Pres4 Aerodynamics PDF

4.
Aerodynamics Review
Recall that for the purposes of Aircraft Performance estimation, the aircraft will be
assumed to be a point mass
- operating in a model atmosphere (ISA),
- with 4 forces acting on it:
- weight
- lift
aerodynamic forces
- drag
- thrust
We already know how to determine the state of the atmosphere around the aircraft
from Week 1. Next, let us have a look at how to represent
- the aerodynamic forces (Week 3)
- the thrust force (Week 4)
acting on the vehicle from Aircraft Performance point of view.
4. Aerodynamics Review
The aerodynamic forces acting on the vehicle are represented by the drag polar (cL-cD
curve) of the aircraft in Aircraft Performance. In the following, those areas of aerodynamics
will be reviewed, which have significant effect on the drag polar.
Note:
Most of the material below has already been introduced in AERO 3002.
A very brief review of these will be given once again, while new
information will be presented in more detail.
4.1. Airfoil geometry (AERO 3002)
From Shevell (1981)
4.2. How is lift generated?
An explanation based on Bernoulli equation has been given in AERO 3002.
The essence of this was the following:
- streamtubes over the upper surface become more
"squashed" than those over the lower surface due to
the positive camber or positive angle of attack of the
airfoil
- from continuity law, velocity over the upper surface will
have to be larger than over the lower surface
- this, according to the Bernoulli equation yields lower
pressure on top of the airfoil and higher pressure over
the bottom
- the pressure difference results in an upward pointing force: lift
From Anderson (2000)
Another explanation is based on the circulation theorem. To illustrate this,
a) consider the velocity vector

field around an airfoil
b) from each vector, subtract

the freestream velocity vector
c) It can be seen, that there is

a "circulation" around the airfoil,
From Raymer (1999)
which can be related to lift as
ds
= v. cos .ds
L = .v .
In other words, where there is circulation (
> 0), there is lift too.
( Kutta-Joukowski theorem)
Example: FanWing concept
From www.fanwing.com
FanWing flight test in summer 2005:
Advantages:
- STOL (Short Take-off and Landing)
- no stall
- low noise
- fuel efficiency
- slow flight - high manoeuvrability
Fanwing 2-seater version design:
10
4.3. Aerodynamic forces and moments (AERO 3002)
1
v2 cl c
2
1
D = v2 cd c
2
1
M = v2 cm c 2
2
1
v2 cL S
2
1
D = v2 cD S
2
1
M = v2 cM Sc
2
2D airfoil
3D wing
L=
Note:
L=
lowercase subscripts (cl, cd, cm) denote 2D airfoils

uppercase subscripts (cL, cD, cM) denote 3D wings
11
4.4. Pressure coefficient (cp)
Pressure coefficient (cp) is a very important parameter in determining cl, cd, cm
from a known (measured or computed) pressure distribution over the airfoil surface.
Definition:
cp =
1 p2
v
2
p p
1
v2
2
- pressure at a point on airfoil surface
- freestream pressure
- dynamic pressure
Since pressure on the upper surface is usually below the freestream pressure
( p < p ), cp on the upper surface is negative. Hence, the vertical axis of the cp
distribution plot is turned upside down by convention.
12
Typical cp distribution for an airfoil:
13
Integration of cp along the surface gives the coefficients of normal and axial forces
(note that these are different from lift and drag) acting on the airfoil:
cl = cn cos + ca sin
cd = cn sin - ca cos
cm,0.25 = cm,LE + cn . 0.25
From Leishman (2000)
14
For small angles of attack ( < 5 deg):
c
1
cl cn = (c p ,l c p ,u )dx
c0
15
4.5 cl-, cm- and cl-cd curves (AERO 3002)
Variation of cl with
Lift drops rapidly after "stall". Stall is
a regime which should be always
avoided. It occurs at large (15-17 deg)
angles of attack.
(15-17 deg)
From www.aero.gla.ac.uk
16
Effect of camber:
i.e. for a cambered airfoil, there is some lift even at alpha=0 deg!
17
Variation of cl with cd - the drag polar
From Raymer (1999)
Note: cd0 represents cd at cl=0

