Classical Control

Topics covered:
Modeling.
g ODEs. Linearization.
Laplace transform. Transfer functions.
Block diagrams. Masons Rule.
Time response
p
specifications.
p
Effects of zeros and poles.
Stability via Routh-Hurwitz.
Feedback: Disturbance rejection, Sensitivity, Steady
Steady-state
state tracking.
PID controllers and Ziegler-Nichols tuning procedure.
Actuator saturation and integrator wind-up.
Root locus.
Frequency response--Bode and Nyquist diagrams.
Stability Margins.
Margins
Design of dynamic compensators.
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

Classical Control
Text: Feedback Control of Dynamic Systems,
4th Edition,
Edition G.F.
G F Franklin,
Franklin J.D.
J D Powel and A.
A Emami
Emami-Naeini
Naeini
Prentice Hall 2002.

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

What is control?
For any analysis we need a mathematical MODEL of the system
Model Relation between gas pedal and speed:
10 mph change in speed per each degree rotation of gas pedal
Disturbance Slope of road:
5 mph change in speed per each degree change of slope
Block diagram for the cruise control plant:

Slope
(degrees)

0.5
Control
(degrees)

y = 10(u 0.5w)

10

Output speed
(mph)

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

What is control?
O
Open-loop
l
cruise
i control:
t l

r
u=
10

PLANT

0.5

yol = 10(u 0.5w)

1/10 u

10

Reference
(mph)

eol = r yol = 5w
r yol
w
eol [%] =
= 500
r
r
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

yol

r
= 10( 0.5w)
10
= r 5w

r = 65, w = 0 eol = 0
r = 65, w = 1 eol = 5mph, eol = 7.69%

OK when:
h
1- Plant is known exactly
2- There is no disturbance

What is control?
Cl
Closed-loop
d l
cruise
i control:
t l

u = 20(r ycll )

PLANT

0.5
-

+
r

ycl = 10(u 0.5w)

1/10 u

1
5
ecl = r ycl =
r+
w
201
201
r ycl
1
5 w
ecl [%] =
=
+
r
201 201 r
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

10

ycl

200
5
=
r
w
201
201

1
% = 0.5%
201
1
5 5
r = 65, w = 1 ecl =
+
= 0.69%
201 201 65
r = 65, w = 0 ecl =

What is control?
Feedback control can help:
reference following (tracking)
disturbance rejection
changing dynamic behavior
LARGE gain is essential but there is a STABILITY limit
The
The issue of how to get the gain as large as possible to reduce
the errors due to disturbances and uncertainties without
making the system become unstable is what much of feedback
control design is all about
about
First step in this design process: DYNAMIC MODEL

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

Dynamic Models
MECHANICAL SYSTEMS:

F = ma
m&x& = u bx&
v = x&
a = v& = &x&

b
u
Vo
1m
v& + v = v

=
=Vo e st ,u =U o e st
m
m
Uo s + b m

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

Newtons law

velocity
acceleration

T
Transfer
f Function
F
ti
d
s
dt

Dynamic Models
F = I

MECHANICAL SYSTEMS:

Newtons law

ml 2&& = lmg sin + Tc

angular velocity
= &

= & = &&
I = ml 2

g
Tc
g
Tc
&
&
&
&
+ sin = 2 sin

+ = 2

l
ml
l
ml

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

angular acceleration
moment of inertia

Linearization

Dynamic Models
g
Tc
&
&
+ = 2
l
ml
Reduce to first order equations:

x1 =
x2 = &

0
x1
Tc
x , u 2 x& = g

mll
x2
l
General case:

x&1 = x2
g
Tc
x&2 = x1 + 2
l
ml

1
0
x + u
0
1

State Variable
Representation

x& = Fx + Gu
y = Hx + Ju

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

Dynamic Models
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS:
Kirchoffs Current Law (KCL):
The algebraic
Th
l b i sum off currents entering
i
a node
d is
i zero at
every instant
Kirchoffs Voltage Law (KVL)
The algebraic sum of voltages around a loop is zero at
every instant
Resistors:

iR
+
vR

iC
+
vC

iL
+
vL

vR (t ) = RiR (t ) iR (t ) = GvR (t )

Capacitors:
t

1
dv (t )
iC (t ) = C C vC (t ) = iC ( ) d + vC (0)
dt
C0

Inductors:
t

di (t )
1
vL (t ) = L L iL (t ) = vL ( ) d + iL (0)
dt
L0
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

10

Dynamic Models
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS:
OP AMP:

vO = A(v p vn ), A
+

vp

v+
n

ip

+
in

RO

RI
-

+
-

A(vp-vvn)

iO

vO
+

v p = vn
i p = in = 0

To work in the linear mode we need FEEDBACK!!!

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

11

Dynamic Models
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS:
KCL:

R2
R1

v1

vO

1
1
dvO
=
vO
vI
dt
R2C
R1C

+
-

1 t
R2 = (OC) vO (t ) = vO (0 )
v I ( ) d

R1C 0
v1

vO

1
K =
RC

Inverting integrator
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

12

Dynamic Models
ELECTRO-MECHANICAL
C O
C
C
S
SYSTEMS:
S
S DC
C Motor
torque

armature current

T = K t ia
e = K e&m
emf

shaft velocity

J m&&m = b&m + T
dia
va + Raia + L
+e=0
dt
Obtain the State Variable Representation
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

13

Dynamic Models
HEAT-FLOW:

Heat Flow

Temperature Difference

1
q = (T1 T2 )
R
1
&
T= q
C
Thermal capacitance Thermal resistance

1 1 1
&
TI = + (To TI )
CI R1 R2

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

14

Dynamic Models
FLUID-FLOW:

Mass Conservation law

l

Mass rate

m& = win wout

l mass fl
flow
Inlet

Outlet
l mass fl
flow

1
&
&
(win wout )
m& = Ah h =
A
A: area of the tank
: density of fluid
h: height of water
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

15

Linearization
Dynamic System:

x& = f ( x, u )
0 = f ( xo , uo )

Denote

Equilibrium

x = x xo , u = u uo
x& = f ( xo + x, uo + u )

Taylor Expansion

f
f
x& f ( xo , uo ) +
x +
u
u xo ,uo
x xo ,uo
f
f
F
,G

x xo ,uo
u xo ,uo
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

x& Fx + Gu
16

Linearization

x& Fx + Gu
F

f
x xo ,uo

f1
f1
f1
f1
x L x
u L u
n
m
f
1

= M
,G
= M
M
M
u xo ,uo
f n L f n
f n L f n
u1
xn x ,u
um x ,u
x1

o o
o o

Example: Pendulum with friction

k & g
&
&
+ + sin = 0
m
l

0
1

k x
x& = g
l cos x1 m x
o
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

17

Laplace Transform
Function f(t) of time
Piecewise continuous and exponential order

F ( s ) = f (t )e

st

f (t ) < Kebt
+

dt

0-

j
1

F ( s )e st ds
L 1[F (s )] = f (t ) =

2j j

00- limit is used to capture transients and discontinuities at t=0

s is a complex variable (+j)
There is a need to worry
y about regions
g
of convergence
g
of the integral
g

Units of s are sec-1=Hz

A frequency

If f(t)
f( ) is
i volts
l (amps)
(
) then
h F(s)
F( ) is
i volt-seconds
l
d (amp-seconds)
(
d)
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

18

Laplace transform examples

Step function unit Heavyside Function

f t<0
0, for
u (t ) =
1, for t 0

After Oliver Heavyside (1850-1925)

F ( s ) = u (t )e

st

dt = e

st

dt =

st

( + j )t

+ j

1
= if > 0
s

Exponential function
After Oliver Exponential (1176 BC- 1066 BC)
( s + )t

e
t st
( s + )t

F (s) = e

dt = e

dt =

s +

1
=
if >
s +

Delta (impulse) function (t)

F ( s ) = (t )e st dt = 1 for all s
0

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

19

Laplace Transform Pair Tables

Signal
g

Waveform

impulse

(t )

step

u (t )

ramp

tu (t )

exponential

e t u (t
(t )

damped ramp

te

u (t )

sine

sin ( t ) u (t )

cosine

cos( t )u (t )

damped sine

e t sin ( t )u (t )

damped cosine

e t cos( t )u (t )

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

Transform
1
1
s
1
s2
1
s +
1

( s + ) 2

s2 + 2
s
s2 + 2

( s + ) 2 + 2
s +
( s + ) 2 + 2
20

Laplace Transform Properties

Linearity: (absolutely critical property)
L{Aff1 (t ) + Bff 2 (t )} = AL{ f1 (t )} + BL{ f 2 (t )} = AF1 ( s ) + BF2 ( s )
Integration property:
Differentiation property:

t
F (s )
L f ( )d =
s
0

df (t )
L
= sF ( s ) f (0)
dt

d 2 f (t )
= s 2 F ( s ) sf (0) f (0)
L

dt 2

d m f (t ) m
m 1
m2
( m)
L
L
=
s
F
(
s
)

s
f
(
0

s
f
(
0

f
(0 )

m
dt

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

21

Laplace Transform Properties

Translation properties:
s-domain
domain translation:

L{e t f (t )} = F ( s + )

t-domain translation: L{ f (t a )u (t a )} = e

Initial Value Property:

Final Value Property:

as

F ( s ) for a > 0

lim f (t ) = lim sF ( s )

t 0 +

lim f (t ) = lim sF ( s )

s 0

If all poles of F(s) are in the LHP

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

22

Laplace Transform Properties

1
s
L{ f (at )} = F ( )
a a
dF ( s )
L{tf (t )} =
ds

Time Scaling:
Multiplication by time:

Convolution:
Time product:

L{ f ( ) g (t )d } = F ( s )G ( s )
0

1 + j
L{ f (t ) g (t )} =
F ( s )G ( s )d

2j

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

23

Laplace Transform
Exercise: Find the Laplace transform of the following waveform

f (t ) = [2 + 2 sin( 2t ) 2 cos(2t )]u (t )

F (s) =

4(s + 2 )
s (s 2 + 4 )

