5.

Compressibility Effects
5. 1. Introduction
Recall from Fluids I, that an incompressible fluid has been defined as a fluid, which density
does not change through the flowfield , i.e. r = const.
Although all fluids (fluid = liquid or gas) are compressible to some extent,
liquids are largely incompressible ,
gases are highly compressible,

i.e. r = const.
i.e. r const

Note: many people have the misconception that incompressibility means that the pressure is constant through the fluid
(p = const). This is clearly wrong!!! Imagine a pool in which you swim. Since water is liquid, it is incompressible and thus
both on the surface and at the bottom of the pool the density will be the same, r = 1,000 kg/m3. However, due to hydrostatic
pressure (p = rgH), the pressure will not be the same at the top and the bottom. On the surface, pressure will be
atmospheric, but at the bottom of the pool much higher. Therefore, an incompressible liquid can still be pressurized, i.e.
r = const does not mean p = const!

Since aircraft fly in air, compressibility effects can become significant in certain flight regimes.
Thus, these have to be carefully considered in Aircraft Performance analysis.
1

5. Compressibility Effects
5. 2. Flow regime definitions
First, let us define the various flow regimes of aerodynamics, as well as that which ones will
be considered from compressibility point of view in this course.
Freestream is subsonic but
pockets of supersonic flow
are already present

Freestream
Mach Number

0 0.3

0.3 MCR

MCR 1

1~5

5 and higher

Flow regime

Low Subsonic

High Subsonic

Transonic

Supersonic

Hypersonic

Gas behaviour

Incompressible

Compressible

Compressible

Compressible

Compressible

To be considered under
compressibility effects
within this course

5. Compressibility Effects
5. 3. Critical Mach number (MCR)
Definition:

Example:

Critical Mach number (MCR) is the freestream Mach number at which

sonic flow (M = 1) is first obtained at a point on the airfoil. It is always
less than 1 (typically around Mach 0.7 ~ 0.8)

Max. local velocity becomes sonic: M=1.0

M = 0.72

For this particular airfoil, the critical Mach number would be MCR = 0.72

5. Compressibility Effects
5. 4. Compressibility corrections
In general, compressibility effects increase the aerodynamic characteristics.

Within the High Subsonic flow regime (M = 0.3 ~ 0.7), the following compressibility
correction formulas can be used:

Prandtl-Glauert formulas

5. Compressibility Effects
Notes:

- The Prandtl-Glauert formulas deal with cP ,cL ,cM only, but not the drag
coefficient, cD. Why? Because cD behaves differently, as will be seen in
Sec. 5.7.

- In the above expressions, cP,0, cL,0, cM,0 represent incompressible values

- These expressions are accurate until about Mach 0.7. Beyond that, a physically
impossible divergence occurs, which would for example lead to an unrealistic
cL = at Mach 1.

- more accurate formulations are available too, such as the Krmn-Tsien

or Laitone formulas. In comparison to the above formulas, they have extra
terms in the nominator.

5. Compressibility Effects
5.5. Compressibility effects on the lift curve slope (CLa)
The Prandtl-Glauert formulas show that compressibility will affect the lift curve slope of
the aircraft favorably, i.e. at the same angle of attack, the lift coefficient of the aircraft
will be higher when considering compressibility.
cL
increasing M

Note that the lift slope:

cla = a0 = dcL/da
increases with increasing
Mach number.

angle of attack, a

5. Compressibility Effects
5.6. How to determine the critical Mach number?
If one takes the point of minimum pressure on the upper surface of an airfoil or wing
(i.e. the pressure at the peak suction point, cp,min) and plots its variation with the freestream
Mach number [cp,min = f(M)] then gets:
-cp

