Why study bipolar transistors ?

MOSFETs are now much more common, being 99.999% dominant in digital
ICs, and probably 95% of analog ICs. Bipolar transistors are however still
used in faster high resolution analog - digital converters, and used widely in radio
frequency and optical communications ICs.
Quality mosfets are also very difficult to obtain in the discrete form needed for the
lab projects. Insofar as they are available, the data sheets give very limited design
information. It is therefore very difficult to design satisfactory lab projects using
MOSFETs. Quality discrete bjts are widely available, and their characters itics
are such that only limited information is needed for data sheets.

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page 2

Terminal Characteristics: NPN bipolar transistor

for Vcb > 0
(collector base junction reverse biased)
I E = I es (eV

Ic

be

/ VT

1)

Ib = I E /

Vcb

where

Ib
Vbe

Ie

VT = kT / q = 25.8 mV at 300 Kelvin (room temperature)

VT is called the " thermal voltage"
k = Boltzmann' s constant = 1.38(10 23 ) Joule/Kelvin
T = absolute temperature
q = electron charge = 1.6022(10 19 ) Coulomb

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page 3

Terminal Characteristics: PNP bipolar transistor

For the PNP bipolar transistor , current directions and
Ie

voltage polarities are simply reversed.

Veb
Ib
Vbc

Ic

Again, if the collector base junction is reverse biased

(Vbc > 0), then
I E = I es (eV

eb

/ VT

1)

Ib = I E /

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page 4

Voltage Polarities and Notation

You may have been taught the notation to the
right, where Vbe = Vb Ve and Veb = Ve Vb
This leads to Vbe = Veb .

Vcb

Vbe

Vbc

Vbe

Although this is the standard textbook notation, it is often difficult to

keep polarities correct. Instead, I recommend defining the polarity of
voltages by drawing + and - signs on the circuit diagram associated
with any variable defining a voltage. Further, whenever possible,
DC voltage and current variables are defined so their values are
POSITIVE when the transistor is operated normally.

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page 5

Polarities of voltages: NPN and PNP

A diode is forward biased if

Idiode
N

the P - side is more positive

than the N - side.

Vdiode
Ic
Vcb

A forward - baised diode

Ie

Ib

Ic
N

Vbe

conducts significantly.

Ie
Vcb

Vbe
Ib

Conventional (Ben Franklin)

Ie
Ie

Veb

current flows from P to N in

a forward - biased diode.

Ic
P

Ib
Vbc

Ic
Vbc

Veb
Ib

Electrons, being negative,

move from N to P

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page 6

Polarities of voltages: NPN and PNP

Idiode
N

In a normally - operating BJT

the base - emitter junction
is forward - biased,

Vdiode
Ic
Vcb
Ie

Ib

Ic
N

and the base - collector junction

Vbe

Ie

is reverse - biased.

Vcb

Vbe
Ib
Ie

By this rule, we can determine

the correct voltage polarities
and current directions.

Ie

Veb

Ic
P

Ib
Vbc

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Ic
Vbc

Veb
Ib

page 7

Common-emitter current gain or HFE

The collector voltage VC is made sufficiently positive,
forcing Vcb > 0 (reverse - biased collector - base junction).

+Vc
Ib

Vcb

Ic

Common - emitter current gain

IC
= = H FE
IB

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page 8

Common-base current gain

The collector voltage VC is made positive,
forcing Vcb > 0 (reverse - biased collector - base junction).

+Vc
Ic
Vcb

Common - base current gain

I
IC
IC / I B
=
C =
I E IC + I B (IC / I B ) + 1
=

+1

or =

Ib

IE

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page 9

Typical values of DC current gain

This can vary tremendously.
General - purpose BJTs used in Analog - digital converters
and similar circuits : 300 500 0.997 - 0.998
Jellybean 2N3904 - 2N3906 BJTs used in lab projects :
50 300 0.95 0.997
Specialized (power, microwave, ...) transistors
20 200 0.95 0.998

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page 10

Common-base DC characteristics
+Vcb

A fixed value of emitter current I E is applied, and VCB

is varied. The collector current I C and the base - emitter

A
Ic

voltage VBE are measured.

Vbe

The emitter current is then changed to a new value,

VCB again varied and I C and VBE again measured

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IE

page 11

Common-base DC characteristics
base-collector
breakdown voltage
Vbr,cbo

Ic

+Vcb

Ic=10 mA

A
Ie=10 mA

Ic

Ic=5 mA
Ie=5 mA

Vbe
Vcb

IE

~0.5 Volts

Ic

very slight
variation of Vbe
with Vcb
exponential
I-V curve

Vbe
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page 12

Base-emitter voltage
I

I
Vbe = VT ln E + 1 VT ln E actual relationship
I ES

I ES
Vbe = Vbe ,on rough approximation

+Vcb
A
Ic

Vbe ,on is typically in the range of 0.6 - 0.7 volts

Vbe

for 60' s - vintage BJTs used in the lab,

0.8 - 0.9 volts for 2000 - vintage devices.