Exercise: Find the Laplace transform of the following waveform

t

f (t ) = e u (t ) + 5 sin (4 x )dx
4t

40 t
d
5
te
f (t ) = 5e 40t u (t ) +
u (t )
dt

s 3 + 36 s + 80
F (s) =
s(s + 4 )(s 2 + 16 )
10 s + 200
F (s) =
(s + 40)2

E
Exercise:
i
Find the Laplace transform of the following waveform

f (t ) = Au (t ) 2 Au (t T ) + Au (t 2T )

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

F (s) =

A(1 e
s

Ts 2

24

Tim
me domaain (t dom
main)

Laplace transforms
Linear
system
Differential
equation

Laplace
transform L

Classical
q
techniques
Response
p
signal

Complex frequency domain

(s domain)
Algebraic
equation
Algebraic
techniques
q
Inverse Laplace
p
transform L-1

Response
p
transform

The diagram commutes

Same answer whichever way you go

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

25

Solving LTI ODEs via Laplace Transform

y ( n ) + an 1 y ( n 1) + L + a0 y = bmu ( m ) + bm 1u ( m 1) + L + b0u

Initial Conditions:
Recall
n 1

s Y ( s) y
n

j =0

y ( n 1) (0 ),K, y (0 ), u ( m 1) (0 ),K, u (0 )

k 1
d k f (t ) k
( k 1 j )
j
L
=
s
F
(
s
)

f
(
0
)
s

k
dt
j =0

( n 1 j )

i 1
m
i 1
i
i

j
( i 1 j )
(0) s + ai s Y ( s ) y
(0)s = bi s U ( s ) u ( i 1 j ) (0)s j
i =0
j =0
j =0
i =0

n 1

bm s m + bm 1s m 1 + L + b1s + b0
Y ( s) = n
U (s) +
s + an 1s n 1 + L + a1s + a0

n 1

i 1

i =0

j =0

ai y

( i 1 j )

s + an 1s
n

i 1

i =0

j =0

(0)s bi u (i 1 j ) (0)s j
j

n 1

+ L + a1s + a0

For a given rational U(s) we get Y(s)=Q(s)/P(s)

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

26

Laplace Transform
Exercise: Find the Laplace transform V(s)

dv(t )
+ 6v(t ) = 4u (t )
dt
v(0) = 3

4
3
V (s) =

s (s + 6 ) s + 6

Exercise: Find the Laplace transform V(s)

d 2v(t )
dv(t )
2t
4
3
v
(
t
)
5
e
+
+
=
dt
dt 2
v(0) = 2, v' (0) = 2

5
2
V (s) =

(s + 1)(s + 2)(s + 3) s + 1

What about v(t)

( )?
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

27

Transfer Functions
y ( n ) + an 1 y ( n 1) + L + a0 y = bm 1u ( m 1) + L + b0u

Assume all Initial Conditions Zero:

(s

+ an 1s n 1 + L + a1s + a0 )Y ( s ) = (bm 1s m 1 + L + b1s + b0 )U ( s )

Output

Input

bm 1s m 1 + L + b1s + b0
B( s)
Y (s) = n
U (s) =
U (s)
n 1
s + an 1s + L + a1s + a0
A( s )
Y (s)
bm 1s m 1 + L + b1s + b0
H (s) =
= n
U ( s ) s + an 1s n 1 + L + a1s + a0
( s z1 )( s z2 )L( s zm )
=K
( s p1 )( s p2 )L( s pn )
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

28

Rational Functions
We shall mostly be dealing with LTs which are rational
functions ratios of polynomials in s
bm s m + bm 1s m 1 + L + b1s + b0
F (s) =
an s n + an 1s n 1 + L + a1s + a0
( s z1 )( s z2 )L( s zm )
=K
( s p1 )( s p2 )L( s pn )

pi are the poles and zi are the zeros of the function

K is the scale factor or (sometimes) gain
A proper rational function has nm
A strictly proper rational function has n>m
An improper rational function has n<m
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

29

Residues at simple poles

Functions
F
i
off a complex
l
variable
i bl with
i h isolated,
i l
d
finite order poles have residues at the poles
( s z1 )( s z2 )L( s zm )
k1
k2
kn
F ( s) = K
=
+
+L+
( s p1 )( s p2 )L( s pn ) ( s p1 ) ( s p2 )
( s pn )

(s pi )F ( s) = k1 ( s pi ) + k2 ( s pi ) + L + ki + L + kn ( s pi )
( s p1 )

Residue at a simple pole:

( s p2 )

( s pn )

ki = lim ( s pi ) F ( s )

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

s pi

30

Residues at multiple poles

Compute residues at poles of order r:
( s z1 )( s z2 )L( s zm )
k1
k2
kr
=
+
+
L
+
F (s) = K
( s p1 ) r
( s p1 ) ( s p1 ) 2
( s p1 ) r
r j
d
1
( s p ) r F ( s ) ,
kj =
lim
j = 1L r
i

r
j

(r j )! s p ds
i

Example:

2
1
3
2 s 2 + 5s
=
+

3
2
s + 1 (s + 1)
(s + 1)
(s + 1)3

(s +1)3(2s2 + 5s) =
lim
3
3
s3
+
(s 1)

d (s +1)3(2s2 +5s) =
lim
1
3
ds

s 1

(s +1)

1 lim d2 (s +1)3(2s2 +5s) = 2

2!s1ds2

(s +1)3

+ 5s 1 2
2
s
1
3 t
1
2

(
)
=
L
L
+

=
e
2
+
t

3
t
u (t )
3
2
3

(s + 1)
s + 1 (s + 1) (s + 1)
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

31

Residues at complex poles

lim ( s a) F ( s)

Compute residues at the poles

s a

Bundle complex conjugate pole pairs into second-order terms if

you want

but you will need to be careful

( s j )( s + j ) = s 2 2s + 2 + 2

)]

Inverse Laplace Transform is a sum of complex exponentials

The answer will be real

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

32

Inverting Laplace Transforms in Practice

We have a table of inverse LTs
Write F(s) as a partial fraction expansion
F(s) =

bm sm + bm1sm1 + L + b1s + b0

an sn + an1sn1 + L + a1s + a0
(s z1 )(s z2 )L(s
) (s zm )
=K
(s p1 )(s p2 )L(s pn )
=

(s p1 ) (s p2 )

31

( p3 )
(s

32

(s p3 )

33

(s p3 )

+ ...+

(s pq )

Now appeal
pp to linearityy to invert via the table
Surprise!
Nastiness: computing the partial fraction expansion is best
d
done
bby calculating
l l i the
h residues
id
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

33

Example 9-12
Find the inverse LT of

20( s + 3)
F ( s) =
( s + 1)( s 2 + 2s + 5)
k1
k2
k 2*
F (s) =
+
+
s +1 s +1 j2 s +1+ j2

20( s + 3)
k = lim ( s + 1) F ( s ) =
= 10
1 s 1
2
s + 2 s + 5 s = 1
20( s + 3)
k =
lim
(s + 1 2 j ) F (s) =
2 s 1 + 2 j
( s + 1)( s + 1 + 2 j )

s = 1 + 2 j

5
j
= 5 5 j = 5 2e 4

5
5

( 1+ j 2)t + j
( 1 j 2)t j
4 u (t )
4 + 5 2e
f (t ) = 10e t + 5 2e

= 10e t + 10 2e t cos(2t + ) u (t )
4

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

34

Not Strictly Proper Laplace Transforms

Find the inverse LT of

s 3 + 6s 2 + 12 s + 8
F ( s) =
s 2 + 4s + 3

Convert to polynomial plus strictly proper rational function

Use polynomial division

s+2

F (s) = s + 2 + 2
s + 4s + 3
0.5 0.5
= s+2+
+
s +1 s + 3

Invert as normal

d (t )

f (t ) =
+ 2 (t ) + 0.5e t + 0.5e 3t u (t )
dt

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

35

Block Diagrams
Series:

G2

G1

G = G1G2
G1

Parallel:

G2

+
+

G = G1 + G2

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

36

Block Diagrams
Negative Feedback:
R (s )

E (s )
-

B (s )

C (s )

Reference input

E = RB
C = GE

Error signal

B = HC

Feedback signal

Output

C
G
C = GR GHC (1 + GH )C = GR =
R (1 + GH )
E
1
E = R HGE (1 + GH ) E = R =
R (1 + GH )
Rule: Transfer Function=Forward Gain/(1+Loop Gain)
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

37

Block Diagrams
Positive Feedback:
R (s )

E (s )
+

B (s )

C (s )

Reference input

E = R+B
C = GE

Error signal

B = HC

Feedback signal

Output

C
G
C = GR + GHC (1 GH )C = GR =
R (1 GH )
E
1
E = R + HGE (1 GH ) E = R =
R (1 GH )
Rule: Transfer Function=Forward Gain/(1-Loop Gain)
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

38

Block Diagrams
Moving through a branching point:
R (s )

C (s )

R (s )

B (s
( )

1/ G

B (s
( )

C (s )

Moving through a summing point:

R (s )

+
+

C (s )

B (s )

R (s )

C (s )

+
+

G
B (s )

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

39

Block Diagrams
Example:

H1
R (s )

G1

+
-

G2

G3

C (s )

H2

R (s )

G1G2G3
1 + H1G2G3 + H 2G1G2

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

C (s )

40

Masons Rule
H4

H6
U (s )

+
+

H1

H2

H3

+
+

+
+

Y (s )

H7

H5
Signal Flow Graph
H4

nodes

branches
b
a c es

H6

U (s )

H1

H5
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

H2

H3

Y ((s )

H7
41

Masons Rule
Path:
P
th a sequence off connected
t db
branches
h in
i th
the direction
di
ti
off the
th
signal flow without repetition
Loop: a closed path that returns to its starting node
Forward path: connects input and output

Y (s) 1
G (s) =
= Gi i
U (s) i
Gi = gain of the ith forward path
= the system determinan t
= 1- (all loop gains)

+ (gain products of all possible two loops that do not touch)

(gain products of all possible three loops that do not touch)

+L
i = value of for the part of the graph that does not touch the ith forward path
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

42

Masons Rule
H4
H6

U (s )

H1

H5

H2

H3

Y (s )

H7

Y ( s)
H1 H 2 H 3 + H 4 H 4 H 2 H 6
=
U ( s ) 1 H1 H 5 H 2 H 6 H 3 H 7 H 4 H 7 H 6 H 5 + H1 H 5 H 3 H 7

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

43

Impulse Response
Diracs delta:

0 u( ) (t )d = u(t )

Integration is a limit of a sum

u(t) is represented as a sum of impulses

By superposition principle, we only need unit impulse response

h(t )

Response at t to an impulse applied at

System Response:

u (t )

y (t )

y (t ) = u ( )h(t )d
0

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

44

Impulse Response
t-domain:

u (t )

y (t )
Impulse response

y (t ) = u ( )h(t )d

u (t ) = (t ) y (t ) = h(t )

The system response is obtained by convolving the input with

the impulse response of the system.

