Selecting the Right Antenna

A White Paper presented by:

Ira Sharp
Product Marketing Manager
Networking and I/O
Phoenix Contact
P.O. Box 4100
Harrisburg, PA 17111-0100
Phone: 717-944-1300
Fax: 717-944-1625
Website: www.phoenixcontact.com

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Selecting the Right Antenna

Key concepts
Antenna design is one of the most critical parts of a wireless system
For reliable RF communication, the designer must consider:
o Antenna selection
o Alignment
o Placement
Introduction
Antenna selection can be one of the most confusing parts of designing a wireless system. This paper provides
guidelines for antenna selection. It will explore antenna theory and recommend practical rules of thumb to use
when recommending and installing antennas.
Antenna theory
An antenna is an extension of a radio that allows the information to be transmitted from one radio to another,
creating a communication link. The antennas do this by radiating energy. Radiating energy is energy that has
broken free from the system, meaning it is now airborne. The antenna then shapes and gives direction to this
energy. This shaping or focusing of the radiating energy is known as gain.
The amount of shaping or focusing the antenna gives to the energy is typically defined in dBi or dBd. The letters
dB in both dBi and dBd stand for decibel and indicate a ratio of energy based on a reference point. This dB ratio
comes from Alexander Graham Bells studies on the human ear. In fact, the B in dB refers to Bell and is
capitalized in his honor.
Bell found that the human ear could hear a wide array of sound intensities that ranged from a quiet whisper to a
loud roar of a jet taking off. Typical human hearing ranges in intensity from 10-16 W/cm2 to 10-4 W/ cm2, which is on
a scale of one billion. Bell found it very difficult to deal with such large numbers, so to compress the scale, a
reference of 10-16 W/ cm2 was used. This meant that a sound that had an intensity of 10-16 W/ cm2 really had an
intensity of one Bell, because 10-16 W/ cm2/10-16 W/ cm2=1. Therefore, an intensity of 10-4 W/cm2 using the
reference has an intensity of 12. The 12 represents 12 times louder than the reference point.
Dealing with the smaller numbers made math simpler and easier to deal with. By reducing a scale of one billion to
12, a lot of resolution is lost. This can be changed by adding a multiplier. This is where the d comes from in dB.
The d stands for deci, which multiplies the value by ten. Therefore 10 Bells would be 100 dB (deci-Bells or
decibels).
The same theory that was applied to hearing directly applies to radio frequency (RF) theory. RF also deals with
extremely large intensity scales that quickly become difficult to deal with. By compressing the large scale into a
manageable scale, the math becomes much simpler to work with.
One very important concept associated with dB is that it is unit-less. This in turn means that without a reference
point, the dB value has no meaning. In RF, the reference point is commonly located with the dB notation. This is
why antennas are typically rated as dBi or dBd. The i and d are reference points for the dB power ratio.
dBi is energy as it relates to an isotropic antenna. This is a perfect antenna that does not truly exist in the real
world, although it provides a good reference point for calculations. dBd is energy as it relates to a half-wave dipole
antenna, which is the simplest of all antennas in the real world. This also provides a nice reference point for
calculation purposes. These two units can be correlated: 1dBd = dBi + 2.15 dB (see Figure 1).