IE

0.02

10

-4

10

-6

10

-8

10

-10

10

-12

emitter current, amps

current, amps

0.01

0.015
0.01
0.005
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4
0.5
Vbe, volts

0.6

0.7

0.8

class notes, ECE137A, rodwell, University of California, Santa Barbara, copyrighted

-0.005
-0.2

0.2
0.4
Vbe, volts

0.6

0.8

page 13

Common-base curves measured on a microwave BJT

breakdown

+Vcb

60

Ic, mA

Ie= 55 mA
Ie= 45 mA

40

Ic

Ie= 35 mA

20

Vbe

IE

-20
-1

V , Volts
cb

20

Ic, mA

15
10
5
0
-5
0

0.2

0.4
0.6
Vbe, Volts

0.8

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page 14

PNP Transistor: common-base DC characteristics

Ic

~0.5 Volts

Ic
Vcb

Veb

Ic=10 mA
Ie=10 mA

Ic=5 mA
Ie=5 mA

IE

Vbc
base-collector
breakdown voltage
Vbr,cbo

Plots of PNP characteri stics are standard in texts.

In practice, we use them infrequently.
The most important point is to remember the correct
polarities of voltages and the correct directions of currents.

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page 15

Common-Emitter DC characteristics
In the linear region, I c I b

+Vce

There is also some variation of I c with collector voltage.

Ic

This is called the Early effect.

The slope of the curve dI C / dVCE ~

IC
VCE + V A

Ib

V A , the Early voltage, is typically 50 - 100 V

Ic
saturation region
Vcb<0
increasing
Ib

-Va
Vce,sat

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linear region
Vcb>0

Vce

page 16

Common-emitter curves measured on a microwave BJT

20

0.7
0.6
0.5
Ic, mA

Ic, mA

15

10

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1

0
-0.1

0
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

VCE, V

4
5
VCE, V

Above curves are for 150,300,450,600,750 uA base current

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page 17

Modes of operation: Linear Active

The BJT has 2 PN junctions. Each can be forward or
reverse - biased. The 4 combinations give us 4 modes of

Ic

operation

Vcb

Linear Active Mode :

Normal mode of operation for linear amplification
BE junction forward biased

Ib
P
Vbe
N

BC junction reverse biased

Ie

Ic

Ic
saturation region
Vcb<0

Vcb
increasing
Ib

Ib
Vbe

-Va
Vce,sat

linear region
Vcb>0

class notes, ECE137A, rodwell, University of California, Santa Barbara, copyrighted

Ie

Vce

page 18

Modes of operation: Saturation

Saturated
BE junction forward biased
BC junction forward biased
Sometimes used deliberate ly when we want
a low - voltage switch.
Saturation is one limit on the maximum voltage
swing of the transistor used as an amplifier
Ic

Vcb
saturation region
Vcb<0
increasing
Ib

Vbe

-Va
Vce,sat

linear region
Vcb>0

class notes, ECE137A, rodwell, University of California, Santa Barbara, copyrighted

Vce

page 19

Modes of operation: Cutoff

Cut off
BE junction reverse biased, or not sufficiently
forward biased to turn junction on.
BC junction reverse biased
If the base - emitter voltage is too small (barely forward
biased) then the emitter current will be near zero.
The transistor is off.
Cutoff is a second limit on the maximum voltage
swing of the transistor used as an amplifier.
There is also a reverse active mode, in which the BE
junction is reverse biased and the BC junction is forward
biased. The transistor then operates similarly to the forward
active mode, but with very low current gain.
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page 20

DC model for bias analysis

Use either
Vbe = Vbe ( on ) (quick)
Vbe = VT ln( I E / I ES ) (more accurate)

Ib
B

C
(Ib)

the 2nd relationship is necessary for

current mirrors and for bias currents
in push - pull and similar stages.

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page 21

AC small-signal model
gmVbe

Ib

First find g m :
g m vbe = I b

I
gm c
Vbe

Rbe

or (Ib)

C
Rce

Vbe

or R

or R0

Vce constant

but I c = I ES ( eV

be

/ VT

1) I ES eV

be

/ VT

hence
I c
Vbe

Vce constant

IC
=
VT

g m = I C / VT = / re 1 / re
Note we have defined re the " small signal emitter resistance "
re = VT / I E = 26mV / I E at room temperature.

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page 22

AC small-signal model
Now find R or Rbe :
I
( Rbe ) 1 b
Vbe

gmVbe

Ib

or (Ib)

Vce constant

But I b = I C / and I c = g mVbe so I b = g mVbe /

Rbe

C
Rce

Vbe

or R

or R0

Now find R0 or Rce :

( Rce ) 1

I c
Vce

Vbe constant

Best to find from a curve - tracer or from a data sheet

Estimate from :
I c
Vce

Vbe constant

Rce =

I c ,bias
=
VCE ,bias + V A

VCE ,bias + V A
I c ,bias

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page 23