Convolution:

L{ u ( )h(t )d } = H ( s )U ( s )
0

s-domain: U (s )

Y (s )
Impulse response

Y ( s ) = H ( s )U ( s )

u (t ) = (t ) U ( s ) = 1 Y ( s ) = H ( s )

The system response is obtained by multiplying the transfer

function and the Laplace transform of the input.
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

45

Time Response vs. Poles

Real pole:

1
H ( s) =
h(t ) = e t
s +

>0
<0

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

Impulse
Response
Stable
Unstable

Time Constant

46

Time Response vs. Poles

Real pole:

H (s) =

s +
1

h(t ) = e t

Impulse
Response

Time Constant

1
Y (s) =
y (t ) = 1 e t
s + s

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

Step
Response

47

Time Response vs. Poles

n2
Complex poles: H ( s ) = 2
s + 2 n s + n2

IImpulse
l
Response

n2
=
(s + n )2 + n2 (1 2 )
n :
:

Undamped natural frequency

Damping ratio

H (s) =

n2

(s + + jd )(s + jd )

n2
=
(s + )2 + d2
= n , d = n 1 2
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

48

Time Response vs. Poles

Complex poles:

n2
n
t
H (s) =

h
(
t
)
=
e
sin (d t )
2
2
2
2
(s + n ) + n (1 )
1
Impulse
Response

>0
<0

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

Stable
Unstable

49

Time Response vs. Poles

Complex poles:

n2
n
t
H (s) =

h
(
t
)
=
e
sin (d t )
2
2
2
2
(s + n ) + n (1 )
1
Impulse
Response

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

50

Time Response vs. Poles

Complex poles:

n2
1

t
(
)
(
)

+
Y (s) =
y
(
t
)
1
e
cos

t
sin

t
d
d

(s + n )2 + n2 (1 2 ) s

d
Step
Response

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

51

Time Response vs. Poles

Complex poles:

n2
H (s) = 2
s + 2 n s + n2
n2
=
2
(s + n ) + n2 (1 2 )

CASES:

= 0 : s 2 + n2

Undamped
p

< 1 : (s + n )2 + n2 (1 2 )

= 1 : (s + n )

Underdamped

[ (

) ][ (

) ]

> 1 : s + + 2 1 n s + 2 1 n
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

Critically damped
Overdamped

52

Time Response vs. Poles

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

53

Time Domain Specifications

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

54

Time Domain Specifications

1- The rise time tr is the time it takes the system to
reach the vicinity of its new set point
2- The settling time ts is the time it takes the system
2
transients to decay
3- The overshoot Mp is the maximum amount the
system
t
overshoot
h t it
its fi
finall value
l
di
divided
id d b
by its
it final
fi l
value
4- The peak time tp is the time it takes the system to
reach the maximum overshoot point

tp =

n 1

Mp =e

tr

1.8

ts =

4.6

1 2

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

n
55

Time Domain Specifications

Design specification are given in terms of

tr , t p , M p , t s
These specifications
p
give the p
g
position of the p
poles

n , , d
Example: Find the pole positions that guarantee

tr 0.6 sec, M p < 10%, t s 3 sec

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

56

Effect of Zeros and Additional poles

Additional poles:
1- can be neglected if they are sufficiently to the left
of the dominant ones.
ones
2- can increase the rise time if the extra pole is within
a factor of 4 of the real part of the complex poles.
Zeros:
1- a zero near a pole reduces the effect of that pole in
th time
the
ti
response.
2- a zero in the LHP will increase the overshoot if the
zero is within a factor of 4 of the real part of the
complex poles (due to differentiation).
3- a zero in the RHP (nonminimum phase zero) will
depress the overshoot and may cause the step
response to start out in the wrong direction.
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

57

Stability
Y ( s ) bm s m + bm 1s m 1 + L + b1s + b0
= n
R( s)
s + an 1s n 1 + L + a1s + a0

Y (s)
( s z1 )( s z2 )L( s zm )
=K
R( s)
( s p1 )( s p2 )L( s pn )
Y (s)
k1
k2
kn
=
+
+L+
R ( s ) ( s p1 ) ( s p2 )
( s pn )

Impulse response:
R( s) = 1 Y ( s) =

k1
k2
kn
+
+L+
( s p1 ) ( s p2 )
( s pn )

y (t ) = k1e p1t + k2e p2t + L + kn e pnt

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

58

Stability
y (t ) = k1e p1t + k2e p2t + L + kn e pnt
We want:

e pit t
0

i = 1K n

Definition: A system is asymptotically stable (a.s.) if

Re{p
{ pi } < 0

Characteristic polynomial:

a ( s ) = s n + an 1s n 1 + L + a1s + a0

Characteristic equation:

a( s) = 0

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

59

Stability
Necessary condition for asymptotical stability (a.s.):

ai > 0

Use this as the first test!

If any ai<0,
<0 the the system is UNSTABLE!
Example:

s2 + s 2 = 0
( s + 2)( s 1) = 0

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

60

Rouths Criterion
Necessary and sufficient condition
Do not have to find the roots pi!
Rouths Array:
sn
s n 1

a1

a2
a3

s n2
s n 3

a4 L
a5 L

b1
c1

b2
c2

b3
c3

s n4

d1

d2

M
s0

an

an

Depends on whether
n is even or odd

a1a2 a3
aa a
aa a
, b2 = 1 4 5 , b3 = 1 6 7
a1
a1
a1
ba ab
ba ab
c1 = 1 3 1 2 , c2 = 1 5 1 3 ,
L
b1
b1
c b bc
cb bc
d1 = 1 2 1 2 , d 2 = 1 3 1 3 ,
L
c1
c1
M
M
b1 =

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

61

Rouths Criterion
How to remember this?
Rouths Array:

sn
s n 1
s n2
s n3
M

m12

m13 L

m1, j = a2 j 2 ,

m21 m22
m31 m32
m41 m42

m23 L
m33 L
m43 L

m2, j = a2 j 1 ,

m11

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

mi , j =

mi 2,1 mi 2, j +1
mi 1,1 mi 1, j +1
mi 1,1

, i 3

62

Rouths Criterion
The criterion:
The system is asymptotically stable
if and only if all the elements in the first
column of the Rouths array are positive
The number of roots with positive real
parts is equal to the number of sign
changes in the first column of the Routh
array

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

63

Rouths Criterion - Examples

Example 1:

s 2 + a1s + a2 = 0

Example 2:

s 3 + a1s 2 + a2 s + a3 = 0

Example 3: s 6 + 4 s 5 + 3s 4 + 2 s 3 + s 2 + 4 s + 4 = 0
Example 4:

s 3 + 5 s 2 + ( k 6) s + k = 0

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

64

Rouths Criterion - Examples

Example: Determine the range of K over which the
system is stable
R (s )

+
-

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

s +1
s(s 1)(s + 6 )

Y (s )

65

Rouths Criterion
Special Case I: Zero in the first column
We replace the zero with a small positive constant
>0 and proceed as before. We then apply the
stability criterion by taking the limit as 0
Example:

s 4 + 2 s 3 + 4 s 2 + 8s + 10 = 0

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

66

Rouths Criterion
Special Case II: Entire row is zero
This indicates that there are complex conjugate pairs.
If the ith row is zero, we form an auxiliary equation
from the previous nonzero row:

a1 ( s ) = 1s i +1 + 2 s i 1 + 3 s i 3 + L
Where i are the coefficients of the (i+1)th
) row in the
array. We then replace the ith row by the coefficients
of the derivative of the auxiliary polynomial.
Example:

s 5 + 2 s 4 + 4 s 3 + 8s 2 + 10 s + 20 = 0

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

67

Properties of feedback
Disturbance Rejection:
Open loop

w
Ko

y = K o Ar + w
Closed loop

+
-

Kc

w
+

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

y
Kc A
1
y=
r+
w
1 + Kc A 1 + Kc A
68

Properties of feedback
Disturbance Rejection:
Ch
Choose
control
t l s.t.
t for
f w=0,y
0 r
Open loop:

1
Ko = y = r + w
A

Closed loop: K c >>

1
y r + 0w = r
A

Feedback allows attenuation of disturbance without

h
having
access to it (without
( h
measuring it)!!!
)
IMPORTANT: High gain is dangerous for dynamic response!!!
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

69

Properties of feedback
Sensitivity to Gain Plant Changes
Open loop

w
Ko

y
To = = AK o
r o

Closed loop

+
-

Kc

w
+

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

y
AK c
y
Tc = =
r c 1 + AK c
70

Properties of feedback
Sensitivity to Gain Plant Changes
Let the plant gain be A + A
Open loop:
Closed loop:

To
To

Tc

A
A

A To
1
=
<<
=
Tc
A 1 + AK c
A To

Feedback reduces sensitivity to plant variations!!!