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dBi

dBd

dBi + 2.15dB

Figure 1: Sample dBi calculation

Figure 2: Dipole antenna

Antenna gain
It is important to understand that the gain associated with antennas, such as 6 dBi or 6 dBd, is not an amplification
of the signal. This is a common misconception. The gain of an antenna simply focuses the energy that already
exists to reach areas that, had the signal been amplified by that amount and a simple antenna like a dipole (Figure
2) or isotropic been used, would yield similar results. Therefore, it is easy to calculate and create antenna layouts,
providing a better understanding of how far an antenna will reach.
An antennas reach depends on several things. First is the transmit power commonly known as Tx, which
defines how much energy is coming into the system. This energy is then transmitted through some series of cables
and adapters, which cause a loss of energy referred to as cable loss. The cables and adapters then connect to an
antenna, which concentrates the remaining energy. The gain of the antenna defines how concentrated this energy
will become. This is known as higher spectral density. Summing together the Tx power, losses from the cables,
plus gain from the antenna defines the distance that can be achieved by the system. As the energy leaves the
system and becomes airborne, the air and other obstructions dissipate the energy as the distance grows.
Therefore, the more energy produced by the system or the higher the spectral density, the more dissipation that
can occur and the farther the signal will travel.
As a real-life example of spectral density, think of someone yelling at the top of his or her lungs. Right next to the
person, the sound is very loud. That is, the spectral density is high. Farther away from the person, the sound
seems softer and less intense. The person producing the sound is doing so at the same level, but the distance
between the two points has grown, so more energy has dissipated.
If the yeller uses a megaphone, somebody farther away can hear the message at the same level of intensity that
someone closer would experience without the megaphone. The megaphone will focus the energy, increasing the
intensity at the distant location. The person is still yelling at the same level, but because this energy is focused, it
can now reach a farther distance with greater intensity.

Lower Gain
High Gain

Figure 3: Vertical cross-section of an omnidirectional antenna

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Antenna types
The type of antenna is defined by how the radiated energy is shaped or focused. The two core types of antennas
are omnidirectional and directional. Omnidirectional antennas radiate energy in a doughnut pattern, 360 degrees
around the antenna in the horizontal plane (Figure 4). A directional antenna radiates energy in a specific direction
in the horizontal and vertical planes (Figure 5). Therefore, when using an omnidirectional antenna, signals can be
received from any angle in the horizontal plane around the antenna, but with a directional antenna, signals generally
can be received only in the direction in which the antenna is pointed.

Figure 4: Omnidirectional Antenna Radiation

Pattern

Figure 5: Directional Antenna Radiation Pattern

There are several different types of directional antennas, including Yagi, panel, parabolic dish, and sector-type
antennas (see Chart 1). They all perform the same basic function, directing radiation in a particular direction.
A Yagi antenna is a simple dipole with elements placed along the boom. The dipole antenna, as shown previously,
provides little shape to the radiation pattern of the antenna. The elements act as reflectors and drivers to create
direction from the non-directional dipole antenna. The size of Yagi antennas depends on the frequency in which
they are tuned. Lower frequencies have longer wavelengths, and therefore will yield larger antennas. With a Yagi
antenna this means larger elements. The number of elements in a Yagi antenna defines the gain it will have, or how
much the energy will be focused. These factors make Yagi antennas very good for lower frequency radio systems
(less then 1 GHz). Typically gains above 10 dBi are not needed, while in higher frequency systems higher gains are
needed.
With the higher gains, more elements are needed, making the antenna very long, and because of the higher
frequency, these elements are small. The small size of the elements and the length of the antenna make Yagis very
awkward to use with higher frequency systems such as 802.11 or Bluetooth. They are, however, very well suited
for UHF and 900 MHz networks.
Panel antennas are a good alternative to Yagi antennas in higher frequency applications. Panel antennas come in
many different variants. They can range dramatically in the gains and the radiation patterns they can provide.
Because of this, panel antennas lend themselves very well to higher frequency networks such as 802.11 and
Bluetooth. They are generally flat or very slim, making them easy to work with, and RF patterns can be selected to
meet the needs of a particular application.
Two other antennas, parabolic dish and sector antennas, are also used in RF systems. Parabolic dish antennas
provide a very focused signal, which is extremely directional. Sector antennas are the exact opposite, as they offer
a relatively unfocused signal. Generally, sector antennas are used in groups where a single radio will feed multiple
antennas that are arranged in a circular, triangle, or square format, which in turn provides a similar RF pattern to
an omnidirectional antenna. The advantage of using the sector antennas is high gains can be used while still
covering 360 around a single point. The disadvantage is the cost, since using multiple antennas together requires
many accessories, such as multiplexers, amplifiers, filters, etc.