cdmin does not occur at zero lift for cambered airfoils
18
Best L/D or (cl/cd)max can be found by plotting a tangent to the drag polar from the
origin.
From Raymer (1999)
Laminar airfoils feature a low drag zone called "drag bucket", which is achieved by
positioning the max. camber point aft. Thus, the transition from laminar (low skin friction
drag) to turbulent (high skin friction drag) boundary layer is delayed, yielding lower
overall drag. This only works at low AOA's, the transition cannot be delayed any more
at larger values.
19
Variation of cm with & cd
NACA 2415 airfoil characteristics. From Anderson (2000)
20
- the point, around which cm() = const, is called the AERODYNAMIC CENTRE.
- this is usually very close to the quarter-chord point (x/c = 0.25).
- the larger the camber,
- the higher the lift, but
- the larger the negative pitching moment too
- large negative pitching moments are undesired: they imply large control moments
(elevator loads) at almost all cl values to achieve trim.
i.e. there is a need for compromise between high cl and high negative cm .
21
4.6. Stall speed (AERO 3002)
The stall speed, which is in fact the minimum flight speed, can be calculated from:
L =W
1 2
v cL S = mg
2
2mg
vmin = vs =
cl max S
From Raymer (1999)
So, in order to minimize the stall speed, clmax has to be maximized. This can be
achieved by employing high lift devices, such as flaps, slots or slats.
22
4.7. High-Lift Devices
Recall, that the larger the camber, the larger the lift coefficient too. Hence, the basic
idea behind high-lift mechanisms is to increase the effective camber of the airfoil by
displacing the LE (leading edge) and/or the TE (trailing edge) of the airfoil.
Leading edge (LE) devices: (flaps, slats, slots)
purpose is to delay/avoid leading
edge flow separation and by this to
delay airfoil stall to larger AOA.
Hence, LE devices push the stall angle
to larger values.
Trailing edge (TE) devices: (flaps)

purpose is to increase the lift coefficient
of the airfoil. Hence, TE devices yield
higher lift coefficients at the same angle
of attack.
From Eshelby (2000)
23
LE devices
FLAPS:
both increase the nose camber only
SLOTS: - energize upper surface boundary layer by ducting air from bottom to top
of the airfoil. A more energetic boundary layer tends to separate later,
pushing stall to higher AOA.
From Shevell (1989)
24
LE devices (contd.)
SLATS:
- combination of FLAPS & SLOTS, i.e. provide both camber and boundary
layer improvement. Can push stall AOA by as much as 8-12 degs!!
Max. slat deflections around 20-25 deg.
Example of Kruger flap:

Variable camber Kruger flap (with flexible
fiberglass LE) used on Boeing 747.
From Shevell (1989)
25
TE devices
Most effective are multi-element (double or triple)

slotted flaps. They can push clmax up to about
clmax ~ 3 (clean airfoil is around 1.5). Adding LE
devices and other "fancy" devices (boundary layer
blowing or suction) can push clmax further to about
clmax ~ 4.
1- clean airfoil
2- plain flap
3- split flap
4- LE slat only
5- single-slotted flap
6- double-slotted flap
7- double-slotted flap + LE slat
8- double-slotted flap + LE slat +
+ B.L. suction
From McCormick (2000)
26
Take-off and Landing setup of high-lift devices
Deployment of high lift devices has the additional effect of increased drag. This dictates
their setup for take-off and landing:
Take-off:
- MEDIUM flap deflections

- although high cl is sought for achieving L=W asap
- the large associated drag is undesired since acceleration to stall
speed has to be accomplished in shortest possible distance
Cruise:
- ZERO flap deflections

- drag has to be minimized for max. cruise efficiency
Landing:
- MAXIMUM flap deflections

- high cl sought for as low as possible stall speed
- associated high drag is beneficial in decelerating quickly.
27
Take-off and Landing setup of high-lift devices (contd.)
Boeing 727 flap setups for Landing, Takeoff and Cruise. From Anderson (2000)
28
Take-off and Landing setup of high-lift devices (contd.)
DC-9 flap setups for Cruise, Take-off and Landing. From Shevell (1989)
29
4.6. Airfoil Families
NACA 4-digit series
NACA 5-digit series
NACA 1-Series
NACA 6-Series
Supercritical Airfoils
GA(W) (LS/MS) Series
30
NACA 4-digit series
- developed in 1932 by NACA.
- camber & thickness distribution given by equations.
- formulated to approximate efficient wing sections, such as CLARK-Y
NACA xyzz
x - max camber in % of chord

y - location of max camber times 0.1
zz - max. thickness in % chord
e.g. NACA 0012 - symmetric airfoil of 12% thickness
NACA 5-digit series