Sensitivity:
Example:

dT / T A dT
S =
=
dA / A T dA
1
Tc
SA =
, S ATo = 1
1 + AK c
T
A

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

71

PID Controller
PID: Proportional Integral Derivative
P Controller:
Y (s)
C ( s )G ( s ) R (s )
=
,
R ( s ) 1 + C ( s )G ( s )
E (s)
1
=
.
R ( s ) 1 + C ( s )G ( s )

E (s )

C (s) = K p

U (s )

G (s )

Y (s )

Step Reference:

u (t ) = K p e(t ),

U (s) = K p E (s)

1
1
1
1
R ( s ) = ess = lim sE ( s ) = lim s
=
s 0
s 0 1 + K G ( s ) s
s
1 + K pG (0)
p
ess = 0 K pG (0)

True when:

Proportional gain is high

Plant has a pole at the origin

High gain proportional feedback (needed for good tracking)

results in underdamped (or even unstable) transients.
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

72

PID Controller
P Controller: Example (lecture06_a.m)
R (s )

E (s )

Kp

U (s )

A
s2 + s + 1

Y (s )

K pG ( s)
KpA
Y ( s)
=
= 2
R ( s ) 1 + K pG ( s ) s + s + (1 + K p A)

n2 = 1 + K p A
2
n =1

1
=
=
K
0

p
2n 2 1 + K p A

9 Underdamped transient for large proportional gain

9 Steady state error for small proportional gain
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

73

PID Controller
PI Controller:
R (s )
Y (s)
C ( s )G ( s )
=
,
R ( s ) 1 + C ( s )G ( s )
E (s)
1
=
.
R ( s ) 1 + C ( s )G ( s )

E (s )

C (s) = K p +

Step Reference:

U (s )

KI
s

u (t ) = K p e(t ) + K I e( )d ,

1
R ( s ) = ess = lim
li sE
E ( s ) = lim
li s
s 0
s 0
s

1
K

1+ K p + I
s

G ( s )

Y (s )

G (s )

KI

U (s) = K p +
s

1
= lim
li
s s 0

1
K

1+ K p + I
s

E (s)

=0

G ( s )

It does not matter the value of the proportional gain

Plant does not need to have a pole at the origin. The controller has it!

Integral control achieves perfect steady state reference tracking!!!

Note that this is valid even for Kp=0 as long as Ki0
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

74

PID Controller
PI Controller: Example (lecture06_b.m)
R (s )

E (s )

+
-

Kp +

U (s )

KI
s

A
s2 + s + 1

Y (s )

KI

G ( s )
Kp +
(
K p s + K I )A
Y (s)
s

=
= 3 2
KI
R( s)
s + s + (1 + K p A) s + K I A

1+ K p +
(
)
G
s

DANGER: for large

Ki the characteristic equation has roots in the RHP

s 3 + s 2 + (1 + K p A) s + K I A = 0
Analysis by Rouths Criterion
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

75

PID Controller
PI Controller: Example (lecture06_b.m)

s 3 + s 2 + (1 + K p A) s + K I A = 0
Necessary Conditions:

1 + K p A > 0, K I A > 0

This is satisfied because

A > 0, K p > 0, K I > 0

Rouths Conditions:

s3
1
1+ K p A
2
s
1
KI A
s1 1 + K p A K I A

s0

KI A

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

1+ K p A KI A > 0

1
KI < KP +
A
76

PID Controller
PD Controller:
R (s )
Y (s)
C ( s )G ( s )
=
,
R ( s ) 1 + C ( s )G ( s )
E (s)
1
=
.
R ( s ) 1 + C ( s )G ( s )

Step Reference:

E (s )

C (s) = K p + K D s

U (s )

G (s )

Y (s )

de(t )
u (t ) = K p e(t ) + K D
,
dt

U ( s ) = (K p + K D s )E ( s )

1
1
1
1
=
R ( s ) = ess = lim sE ( s ) = lim s
s 0
s 0 1 + (K + K s )G ( s ) s
s
1 + K p G ( 0)
p
D
ess = 0 K pG (0)

True when:

Proportional
P
ti
l gain
i iis hi
high
h
Plant has a pole at the origin

PD controller fixes problems with stability and damping by adding

anticipative action
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

77

PID Controller
PD Controller: Example (lecture06_c.m)
R (s )

E (s ) C ( s ) = K + K s U (s )
p
D

+
-

A
s2 + s + 1

Y (s )

(
K p + K D s )G ( s )
A(K p + K D s )
Y (s)
=
= 2
R ( s ) 1 + (K p + K D s )G ( s ) s + (1 + K D A)s + (1 + K p A)
n2 = 1 + K p A
2
n = 1+ KD A

1+ KD A
1+ KD A
=
=
2n
2 1+ K p A

9 The damping can be increased now independently of Kp

9 The steady state error can be minimized by a large Kp
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

78

PID Controller
PD Controller:
R (s )
Y (s)
C ( s )G ( s )
=
,
R ( s ) 1 + C ( s )G ( s )
E (s)
1
=
.
R ( s ) 1 + C ( s )G ( s )

E (s )

C (s) = K p + K D s

U (s )

G (s )

Y (s )

de(t )
u (t ) = K p e(t ) + K D
,
dt

U ( s ) = (K p + K D s )E ( s )

NOTE: cannot apply

pp y pure
p
differentiation.
In practice,

KDs
is implemented as

KDs
Ds +1

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

79

PID Controller
PID: Proportional Integral Derivative
R (s )

E (s
( )

+
-

U (s
1
( )
K p 1 +
+ TD s
TI s

G (s )

Y (s )

Kp
1
de(t )
u (t ) = K p e(t ) + e( ) d + TD
, K D = K pTD
KI =
TI 0
d
dt
TI

U (s)
1
= K p 1 +
+ TD s
E (s)
TI s

PID Controller: Example (lecture06_d.m)

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

80

PID Controller: Ziegler-Nichols Tuning

Empirical method (no proof that it works well but
it works well for simple systems)
Only for stable plants
You do not need a model to apply the method
Class of plants:

Y (s) K
Ke td s
=
U ( s ) s + 1

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

81

PID Controller: Ziegler-Nichols Tuning

METHOD 1: Based on step response, tuning to
decay ratio of 0.25.
Tuning Table:

P:
Kp =
td

t
PD :
K p = 0.9 , TI = d
td
0 .3

PID : K p = 1.2 , TI = 2td , TD = 0.5td

td

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

82

PID Controller: Ziegler-Nichols Tuning

METHOD 2: Based on limit of stability, ultimate
sensitivity method.
R (s )

E (s )

Ku

U (s )

G (s )

Y (s )

Increase the constant gain Ku until the response

becomes p
purely
y oscillatory
y (no
(
decay
y marginally
g
y
stable pure imaginary poles)
Measure the period of oscillation Pu

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

83

PID Controller: Ziegler-Nichols Tuning

METHOD 2: Based on limit of stability, ultimate
sensitivity method.
Tuning Table:
P:

K p = 0 .5 K u

Pu
PD :
K p = 0.45 K u , TI =
1. 2
Pu
Pu
PID : K p = 0.6 K u , TI = , TD =
2
8

The Tuning Tables are the same if you make:

K u = 2 , Pu = 4td
td
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

84

PID Controller: Integrator Windup

Actuator Saturates:
- valve (fully open)
- aircraft rudder (fully deflected)

u
(Input of the plant)

uc
(Output of the controller)

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

85

PID Controller: Integrator Windup

R (s )

E (s )

+
-

Kp +

KI
s

U c (s )

U (s )

G (s )

Y (s )

Whatt happens?
Wh
h
?
- large step input in r
- large e
- large uc u saturates
- eventually e becomes small
- uc still large because the integrator is charged
- u still at maximum
- y overshoots
h t ffor a long
l
time
ti
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

86

PID Controller: Anti-Windup

Plant
a without
ou Anti-Windup:
dup

Plant with Anti-Windup:

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

87

PID Controller: Anti-Windup

I saturation,
In
t
ti
the
th plant
l t behaves
b h
as:

For large Ka, this is a system with very low gain and
very fast decay rate, i.e., the integration is turned off.
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

88

Steady State Tracking

The Unity Feedback Case
R (s )

E (s )

C (s )

U (s )

G (s )

Y (s )

E (s )
1
=
R ( s ) 1 + C ( s )G ( s )
Test Inputs:

tk
r (t ) = 1(t )
k!
1
R ( s ) = k +1
s

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

k=0: step (position)

k=1: ramp (velocity)
k 2: parabola
k=2
b l (acceleration)
(
l
ti )
89

Steady State Tracking

Type n
System

The Unity Feedback Case

R (s )

E (s
( )

C (s )

GoU((s
(s ))
sn

G (s )

Y (s )

Go ( s )
1
1
C ( s )G ( s ) = n , E ( s ) =
R ( s ), R ( s ) = k +1
Go ( s )
s
s
1+ n
s
Steady State Error:
Finall Value
Fin
V l e
Theorem

1
sn
s nk
1
1
ess = lim e(t ) = lim sE ( s ) = lim s
= lim
= lim
t
s 0
s 0
Go ( s ) s k +1 s 0 s n + Go ( s ) s k s 0 s n + Go (0)
1+ n
s
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

90

Steady State Tracking

The Unity Feedback Case
R (s )

Go ( s )
sn

E (s )

Type
yp n
System

Y (s )

s nk
ess = lim n
s 0 s + G ( 0)
o

Steady State Error:

Input (k)
Type (n)
Type 0
Type 1

Step (k=0)

Ramp (k=1)

1
1
1
=
=

1 + Go (0) 1 + lim C ( s )G ( s ) 1 + K p
s 0
1
1
1
=
=
0
Go (0) lim sC ( s )G ( s ) K v
s 0

Type 2

Parabola (k=2)

1
1
1
=
=
Go (0) lim s 2C ( s )G ( s ) K a
s 0

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

91

Steady State Tracking

K p = lim C ( s )G ( s )

n=0

Position Constant

K v = lim sC ( s )G ( s )

n =1

Velocity Constant

s 0

s 0

K a = lim s 2C ( s )G ( s ) n = 2

Acceleration Constant

s 0

n: Degree of the poles of CG(s) at the origin (the number of

integrators in the loop with unity gain feedback)
Applying integral control to a plant with no zeros at the
origin makes the system type I
All this is true ONLY for unity feedback systems
Since in Type I systems ess=0 for any CG(s), we say that
the system type is a robust property.