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Chart 1: Types of antennas

Omnidirectional

Yagi

Panel

Parabolic Dish

Antenna selection
With the basic understanding of the different antennas and gain, we can now look at what type of antenna to use.
When selecting an antenna for an application, the first thing that must be taken into account is antenna tuning.
Antenna tuning defines what frequency the antenna was designed to be used with. All antennas are designed to
work within a specific frequency range and must be used accordingly. Using antennas that are not tuned to the
correct frequency can reduce the energy radiated from the antenna and could cause problems with RF equipment.
Next, when planning the antenna layout of an RF system, there is generally no single solution. There are many
solutions that can yield similar results. There are, however, a few rules of thumb that can be used when designing
system layouts, and there is a process to be followed for the correct selection of antennas.
The first step is to understand the topology that will be used for the RF system; this might be point to point, mesh,
star, trunk, or repeating. (Chart 2)
Chart 2: Typical RF topologies

Point to
Point

Mesh

Star

Trunk

Repeating

The type of topology shows if one or more radios will communicate with a single point or multiple points. As a
rule of thumb, any location with more than one radio link should use an omnidirectional or sector antenna. This
allows radios from multiple angles in the horizontal plane to communicate with the single point. Locations with
only one radio link can use either omnidirectional or directional antennas.
To decide which type of antenna to use, a few things must be considered. The distance the signal must travel to
reach the destination, the number of surrounding radios, and their distance from the destination point are all
critical. If the signal must travel longer distances, directional antennas will provide better results, but aiming will be
more difficult because the radiation angle will be narrow. If there are other radios in the area, omnidirectional
antennas can cause interference with the surrounding radios, creating an overall weak communication system.
After choosing the antenna type, the next step is to define what gain the antenna must have. Calculations and/or
propagation study software can be used as a guideline for selecting the antenna gain needed. Understanding how
gain affects the radiating properties of an antenna makes it easier to make the proper selections.
To demonstrate the effects of gain from an antenna, we will use the example of a light bulb. If a light bulb is placed
into a lamp with no shade, light will fill a room. At any one location, the light will be no brighter than it is
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anywhere else. This is similar to an antenna with low gain, as the radiation from the antenna (the light) is not
focused in any direction (it fills the whole room equally).
If we then take the same bulb and place it in a spotlight, the light will become much more focused. The focused
light becomes much brighter, but it will no longer light up the whole room. Instead, the light will travel farther in a
single direction. This illustrates an example of higher gain. As radiation from the antenna becomes more focused
(brighter), it will allow the antenna to communicate to distances that are farther away.
The radiation pattern of antennas can be seen in RF plots. These plots are based on the horizontal and vertical
orientations of the antenna. From this, the user can derive on which vertical and horizontal angles the antenna can
communicate. This is very important when it comes to antenna alignment and dealing with interference in an RF
system.

Figure 6: Sample horizontal and vertical RF plots

Figure 6 shows an RF plot of an omnidirectional antenna. The horizontal plot demonstrates that in the horizontal
plane (looking down on the antenna), signals can be sent and received from any angle. In the vertical plot, the
antenna focuses most of its energy between 15 degrees above the 0-degree plane and 20 degrees below the 0degree plane. This means that the antenna was designed to be placed at a higher elevation than the devices that
will be communicating with it, as most of its energy is directed downward.
The acceptance angle is another way of defining at what angles an antenna will communicate. Manufacturers will
sometimes specify the acceptance angle of an antenna, rather than provide the RF plot, simplifying the antenna
selection process. The acceptance angle is the maximum angle in both the horizontal and vertical planes at which
the antenna can receive a signal. For the antenna shown above, the acceptance angle would be 360 degrees in the
horizontal and 75 degrees in the vertical. This means that the antenna can receive signals anywhere in the
horizontal plane and can receive signals at angles up to 75 degrees above or below the 0-degree plane.