- developed in 1935 by NACA
- same definition as NACA 4-digit, except for the camber line
- max. camber moved more forward to achieve higher clmax (clmax increase of 0.1~0.2)
NACA xyyzz
x (x . 0.15) = design cl
yy - 2 times the location of max. camber in %
zz - thickness in % chord
e.g. NACA 23012: cl(design) = 0.3, max camber at 15% c, t/c = 0.12
31
NACA 1-Series (series 16)
- developed in 1939 by NACA
- first series based on theoretical considerations
- most common are the series 16 airfoils, with pmin at 0.6c
- camber line designed so that:
- uniform chordwise pressure distribution, i.e.
- constant chordwise distribution of vorticity
- main advantage: avoids low pressure peaks at design cl
- application:
marine propellers (avoiding cavitation)
aircraft propellers (delays the formation of shock waves)
NACA sx-yzz
s - designates series
x - location of min. pressure times 0.1
y - design cl times 0.1
zz - thickness in % of chord
e.g. NACA 16-212: pmin at 0.6c, cl(design) = 0.2, t/c=0.12
32
NACA 6-Series
- "laminar airfoils"
- designed for very low drag
- achieved by maintaining extensive laminar flow over the airfoil
- low cd achieved for a limited range of cl only - "drag bucket"
- difficult to maintain in practice due to contamination from bugs & wing vibrations, which
tend to perturb the laminar boundary layer and cause transition earlier
NACA swx - yzz
a=
s - series
w - location of pmin times 0.1
x - +/- range around design cl for which low drag is achieved
y - design cl times 0.1
zz - thickness
a - location until uniform loading is achieved
e.g. NACA 65_1 - 212 a=0.6:
series 6, pmin at x/c = 0.5, low drag for cl(design) +/-0.1, cl(design) = 0.2
33
NACA 6-Series (contd.)
34
Supercritical Airfoils
- delay Mdrag div to higher Mach numbers
- to be explained in detail in Chapter 5
GA(W) airfoils
- GA stands for General Aviation
- developed from Supercritical Airfoils for low-speed applications
- clmax about 30% higher than for NACA 65 series
- lower cd than laminar airfoils above cl=0.6
- limited application in practice due to strong Re dependence
- currently designated as LS (low speed) and MS (medium speed) airfoils
e.g. LS(1)-0417:
(1) - airfoil family,
04 cl (design)=0.4,
t/c = 0.17
35
Eppler airfoils
- based on inverse design, i.e. airfoil shape determined from desired load distribution by a
so-called Eppler code
- Eppler code: uses conformal mapping technique (potential flow method)
- multipoint optimization by ensuring favourable pressure gradient over the airfoil
The NASA NLF(1)-0416 airfoil was designed with the Eppler Code, Re=2 million
36
This brings us to the end of 2D airfoil aerodynamics. Next, let us have a look at 3D effects
on the previous charactersitics.
37
4.7. Finite wings
Planform area:
Mean chord:
c=
Aspect ratio:
Taper ratio:
S
b
b2 b
AR =
=
S c
c
= T
cR
38
Due to the pressure difference over the top and bottom surfaces, the flow tends "to leak"
around the wing tips, creating a major trailing tip vortex from the wing tip.
Typical SPANWISE
distribution of downwash, w
The wingtip vortices tend to drag the surrounding air around them, which induces a small
velocity component in the downward direction around the wing.
This velocity component is called the "downwash", w.
39
Wing tip vortices created by a cropduster.

(Source: NASA Dryden)
Wing tip vortices created by a pair of Su-27

aircrafts. (Source: galleryoffluidmechanics.com)
40
Condensation due to propeller tip vortices on an Italian G-222 general transport

aircraft. (Source: galleryoffluidmecahnics.com)
41
Trailing vortices at the tip of a flap on
a BAe-146 airplane during landing.
(Source: galleryoffluidmechanics.com)
42
Wing tip vortices created by a pair of Su-27 aircrafts.
(Source: galleryoffluidmechanics.com)
43
Typical CHORDWISE distribution of downwash (w):
Effect:
- contribution of vi will reduce the effective AOA