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

92

Steady State Tracking

tk
w(t ) = 1(t )
k!
1
W (s ) W ( s ) = k +1
s

The Unity Feedback Case

R (s )

E (s )

Set rr=0
0.
Want Y(s)/W(s)=0.

C (s )

U (s )

G (s )

Y (s )

Y (s)
G (s)
=
= T ( s ) = s nTo ( s )
W ( s ) 1 + C ( s )G ( s )
Steady State Error:

e=r-y=-y

Final Value
Theorem

ess = yss = lim y (t ) = lim sY ( s ) = lim sT ( s )

t

s 0

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

s 0

1
s k +1

sn
= lim To ( s ) k
s 0
s
93

Steady State Tracking

The Unity Feedback Case
R (s )

E (s )

C (s )

W (s )
+

U (s )

Y (s )

G (s )

Steady State Output:

Disturbance (k)
Type (n)

Step (k=0)

Ramp (k=1)

Parabola (k=2)

Type 0

Type 1

Type 2

*
0 <*<

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

94

Steady State Tracking

Example:
W (s )
R (s )

E (s )

+
-

K
Kp + I
s

U (s )
+

A
s (s + 1)

Y (s )

type 1 to w
KI 0
K P 0, K I = 0 type 0 to w

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

95

Root Locus
Plant

Controller
R (s ) +

E (s )

C (s )

U (s )

G (s )

Y (s )

H (s
( )

Sensor

C ( s ) = KD ( s )

Y (s)
C ( s )G ( s )
C ( s )G ( s )
=
=
R ( s ) 1 + C ( s )G ( s ) H ( s ) 1 + KL ( s )

Writing the loop gain as KL(s) we are interested in tracking

the closed-loop poles as gain K varies

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

96

Root Locus
Characteristic Equation:

1 + KL( s ) = 0
The roots (zeros) of the characteristic equation are the
closed-loop poles of the feedback system!!!
The closed-loop poles are a function of the gain K
Writing the loop gain as

b( s ) s m + b1s m 1 + L + bm 1s + bm
L( s ) =
= n
a ( s ) s + a1s n 1 + L + an 1s + an
The closed loop poles are given indistinctly by the solution of:

1 + KL ( s ) = 0,

1+ K

b( s )
= 0,
a(s)

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

a ( s ) + Kb( s ) = 0,

L( s ) =

1
K
97

Root Locus
RL = zeros{1 + KL( s )} = roots{den( L) + Knum( L)}
when K varies from 0 to (positive Root Locus) or
from 0 to - (negative Root Locus)

Magnitude condition
1
L( s ) =
K > 0 : L( s ) =
K
K
L( s ) = 180o Phase condition
1

1
L
(
s
)
=

K < 0 : L( s ) =
K
K
L( s ) = 0o

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

Magnitude condition
Phase condition

98

Root Locus by Characteristic Equation Solution

Example:

R (s )

E (s )

U (s )

1
(s + 10)(s + 1)

Y (s )

Y (s)
K
= 2
R ( s ) s + 11s + (10 + K )
Closed-loop
Closed
loop poles:

1 + L( s ) = 0 s 2 + 11s + (10 + K ) = 0

K=0

s = 1,10

81 4 K
s = 5.5
2

s = 5.5
s = 5.5
s = 5.5 i

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

81 4 K
2
4 K 81
2

814K>0
814K=0
814K<0
99

Root Locus by Characteristic Equation Solution

We need a systematic approach to plot the closed-loop

closed loop poles
as function of the gain K ROOT LOCUS
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

100

Root Locus by Phase Condition

Example:

R (s )

E (s )

+
-

U (s )

s +1
s (s + 5)(s 2 + 4 s + 8)

Y (s )

s +1
s (s + 5)(s 2 + 4 s + 8)
s +1
=
s (s + 5)(s + 2 + 2i )(s + 2 2i )

L( s ) =

so = 1+ 3i
belongs to the locus?

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

101

Root Locus by Phase Condition

45o
36.87

90o

108.43o

78.70o

90o 108.43o + 36.87o + 45o + 78.70o 180o so = 1+ 3i belongs to the locus!

Note: Check code lecture09_a.m

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

102

Root Locus by Phase Condition

so = 1+ 3i

We need a systematic approach to plot the closed-loop

closed loop poles
as function of the gain K ROOT LOCUS
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

103

Root Locus
RL = zeros{1 + KL( s )} = roots{den( L) + Knum( L)}
when K varies from 0 to (positive Root Locus) or
from 0 to - (negative Root Locus)

1 + KL( s ) = 0 L( s ) =

1
a ( s ) + Kb( s ) = 0
K

Basic Properties:
Number of branches = number of open-loop poles
RL begins at open-loop poles

K = 0 a(s) = 0
RL ends at open-loop
open loop zeros
e os or
o asymptotes
as mptotes

b( s ) = 0

K = L( s ) = 0
s (n m > 0)
RL symmetrical about Re-axis
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

104

Root Locus
Rule 1: The n branches of the locus start at the poles of L(s)
and m of these branches end on the zeros of L(s).
n: order of the denominator of L(s)
m: order of the numerator of L(s)

Rule 2: The locus is on the real axis to the left of and odd
number of poles and zeros.
In other words, an interval on the real axis belongs to the
root locus if the total number of poles and zeros to the right
is odd.
This rule comes from the phase condition!!!

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

105

Root Locus
Rule 3: As K, m of the closed-loop poles approach the
open-loop zeros, and n-m of them approach n-m asymptotes
with angles

l = (2l + 1)

nm

l = 0,1,K, n m 1

and centered at

b1 a1 poles zeros
=
=
,
nm
nm

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

l = 0,1,K, n m 1

106

Root Locus
Rule 4: The locus crosses the j axis (looses stability) where
the Routh criterion shows a transition from roots in the left
half-plane to roots in the right-half plane.
Example:

G (s) =

s+5
s ( s 2 + 4 s + 5)
K = 20, s = j 5

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

107

Root Locus
Example:

G (s) =

s +1
s 4 + 3s 3 + 7 s 2 + 6 s + 4

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

108

Root Locus
Design dangers revealed by the Root Locus:
High relative degree: For n-m
n m3 we have closed loop
instability due to asymptotes.

s +1
G ( s) = 4
s + 3s 3 + 7 s 2 + 6 s + 4
Nonminimum phase zeros: They attract closed loop poles
into the RHP

G ( s) =

s 1
s2 + s + 1

Note: Check code lecture09_b.m

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

109

Root Locus
Vietes formula:
When the relative degree n-m
n m2,
2 the sum of the closed loop
poles is constant

a1 = closed loop poles

b( s ) s m + b1s m 1 + L + bm 1s + bm
L( s ) =
= n
a ( s ) s + a1s n 1 + L + an 1s + an

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

110

Phase and Magnitude of a Transfer Function

bm s m + bm 1s m 1 + L + b1s + b0
G (s) = n
s + an 1s n 1 + L + a1s + a0

( s z1 )( s z2 )L( s zm )
G (s) = K
( s p1 )( s p2 )L( s pn )

Th factors
The
f t
K, (s-z
( j) and
d (s-p
( k) are complex
l
numbers:
b
z
z i j
j

(s z j ) = r e ,
p
p i k
k

( s pk ) = r e

K = Ke

G(s) = K e

i K

j = 1K m
k = 1L p

i K

z i1z z i2z
1
2
p
p
p i1 p i2
1
2

z imz
m
p inp
n

r e r e Lr e

r e r e

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

Lr e

111

Phase and Magnitude of a Transfer Function

G (s) = K e

i K

= K e i

z i1z z i2z
1
2
p
p
p i1 p i2
1
2

r e r e Lr e

r e r e
K

z imz
m
p inp
n

r r Lr e (

z
1
p
1

z
2
p
2

Lr e

z i 1z +2z +L+mz
m
p
p
p
p i 1 +2 +L+n
n

r r Lr e (

r1z r2z L rmz i [ K + (1z +2z +L+mz )(1p +2p +L+np )]

=K p p
e
p
r1 r2 L rn
Now it is easy to give the phase and magnitude
of the
o
e transfer
a s e function:
u
o

r1z r2z L rmz

G ( s) = K p p
,
p
r1 r2 L rn

G ( s ) = K + (1z + 2z + L + mz ) (1p + 2p + L + np )
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

112

Phase and Magnitude of a Transfer Function

( s + 6.735)
G ( s) =
(s + 1)(s + 5)( s + 20)

Example:

s = so = 7 + 5i
r3p

3p

r1z

r1z
G(s) = p p p
r1 r2 r3

r2p r1p

1z 2p

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

1p

G ( s ) = 1z (1p + 2p + 3p )

113

Root Locus- Magnitude and Phase Conditions

RL = zeros{1 + KL( s )} = roots{den( L) + Knum( L)}
when K varies from 0 to (positive Root Locus) or
from 0 to - (negative Root Locus)

( s z1 )( s z2 )L( s zm )
r1z r2z L rmz i [ K p + (1z +2z +L+mz )(1p +2p +L+np )]
= Kp p p
e
L( s ) = K p
p
( s p1 )( s p2 )L( s pn )
r1 r2 L rn
r1z r2z L rmz
1
L
(
s
)
K
=
=
p
1
r1p r2p L rnp K
K > 0 : L( s ) =
K
K
L( s ) = p + (1z + 2z + L + mz ) (1p + 2p + L + np ) = 180o
r1z r2z L rmz
1
L
s
K
(
)
=
=

p
p p
p
1
r
r
L
r
K
K < 0 : L( s ) =
1 2
n
K
K
L( s ) = p + (1z + 2z + L + mz ) (1p + 2p + L + np ) = 0o
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

114

Root Locus
Selecting K for desired closed loop poles on Root Locus:
If so belongs to the root locus,
locus it must satisfies the
characteristic equation for some value of K

1
L( so ) =
K
Then we can obtain K as

1
K =
L( so )
1
K=
L( so )
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

115

Root Locus
Example:

L( s ) = G ( s ) =

so = 3 + i 4 K =

(s + 1)(s + 5)

1
= so + 1 so + 5 = 3 + i 4 + 1 3 + i 4 + 5
L( so )
=

( 2)2 + 42 (2)2 + 42 = 20

Using MATLAB:
sys=tf(1,poly([-1 -5]))
so=-3+4i
[K,POLES]=rlocfind(sys,so)
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

116

Root Locus
Example:

L( s ) = G ( s ) =

(s + 1)(s + 5)

so = 3 + i 4

so = 7 + i5

K=

1
= 42.06
L( so )

so = 7 + i5

When we use the absolute value formula we are assuming

that the point belongs to the Root Locus!
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

117

Root Locus - Compensators

Example:

L( s ) = G ( s ) =

(s + 1)(s + 5)

Can we place the closed loop pole at so=-7+i5 only varying K?