Installation
Proper antenna placement and alignment are critical to a successful RF system. Improper alignment of antennas can
make even a perfectly designed system useless. To achieve proper antenna alignment, several things must be
considered. First, the antennas being used must be pointed in the direction of the desired communications path.
This can mean different things for different antenna types. Recalling the difference between an omnidirectional and
directional antennas, omni antennas will not require any alignment in the horizontal plane, as they generally cover
the full 360 degrees. In the vertical plane, however, it must be verified that the radiation angle will be able to
communicate with the destination. If either of the antennas in the communications system is too high or low, the
system might not operate properly.
The same is true for a directional antenna, but both the horizontal and the vertical acceptance angles must be
considered. The gain of the antenna affects the acceptance angle(s) of the antenna. The important thing to note
about antenna gain is the higher the gain of an antenna, the smaller the acceptance angle that will be produced.
Therefore, there is less room for error. This is greatly magnified over longer distances, as an antenna angling
error of just one degree can result in being off hundreds of feet when communicating about a mile. (Figure 7)

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Figure 7: Small error in degree can cause problems

Most antennas are either vertically or horizontally polarized. This polarization defines how the radio signal
propagates from the antenna. To have a solid RF link, antennas must have the same polarization. To determine the
polarization of an antenna, look at its elements. An omnidirectional antenna has only one element, which is the
antenna itself. Yagi antennas have several elements on the antenna, which are the shorter stubby pieces of metal
connected to the boom. Other antennas such as parabolic dish and panel antennas are labeled for polarization.
Improper polarization can cause losses of 20 dB in the communication system.
Selecting the proper polarization for the RF system is also important. In general, most RF systems use vertical
polarization, as this tends to do very well over most types of terrain (Figure 8). Horizontal polarization does have
its place and is commonly used when there are trees, water or very dense terrain such as rock (Figure 9). This
helps prevent the RF system from trying to go through very hard objects. This can allow the signals to wrap
around some objects, creating a better communication path. Horizontal polarization is also used to separate
systems that occupy the same RF space. This can allow two RF systems using the same frequencies to operate at
the same time in the same space without interfering with one another due to extensive loss between the two
polarizations. Once the antennas have the proper polarization and are in alignment, antenna height must be
investigated.

Figure 8: Vertical polarization

Figure 9: Horizontal polarization

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Antenna height
A commonly used term in RF is Line of Sight (LOS). This does not simply mean that the remote location can visibly
be seen, as there are other factors that must be taken into account to achieve LOS. RF signals propagate and
expand over the distance between the radios. This creates what is known as a Fresnel zone (Figure 10). The
Fresnel zone is the area around the straight line that could be drawn between the two locations. This area is a
function of the distance between the two points and the frequency of the radio system. Looking at the distance
and the frequency considerations, it should be obvious that the longer the distance, the larger this area will be
because the signal propagating from the antenna is getting larger as it moves away from its source, dissipating into
the air.
Frequency may not be as straightforward, but it should be noted that the higher the frequency, the smaller the
Fresnel zone. This is because the signal propagating from the antenna is a simple sine wave based on the wave
length of its source frequency. Higher frequencies have shorter wavelengths resulting in a smaller Fresnel zone.
Overall this area can be calculated, and to achieve optimum performance in any RF system, at least 60 percent of
the first Fresnel zone should be free of obstructions. This would be known as an antenna system that has clear
LOS. This does not mean that the communications system will not work if obstructions exist. They will simply
have to be taken into account when planning the RF antenna system.
As an example of how antenna height and LOS can affect an RF system, think of listening to the radio during a
normal commute to and from work. In most cases the listener cannot see the radio station. Although there is
no LOS, the car radio can still receive the signal. When entering an area that has a lot of obstructions, such as a
city or forest, the radio quickly loses the signal. This is because many obstacles are dissipating the signal before it
can reach the radio. Once the car has left this heavily obstructed area, the radio generally regains communication
with the station. When traveling in the mountains, the radio generally loses the RF signal in the valley. This is
because the earth is acting as an obstruction and the antenna is not high enough to receive the signal. When the
car is back to the top of the mountain, the radio can usually receive the signal again.
A car radio can also demonstrate the frequencys effect on an RF antenna system. There is a substantial difference
between where an AM radio and an FM radio station can be received. This is largely due to the fact that AM radio
stations are in the KHz range, while FM radio is in the higher MHz range of frequencies. Because the FM radio uses
higher frequencies, LOS becomes more critical. Obstructions will cause much more loss in the communications
system at the higher FM frequencies than the AM radio frequencies do. Other factors, such as the stations
transmission power, also affect the radio stations broadcast distance, but the theory holds true.