- the resulting lift will be tilted slightly backward
- horizontal component of new lift is INDUCED DRAG, Di
44
v0 freestream velocity
w induced velocity
vr resultant velocity
angle of attack (relative to chord line)

a absolute angle of attack (relative to zero lift line)
induced angle of attack (often denoted as i in the literature)
e effective angle of attack (a-)
45
4.8. Determination of i and Di
Di = L sin i
For small angles sin(i)= i
Di = L i
i will depend on the SPANWISE distribution of w, which in turn is governed by
the SPANWISE distribution of LIFT. This is a function of:
a) chord distribution of c(y)
b) wing twist, i.e. (y)
c) airfoil variation along wingspan
It was found that w(y) = const for elliptical lift distribution, i.e.
w(y) = const
for
L(y)=elliptical
46
For all wings, i can be expressed as:
i =
cL
. AR.e
(in radians!!)
So, now backsubstituting to

Di = L i
leads to
2
cL
cDi =
. AR.e
where e is the "span efficiency factor" (also called the Oswald factor) and
e = 1 for elliptical wing planforms
e < 1 for all other wings (0.85~0.95 for jetliners)
47
Hence, in order to minimize cDi, one must apply:
- elliptical wing planform so that e is maximized, e=1 (Spitfire)
and/or
- high aspect ratio to maximize AR (Lockheed U2, sailplanes)
Spitfire
Lockheed U2
48
4.9. 3D effects on drag and lift
Total wing drag:
cD = cd ( 2 D ) + cDi =
2
c
= cd ( 2 D ) + L
. AR.e
49
Wing lift slope:
Lift slope: a = dcL/d
Note:
- although cL in real life depends on eff, we will relate (and plot) cL to what we
can actually measure, (relative to v)
- a0 is the lift slope for 2D airfoils
In real life:
cL
cL = a0 eff = a0 ( i ) = a0
.
.
AR
e
cL
cL = a0 a0
. AR.e
cL
= a0
c L + a0
. AR.e
a0
c L 1 +
= a0
. AR.e
cL
a0
=a=
i.e. the slope of a wing will be
a0
1+
less than that of a 2D airfoil:
. AR.e
50
51
Effect of AR:
52
Note:
-all s MUST BE in radians!!!

- wings are typically designed so that separation occurs first at the root and then at the tip. By this,
lateral control can be maintained when the wing enters stall (AERO3002)
- this can be achieved by choosing "washout", i.e. suitable wing twist
- wing twist and taper ratio enables to achieve close-to-elliptical lift distributions on non-elliptical
planforms and thus to reduce cDi
53
Sea-gull condensation illustrating lift (pressure) distribution over the upper surface of the
wing and the wing tip vortices on a RAF Tornado fighter airplane. (Source: galleryoffluidmechanics.com)
54
Sea-gull condensation and wing tip vortices on a MIG-29 aircraft.

(Source: galleryoffluidmecahnics.com)
55

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4.

4.1. Airfoil geometry (AERO 3002)

From Shevell (1981)

a) consider the velocity vector

b) from each vector, subtract

c) It can be seen, that there is

From Raymer (1999)

Example: FanWing concept

lowercase subscripts (cl, cd, cm) denote 2D airfoils

From Anderson (2000)

From Leishman (2000)

From Anderson (2000)

From Anderson (2000)

From Anderson (2000)

From Raymer (1999)

Note: cd0 represents cd at cl=0

From Raymer (1999)

NACA 2415 airfoil characteristics. From Anderson (2000)

Trailing edge (TE) devices: (flaps)

both increase the nose camber only

From Shevell (1989)

Example of Kruger flap:

Most effective are multi-element (double or triple)

From McCormick (2000)

From Anderson (2000)

- MEDIUM flap deflections

- ZERO flap deflections

- MAXIMUM flap deflections

NACA 4-digit series

NACA 5-digit series

GA(W) (LS/MS) Series

x - max camber in % of chord

NACA 5-digit series

Wing tip vortices created by a cropduster.

Wing tip vortices created by a pair of Su-27

Condensation due to propeller tip vortices on an Italian G-222 general transport

- contribution of vi will reduce the effective AOA

angle of attack (relative to chord line)

So, now backsubstituting to

-all s MUST BE in radians!!!

Sea-gull condensation and wing tip vortices on a MIG-29 aircraft.

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