NO. We need a COMPENSATOR.
L( s) = G ( s ) =

(s + 1)(s + 5)

L( s ) = D( s )G ( s ) = (s + 10 )

(s + 1)(s + 5)

The zero attracts the locus!!!

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

118

Root Locus Phase lead compensator

Pure derivative control is not normally practical because of the
amplification of the noise due to the differentiation and must
be approximated:

s+z
,
D( s) =
s+ p

p>z

Phase lead
COMPENSATOR

When we study frequency response we will understand why

we call Phase Lead to this compensator.

L( s ) = D( s )G ( s ) =

1
s+z
,
s + p (s + 1)(s + 5)

p>z

How do we choose z and p to place the closed loop pole

at so=-7+i5?

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

119

Root Locus Phase lead compensator

L( s ) = D( s )G ( s ) =

Example:

s+z
1
,
s + p (s + 1)(s + 5)

p<z

Phase lead
COMPENSATOR

21.04

111.80o 140.19o

1z ?

L( s ) =

Kp

+ (1z + 2z + L + mz ) (1p + 2p + L + np ) = 180o

1z = 180o + 140.19o + 111.80o + 21.04o = 453.03o = 93.03o z = 6.735

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

120

Root Locus Phase lead compensator

Example:

L( s ) = D( s )G ( s ) =

s + 6.735
1
s + 20 (s + 1)(s + 5)
Phase lead
COMPENSATOR

so = 7 + i5
K = 117

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

121

Root Locus Phase lead compensator

Selecting z and p is a trial an error procedure. In general:
The zero is p
placed in the neighborhood
g
of the closedloop natural frequency, as determined by rise-time or
settling time requirements.
The poles is placed at a distance 5 to 20 times the
value of the zero location. The pole is fast enough to
avoid modifying the dominant pole behavior.
The exact position of the pole p is a compromise between:
Noise suppression (we want a small value for p)
Compensation effectiveness (we want large value for p)

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

122

Root Locus Phase lag compensator

L( s ) = D( s )G ( s ) =

Example:

s + 6.735
1
s + 20 (s + 1)(s + 5)

s + 6.735
1
= 6.735 10 2
s 0 s + 20 (s + 1)(s + 5)

K p = lim L( s ) = lim D( s )G ( s ) = lim

s 0

s 0

What can we do to increase Kp? Suppose we want Kp=10.

L( s ) = D( s )G ( s ) =

We choose:

1
s + z s + 6.735
,
s + p s + 20 (s + 1)(s + 5)

p<z
Phase lag
Ph
l
COMPENSATOR

z
1
=
103 = 148.48
p 6.735

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

123

Root Locus Phase lag compensator

Example:

L( s ) = D( s )G ( s ) =

s + 0.14848 s + 6.735
1
s + 0.001 s + 20 (s + 1)(s + 5)

so = 6.94 + i5.03
K = 18.31

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

124

Root Locus Phase lag compensator

Selecting z and p is a trial an error procedure. In general:
The ratio zero/pole
/p
is chosen based on the error
constant specification.
We pick z and p small to avoid affecting the dominant
dynamic of the system (to avoid modifying the part of
the locus representing the dominant dynamics)
Slow transient due to the small p is almost cancelled
by an small z. The ratio zero/pole cannot be very big.
The exact position of z and p is a compromise between:
Steady state error (we want a large value for z/p)
The transient response (we want the pole p placed far
from the origin)

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

125

Root Locus - Compensators

Phase lead compensator:

D( s) =

s+z
,
s+ p

z< p

Phase lag compensator:

D( s) =

s+z
,
s+ p

z> p

We will see why we call phase lead and phase lag to

these compensators when we study frequency response

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

126

Frequency Response
We now know how to analyze and design systems via s-domain
methods which yield dynamical information
The responses are described bby the eexponential
ponential modes
The modes are determined by the poles of the response Laplace
Transform

We next will look at describing cct performance via frequency

response methods

This guides us in specifying the system pole and zero

positions

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

127

Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

Consider
C
id a stable
t bl ttransfer
f function
f
ti
with
ith a
sinusoidal input:
A
u (t ) = A cos(t ) U ( s ) = 2
s + 2
The Laplace Transform of the response has poles
Where the natural modes lie
These are in the open left half plane Re(s)<0
At the input modes

Y ( s ) = G ( s )U ( s ) = K

s=+j and s=-j

( s z1 )( s z2 )L( s zm ) A
( s p1 )( s p2 )L( s pn ) (s 2 + 2 )

Only the response due to the poles on the imaginary

axis remains after a sufficiently long time
This is the sinusoidal steady-state response
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

128

Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

Input

u (t ) = A cos(t + ) = A cos t sin A sin t cos

Transform

U ( s ) = A cos

+
A
sin

s2 + 2
s2 + 2

Response
R
Transform
T
f
k
k*
k1
k2
kN
Y ( s ) = G ( s )U ( s ) =
+
+
+
+L+
s j s + j s p1 s p2
s pN

Response Signal

forced response

natural response

jt + k *e jt + k e p1t + k e p2t + L + k e p N t
y (t ) = ke
1 4442442444N443
1442443 1
forced response

natural response

Sinusoidal Steady State Response

ySS (t ) = ke jt + k *e jt
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

0
129

Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

Calculating the SSS response to

u(t ) = Acos(t + )

Residue calculation
k = lim
li [(s j )Y (s)] = li
lim [(s j )G(s)U (s)]
s j

s j

j cos sin
s cos sin
=
(
)
= lim G( s)(s j ) A
G
j

s j
(s j )(s + j )
2 j

1
1
= AG( j ) e j = A G( j ) e j ( +G ( j ))
2
2

Signal
g calculation

k
k*
+
yss (t ) = L

s j s + j
= k e jK e jt + k e jK e jt
1

= 2 k cos(t + K )
yss (t ) = A G( j ) cos(t + + G( j ))
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

130

Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

Response to
is

u (t ) = A cos(t + )
yss = G ( j ) A cos(t + + G ( j ))

Output frequency = input frequency

Output
p amplitude
p
= input
p amplitude
p
||G(j
(j)|
Output phase
= input phase +G(j)
Th
The Frequency
F
Response
R
off the
h transfer
f function
f
i G(s)
G( ) is
i given
i
by its evaluation as a function of a complex variable at s=j
We speak of the amplitude response and of the phase response
They cannot independently be varied
Bodes relations of analytic function theory

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

131

Frequency Response
Find the steady state output for v1(t)=Acos(t+)
+

sL

+
V1(s) _

V2(s)

C
Compute
t the
th s-domain
d
i transfer
t
f function
f ti T(s)
T( )
R
T
s
(
)
=
Voltage divider
sL + R
Compute the frequency response
T ( j ) =

R 2 + (L) 2

L
T ( j ) = tan 1
R

Compute the steady state output

v2 SS (t ) =

AR

R 2 + (L) 2

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

cos t + tan 1(L / R )

132

Bode Diagrams
Log-log plot of mag(T), log-linear plot of arg(T) versus
Bode Diagram

Magn
nitude(dB)(dB))
Magnitude
M

-5
5

-10

-15

-20

-25

Phase
ese(deg)
Phas
(deg)

-45

-90
4

10

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

133

Frequency Response
u (t ) = A cos(t + )

G (s )

yss = G ( j ) A cos(t + + G ( j ))
Stable Transfer Function

After a transient, the output settles to a sinusoid with an

amplitude magnified by G ( j ) and phase shifted by G ( j ) .
Since all signals can be represented by sinusoids (Fourier
series and transform), the quantities G ( j ) and G ( j ) are
extremely important.
important
Bode developed methods for quickly finding G ( j ) and G ( j )
for a given G (s ) and for using them in control design.
design
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

134

Frequency Response
Find the steady state output for v1(t)=Acos(t+)
+

sL

+
V1(s) _

V2(s)

C
Compute
t the
th s-domain
d
i transfer
t
f function
f ti T(s)
T( )
R
T
s
(
)
=
Voltage divider
sL + R
Compute the frequency response
T ( j ) =

R 2 + (L) 2

L
T ( j ) = tan 1
R

Compute the steady state output

v2 SS (t ) =

AR

R 2 + (L) 2

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

cos t + tan 1(L / R )

135

Frequency Response - Bode Diagrams

Log-log plot of mag(T), log-linear plot of arg(T) versus
Bode Diagram

Magn
nitude (dB))
Magnitude (dB)
M

-5
5

-10

-15

-20

-25

Phase
ese(deg)
Phas
(deg)

-45

-90
4

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

10

[ ] = rad / sec, = 2f , [ f ] = Hz
136

Bode Diagrams
( s z1 )( s z2 )L( s zm )
G (s) = K
( s p1 )( s p2 )L( s pn )
r1z r2z L rmz i [ K + (1z +2z +L+mz )(1p +2p +L+np )]
G (s) = K p p
e
p
r1 r2 L rn
The magnitude and phase of G(s) when s=j is given by:
Nonlinear in the magnitudes

r1z r2z L rmz

,
G ( j ) = K p p
p
r1 r2 L rn

G ( j ) = K + (1z + 2z + L + mz ) (1p + 2p + L + np )
Linear in the phases
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

137

Bode Diagrams
Why do we express G ( j ) in decibels?