Figure 10: Fresnel zone

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As stated before, the Fresnel zone needs to be free of obstructions to achieve clear LOS. Having clear LOS adds a
lot of stability to an RF system. The following equation can be used to calculate how big the Fresnel zone will be
between two sites:
60% Fresnel = 43.23

D
4f

D = Distance in Miles
= Frequency in Gigahertz

The equation solves for the longest distance at 60 percent of the first Fresnel zone. This distance is a function of
distance between the two points shown in the equation as D (in mile units) and the frequency of the system shown
as f in the equation (in Gigahertz units). The result of this equation defines the minimum height needed for each
of the two antennas to have clear LOS. It is important to note that this is the minimum height, because it does not
take into consideration any obstructions. If there are any hills, buildings, trees, etc., between the two points, they
also must be considered. The value of the minimum height defined by the equation can simply be added to the
height of the highest obstruction between the two points to define how high the antenna should be.
The charts below define the minimum heights needed for clear LOS communications at common frequencies and
at varying distances. These provide a good rule of thumb for calculating needed antenna heights.

Distance
(mi)
0.25
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
5
7
10

Chart 3: Minimum recommended heights

900 Hz
2.4 GHz
5 GHz
Radius of Fresnel zone
Distance
Radius of Fresnel zone
Distance
Radius of Fresnel zone
(ft)
(mi)
(ft)
(mi)
(ft)
11.30
0.25
6.95
0.25
4.49
15.98
0.5
9.83
0.5
6.35
22.60
1
13.89
1
8.98
27.68
1.5
17.02
1.5
10.99
31.96
2
19.65
2
12.69
35.73
2.5
21.97
2.5
14.19
39.14
3
24.07
3
15.55
50.53
5
31.07
5
20.07
59.79
7
36.76
7
23.75
71.46
10
43.94
10
28.38
These heights should be added to the heights obstruction between the two locations.
Chart 3 provides a rough guideline for achieving clear LOS between two sites. For more detailed calculations,
there are software packages that calculate the Fresnel zone and look at the earths terrain, defining if the proposed
antenna height will work. Often these software packages will also provide a rough guideline for the signal strength
between the two points.
Conclusion
Antenna selection, alignment and placement can be very confusing, as many different aspects of the process must
be taken into account. This process is absolutely the most critical part of an RF communications system, because if
any of these elements are incorrect the radio system simply will not communicate. Experience should never be
overlooked when designing an antenna system, as there are aspects of selection that go further than what is
discussed here. Using the criteria discussed will provide the tools and thought process needed to make a solid
decision on the type of antenna that should be used, how it should be placed, and the height that should be used.

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About Phoenix Contact

Phoenix Contact develops and manufactures industrial electrical and electronic technology products that power, protect,
connect and automate systems and equipment for a wide range of industries. Phoenix Contact GmbH & Co. KG, Blomberg,
Germany, operates 47 international subsidiaries, including Phoenix Contact USA in Middletown, Pa.
Phoenix Contacts formal Integrated Management System is registered to ISO quality, environmental and safety standards (ISO
9001:2008, 14001:2004 and OHSAS 18001:2007).

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