G ( j ) dB = 20 log G ( j )

r1z r2z L rmz

G ( j ) = K p p
G ( j ) dB = ?
p
r1 r2 L rn

By properties of the logarithm we can write:

20 log G ( s ) = 20 log K + (20 log r1z + 20 log rmz + L + 20 log rmz ) (20 log r1p + 20 log r2p + L + 20 log rnp )

The magnitude and phase of G(s) when s=j is given by:

Linear in the magnitudes (dB)

G ( s ) dB = K dB + r1z

dB

+ r2z

dB

+ L + rmz

dB

) (r

1 dB

+ r2p

G ( s ) = K + (1z + 2z + L + mz ) (1p + 2p + L + np )

dB

+ L + rnp

dB

Linear in the phases

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

138

Bode Diagrams
Why do we use a logarithmic scale? Let
Lets
s have a look at our example:

R
R
T ( j ) =
=
T (s) =
2
2
sL
L+R
R + (L)
Expressing the magnitude in dB:

T ( j ) dB

1
L

1+

L 2
= 20 log1 20 log 1 +

= 10 log 1 +
R
R
L

Asymptotic behavior:

0 : T ( j ) dB 0

: T ( j ) dB 20 log

R
(
)
=
20
log
/

20
log

=
R
L

R/L

L dB

20 log

LINEAR FUNCTION in log!!! We plot G ( j ) dB as a function of log.

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

139

Bode Diagrams
Decade: Any frequency range whose end points have a 10:1 ratio
A cutoff frequency occurs when the gain is reduced from its
maximum
i
passband
b d value
l
b
by a ffactor
t
1/ 2 :

20 log
T MAX = 20 log T MAX 20 log 2 20 log T MAX 3dB
2

Bandwith: frequency range spanned by the gain passband

Lets have a look at our example:

= 0
T ( j ) =

2
= R / L
L
1+

T ( j ) = 1
T ( j ) = 1 / 2

This iis a low-pass

Thi
l
fil
filter!!!
!!! P
Passband
b d gain=
i 1, C
Cutoff
ff frequency=
f
R/L
The Bandwith is R/L!
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

140

General Transfer Function (Bode Form)

j
j
+ 2
G ( j ) = K o ( j ) ( j + 1)
+ 1
n
n
2

The magnitude (dB) (phase) is the sum of the magnitudes (dB)

(phases) of each one of the terms. We learn how to plot each term,
we learn how to plot the whole magnitude and phase Bode Plot.
Classes of terms:

1-

G ( j ) = K o

2-

G ( j ) = ( j )

3
3-

G ( j ) = ( j + 1)

4-

j
j
+ 2
G ( j ) =
+ 1

n
n

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

141

General Transfer Function: DC gain

G ( j ) = K o
Magnitude
g
and Phase:

G ( j) dB
= 20 log K o
d
0
G ( j ) =

G (s ) = 10

if K o > 0
if K o < 0

200

40

180

35

160

30
25

Phasse (deg)

Magnitude (dB)

140

20
15

120
100
80
60

10
40

5
0 -1
10

20

10

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

0 -1
10

10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)

10

142

General Transfer Function: Poles/zeros at origin

G ( j ) = ( j )

Magnitude and Phase:

G ( j) dB = m 20 log
G ( j ) = m

1
m = 1, G (s ) =
s

20

Pha
ase (deg)

Magn
nitude (dB)

-20

-10

-20

-30

-40 -1
10

dB
m 20
dec
10

2
0

G (1) dB = 0

10

-40

-60

-80

-100

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

-120 -1
10

10

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

143

General Transfer Function: Real poles/zeros

G( j ) = ( j + 1)

Magnitude and Phase:

G ( j) dB = n 10 log( 2 2 + 1)
G ( j ) = n tan 1 ( )
Asymptotic behavior:
o
G ( j )

0
<<1 /

0
G ( j ) dB
<<1 /
G ( j ) dB
n
>>1 /

+ n 20 log
dB

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

o
G ( j )

90
>>1 /

144

General Transfer Function: Real poles/zeros

n = 1, = 1 / 10

10
5

Magnitude (d
dB)

0
-5

G (s ) =

dB
n 20
dec

n 3dB

-10
10

1
s
+1
10

-15
-20

G ( j 0) dB = 0dB

-25

G ( j1 / ) dB = n 3dB

-30
-35
-40 -1
10

10

10

10

10

G () dB = sgn(n)dB

Frequency
q
y ((rad/sec))

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

145

General Transfer Function: Real poles/zeros

n = 1, = 1 / 10

10
0

G (s ) =

-10

Phase (deg))
P

-20
-30

1
s
+1
10

-40
-50
-60

n 45o

G ( j 0) = 0o

-70
-80

G ( j1 / ) = n 45o

-90
-100 -1
10

10

10

10

10

G ( j) = n 90o

Frequency (rad/sec)

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

146

General Transfer Function: Complex poles/zeros

j
j
+ 2
G( j ) =
+ 1
n
n
2

Magnitude and Phase:

2
2 2


G( j ) dB = q 10 log 1 2 + 2
n n
1 2 / n

G( j ) = q tan
2
2
1 / n

Asymptotic behavior:

G ( j ) dB
0
<<

o
G ( j )

0
<<

G ( j ) dB
2q n dB + q 40 logg
>>

o
G ( j )

180
>>

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

147

General Transfer Function: Complex poles/zeros

q = 1, n = 1, = 0.05

20

q 2

dB

dB
q 40
dec

-20
Magnitude ((dB)

1
G (s ) = 2
s + 0.1s + 1

-40
40
-60

G ( j 0) dB = 0dB

-80

G ( jn ) dB = q (3dB +

-100

dB

G ( j) dB = sgn((q )dB

-120 -1
10

10
MAX

10
Frequency (rad/sec)

10

G ( j ) dB = G ( jr ) dB = q 2 1 2
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

10

dB

= r =

n
1 2
148

General Transfer Function: Complex poles/zeros

q = 1, n = 1, = 0.05

20
0

1
G (s ) = 2
s + 0.1s + 1

-20

Phase (deg))
P

-40
-60
60
-80
-100
-120

G ( j 0) = 0o

q 90o

G ( j1 / ) = q 90o
G ( j) = q 180o

-140
-160
-180
-200 -2
10

-1

10

10

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

149

Frequency Response
Example:

2000(s + 0.5)
G (s ) =
s ( s + 10)( s + 50)

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

150

Frequency Response: Poles/Zeros in the RHP

Same G ( j ) .
The effect on G ( j ) is opposite than the stable case.
An unstable pole behaves like a stable zero
pole
An unstable zero behaves like a stable p

Example:
p

1
G (s ) =
s2

This frequency response cannot be found experimentally

but can be computed and used for control design.

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

151

First order LOW PASS

K
T ( s) =
s +

K
T ( j ) =
j +

Gain and Phase:

T ( j ) =

2 + 2

( ) = K tan
t 1 ( / )
0
K =
o
180

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

K >0
K <0
152

First order LOW PASS

T ( j ) =

2 + 2

( ) = K tan 1 ( / )
T ( 0) =

, T ( ) = 0

K T ( 0)
T ( j ) =
=
=
c =
2
2
2
2
+
K

T ( j )

<<
T ( j )

>>

Cutoff frequency

= c =

Cutoff frequency

B = c
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

Bandwith
153

First order LOW PASS

T ( j ) =

2 + 2

( ) = K tan 1 ( / )
( 0) =
K
K
( ) = K tan 1 (1) = K 45o

( )
K
<<
o
( )

90
>>

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

154

First Order HIGH PASS

Ks
T ( s) =
s +

Kj
T ( j ) =
j +

Gain and Phase:

T ( j ) =

2 + 2

( ) = K + 90o tan
t 1 ( / )
0
K =
o

180

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

K >0
K <0
155

First order HIGH PASS

T ( j ) =

2 + 2

( ) = K + 90o tan 1 ( / )
T (0) = 0, T () = K

K T ( )
=
=
c =
T ( j ) =
2
2
2
2
+
T ( j )
K /
<<
T ( j )
K
>>

Cutoff frequency

= K = c = Cutoff frequency

B=
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

Bandwith
156

First order HIGH PASS

T ( j ) =

2 + 2

( ) = K + 90o tan 1 ( / )
(0) = K + 90o
( ) = K + 90o tan 1 (1) = K + 45o
o
( )

K
+
90
<<
o
1
( )

K
+

90
tan
( )
>>

= K

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

157

First Order BANDPASS

K s K 2

T ( s ) = T1 ( s ) T2 ( s ) = 1
s + 1 s + 2

K1 j K 2

T ( j ) =
j + 1 j + 2

T ( j )

<< <<
1

T ( j ) <<

<<
1

T ( j ) <<

<<
1

K1 K 2

1 2
K1 K 2

2
K1 K 2

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

K1

K
2

T ( j ) =
2 + 2 2 + 2
1
2

K1 K 2

1 2
K1 K 2

K1 K 2

K1 K 2

= cH = 1

= cL = 2

B = cL cH = 2 2 Passband
158

First Order BANDSTOP

K1

K
2
+

T ( j ) =
2 + 2 2 + 2
1
2

K2
T ( j )

<< <<
2

T ( j ) <<
K1
<<
2

K2

2
T ( j )

<
2

T ( j )

<
1

K2

K1

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

K2

K1

= K1

1 K 2

B = 1 2

K1

= 1 2
Bandstop
159

Second Order BANDPASS

T (s) =

o :
:

Ks
s 2 + 2o s + o2

T ( j ) =

Kj
2 + 2o j + o2

N t
Natural
lF
Frequency
Damping Ratio

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

160

Second Order BANDPASS

Kj
T ( j ) =
T (s) = 2
2
2 + 2o j + o2
s + 2o s + o
Ks

T ( j )
=
<<
o

=
T ( j )
>>
o

T ( j ) =

o2
K

2
o

= o

K / o
K / o

T
(
j

)
=
=o
MAX
2
o
2 + j
o

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

161

Second Order BANDPASS

K / o
K / o
T ( j ) =

T ( j ) MAX =
=o
2
o
2 + j
o

T ( j ) o = 2
o

K / o
T ( j ) MAX
K / o
2
=
T ( j ) =
=
2 + j 2
2
2

The roots of

= 2 are the cutoff frequencie s! ! !

o

(
= (+ +

C1 = o + 1 + 2
C 2

1+ 2

)
)

o2 = C1C 2

B = C 2 C1 = 2

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

Center Frequency
Bandwith

162

Second Order LOWPASS

T (s) =

o :
:

K
s + 2o s +
2

2
o

T ( j ) =

2 + 2o j + o2

N t
Natural
lF
Frequency
Damping Ratio

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

163

Second Order LOWPASS

T (s) =

K
s 2 + 2o s + o2

T ( j )

<<
o

=
T ( j )
>>
o

T ( j ) =

= T ( 0)

2
o

2 + 2o j + o2

2
o

= o

2
K / o T ( 0)
T ( jo ) =
=
2
2

T ( j ) MAX =

T ( 0)
2 1 2

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

= MAX = o 1 2
164

Second Order HIGHPASS

Ks 2
K
K 2
T (s) = 2
T ( j ) =
2
s + 2o s + o
2 + 2o j + o2

o :
:

N t
Natural
lF
Frequency
Damping Ratio

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

165

Second Order HIGHPASS

K 2
T (s) = 2
T ( j ) =
2
s + 2o s + o
2 + 2o j + o2
Ks 2

T ( j )

<<
o

K 2

K 2

2
o

T ( j )
= K = T ()
>>

2
o

= K = o

K T ( )
T ( j o ) =
=
2
2
T ( j ) MAX =

T ( )
2 1

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

= MAX

o
=
1 2
166

Frequency Response
u (t ) = A cos(t + )

G (s )

yss = G ( j ) A cos(t + + G ( j ))
Stable Transfer Function

G ( j ) = G ( j ) e jG ( j )

BODE plots

G ( j ) = Re{G ( j )} + j Im{G ( j )}

NYQUIST plots

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

167

Frequency Response
G ( j ) = Re{G ( j )} + j Im{G ( j )} = G ( j ) e jG ( j )
How are the Bode and Nyquist plots related?
They are two way to represent the same information

j Im{G ( j )}

G ( j )

G ( j )
Re{G ( j )}

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

168

Frequency Response
Find the steady state output for v1(t)=Acos(t+)
+

sL

+
V1(s) _

V2(s)

C
Compute
t the
th s-domain
d
i transfer
t
f function
f ti T(s)
T( )
R
(
)
=
T
s
Voltage divider
sL + R
Compute the frequency response
T ( j ) =

R 2 + (L) 2

L
T ( j ) = tan 1
R

Compute the steady state output

v2 SS (t ) =

AR

R 2 + (L) 2

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

cos t + tan 1(L / R )

169

Frequency Response - Bode Plots

Log-log plot of mag(T), log-linear plot of arg(T) versus
Bode Diagram

Magn
nitude(dB)(dB))
Magnitude
M

10
G ( s) =
s + 10
R / L = 10

-5
5

-10

-15

-20

-25

Phase
ese(deg)
Phas
(deg)

-45

-90
4

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

10

[ ] = rad / sec, = 2f , [ f ] = Hz
170

Frequency Response Nyquist Plots

R
R
R jL R 2 jRL
=
T ( j ) =
= 2
R + jL R + jL R jL R + 2 L2

T ( j ) =

,
2

R 2 + (L)
R2
Re{T ( j )} = 2
,
R + 2 L2

L
T ( j ) = tan
t 1

Im{T ( j )} =

RL
R 2 + 2 L2

1- 0 : T ( j ) 1,
1

T ( j ) 0

T ( j ) = 1

2- : T ( j ) 0,

T ( j ) 90o

T ( j )
j

3-

Re{T ( j )} = 0 =

4-

Im{T ( j )} = 0 = 0, =

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

R
0
L

171

Frequency Response - Nyquist Plots

Im{G ( j )} vs. Re{G ( j )}

10
G ( s) =
s + 10
R / L = 10

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

172

Nyquist Diagrams
General procedure for sketching Nyquist Diagrams:
Find G(j0)
Find G(j)
Find
Fi d * such
h that
h Re{
R {G(j*)}=0;
} 0 Im{
I {G(j*)} is
i the
h
intersection with the imaginary axis.
Find *
* such that Im{G(j*)
G(j *)}=0;
} 0; Re{G(j*)
G(j *)} is the
intersection with the real axis.
Connect the points

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

173

Frequency Response - Nyquist Plots

1
G(s) =
2
(
)
s s +1

Example:

G ( j ) =

j ( j + 1)

( j )(1 j )2 = 2 + j ( 2 1)
2
2
2
j ( j + 1) ( j )(1 j )
( 2 + 1)
1

1- 0 : G ( j ) = 2 j
1
1
2- : G ( j ) j 3 0

3-

Re{G ( j )} = 0 =

4-

Im{G ( j )} = 0 = 1, =

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

Re{G ( j1)} =

1
2
174

Frequency Response - Nyquist Plots

Example:

1
G(s) =
2
(
)
s s +1

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

175

Nyquist Plots based on Bode Plots

1
G(s) =
2
s(s + 1)
20

dB
dec

60

dB
dec

90o
180o
270o = 90o

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

176

Nyquist Stability Criterion

U (s )

G (s )

Y (s )

When is this transfer function Stable?

NYQUIST: The closed loop is asymptotically stable if the
number of counterclockwise encirclements of the point
( 1+j0) that the Nyquist curve of G(j)
(-1+
G(j ) is equal to the
number of poles of G(s) with positive real parts (unstable
poles)
Corollary: If the open-loop system G(s) is stable, then the
closed-loop system is also stable provided G(s) makes no
encirclement of the point (-1+j0).

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

177

Nyquist Stability Criterion

1
G (s) = 4
s + 2 s 3 + 3s 2 + 3 s + 1

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

G (s) =

1
s 4 + 5 s 3 + 3 s 2 + 3s + 1

178

Nyquist Stability Criterion

U (s
( )

G (s )

Y (s
( )

K
When is this transfer function Stable?
NYQUIST: The closed loop is asymptotically stable if the
number of counterclockwise encirclements of the point
( 1/K+j0) that the Nyquist curve of G(j)
(-1/K+
G(j ) is equal to the
number of poles of G(s) with positive real parts (unstable
poles)

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

179

Neutral Stability
U (s )

1
G (s) =
2
s(s + 1)

KG (s )

Y (s )

Root locus condition:

KG ( s ) = 1, G ( s ) = 180o
At points of neutral stability
RL condition hold for s=j

KG ( j ) = 1, G ( j ) = 180o
Stability: At G ( j ) = 180o
KG ( j ) < 1 If K leads to instability
KG ( j ) > 1 If K leads to instability
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

180

Stability Margins
The GAIN MARGIN (GM) is the factor by which the gain
can be raised before instability results.

GM < 1( GM

dB

< 0)

UNSTABLE SYSTEM

GM is equal to 1 / KG ( j ) KG ( j ) dB
where G ( j ) = 180o .

at the frequency

The PHASE MARGIN (PM) is the value by which the phase

can be raised before instability results.

PM < 0

UNSTABLE SYSTEM

PM is the amount by which the phase of G ( j ) exceeds

-180 when KG ( j ) = 1 KG ( j ) dB = 0

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

181

Stability Margins
G(s) =

1
2
s (s + 1)

1/GM

PM

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182

Stability Margins
GM

1
G(s) =
2
s(s + 1)

PM

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183

Specifications in the Frequency Domain

1. The crossover frequency c, which determines
bandwith BW, rise time tr and settling time ts.
2. The phase margin PM, which determines the
damping coefficient and the overshoot Mp.
3. The low-frequency gain, which determines the
steady state error characteristics.
steady-state
characteristics

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

184

Specifications in the Frequency Domain

The phase and the magnitude are NOT independent!
Bodes Gain-Phase relationship:

dM
G ( jo ) =
W (u )du
du

M = ln G ( j )
u = ln( / o )

W (u ) = ln (coth u / 2 )

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

185

Specifications in the Frequency Domain

The crossover frequency:

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

c BW 2c

186

Specifications in the Frequency Domain

The Phase Margin: PM vs. Mp

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

187

Specifications in the Frequency Domain

The Phase Margin: PM vs.

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

PM

100

188

Frequency Response Phase Lead Compensators

Ts + 1
D( s) =
,
Ts + 1

<1

1 sin MAX
=
1 + sin MAX
1 1
1
log MAX = log + log

T
2 T

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

189

Frequency Response Phase Lead Compensators

1. Determine the open-loop gain K to satisfy error or
bandwidth requirements:
- To meet error requirement, pick K to satisfy error
constants
t t (Kp, Kv, Ka) so that
th t ess specification
ifi ti
iis met.
t
- To meet bandwidth requirement, pick K so that the
open-loop crossover frequency is a factor of two below the
desired closed-loop bandwidth.
bandwidth
2. Determine the needed phase lead based on the PM
specification.
3. Pick MAX to be at the crossover frequency.
4. Determine the zero and pole of the compensator.
5. Draw the compensated frequency response and check PM.
6. Iterate on the design
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

190

Frequency Response Phase Lag Compensators

Ts + 1
D( s) =
,
Ts + 1

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

>1

191

Frequency Response Phase Lag Compensators

1. Determine the open-loop gain K that will meet the PM
requirement without compensation.
2 D
2.
Draw the
th Bode
B d plot
l t off the
th uncompensated
t d system
t
with
ith
crossover frequency from step 1 and evaluate the lowfrequency gain.
3. Determine to meet the low frequency gain error
requirement.
4. Choose the corner frequency =1/T (the zero of the
compensator) to be one decade below the new crossover
frequency
q
y c.
5. The other corner frequency (the pole of the compensator)
is then =1/ T.
6. Iterate on the design
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

192