A
cp,CR,A

Here the flow goes sonic (M=1)

at the point of minimum pressure
on the airfoil

cp,min,0

MCR,A

5. Compressibility Effects
This curve changes with the airfoil thickness, i.e. the thicker the airfoil, the higher the curve
will lie.
-cp
thick airfoil

medium airfoil

B
thin airfoil

A
-cp,min,0

MCR,C

MCR,A

MCR,B
8

5. Compressibility Effects
The curve on which the critical points A, B, and C, lie, can be defined as cP,CR = f(M)
-cp
thick airfoil

medium airfoil

B
thin airfoil

A
-cp,min,0
cP,CR = f(M)
MCR,C

MCR,A

MCR,B

5. Compressibility Effects
and can be expressed mathematically via the expression (see Anderson for derivation):

This curve is a very important in obtaining the critical Mach number (MCR) for a
given airfoil. The process of determining MCR consists of 4 steps:
Step 1: plot the curve cP,CR = f(M). Note that this is the same for every airfoil.
-cp
cP,CR = f(M)

10

5. Compressibility Effects
Step 2: From experimental data, CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) simulation or
theory, determine cP,min,0, i.e. the minimum pressure on the airfoil upper surface.

-cp
cP,CR = f(M)

cP,min,0

11

5. Compressibility Effects
Step 3: Using a compressibility correction expression, such as the Prandtl-Glauert
formula, plot the curve cP,min = f(M):

-cp
cP,CR = f(M)

cP,min,0

12

5. Compressibility Effects
Step 4: The intersection of the two curves will yield the critical Mach number MCR:

cP,CR = f(M)
-cp

cP,min,0

MCR

Now that we understand how compressibility affects cL, cM, cP and that how to determine
the critical Mach number, let us have a look at how compressibility affects the drag
coefficent, cD.
13

5. Compressibility Effects
5. 7. Drag divergence Mach number
We have shown that one can apply compressibility corrections to cL, cM and cP. However,
the drag coefficient (cD) variation with M cannot be described by simple equations.
The drag remains constant until about the MCR, but then it starts to rise dramatically:
E
Drag peaks here, but why? The
answer is in the next pages.

cD

C
B

Drag really starts to rise.

MCR MDRAG.DIV.

M
14

E
cD

5. Compressibility Effects

C
B

5. 5. Drag divergence Mach number

A
MCR

Max. local velocity becomes sonic: M=1.0

M = MCR

15

E
cD

5. Compressibility Effects

C
B
A

Supersonic region grows and hence a shock wave

must form to decelerate the flow from supersonic
to (the freestream) subsonic conditions. Presence
of shock increases cD.

Subsonic
flow, M<1

Supersonic
flow, M>1

MCR MDRAG.DIV.

Subsonic
flow, M<1

M = MDRAG.DIV.

Flow separation due to

shock wave / boundary layer
interaction causes further increase
in cD.

16

E
cD

5. Compressibility Effects

C
B
A
MCR MDRAG.DIV.

Supersonic region grows

Subsonic
flow, M<1

Supersonic
flow, M>1

Subsonic
flow, M<1

M 0.85

Occurrence of supersonic flow on lower surface

and associated boundary layer separation further
increase cD.

17

E
cD

5. Compressibility Effects

C
B
A
MCR MDRAG.DIV.

Supersonic flow all over the airfoil

Subsonic
flow, M<1

Supersonic
flow, M>1
Subsonic
flow, M<1

M 0.93

18

E
cD

5. Compressibility Effects
At around Mach 1.0, a normal shock wave (or bow wave)
forms in front of the airfoil. Since the pressure rise through a
normal shock wave is huge, the stagnation pressure grows and
the drag will reach its peak.

C
B
A
M =1.0
MCR MDRAG.DIV.

Supersonic flow,
M>= 1

Supersonic
flow, M>1

v=0

Subsonic
flow, M<1

M 1
M<1

Bow wave
(normal shock wave)

Oblique shock wave

Supersonic
flow, M>1

Subsonic
flow, M<1

Since v=0 must be satisfied at the stagnation

point, a subsonic pocket will be formed at the
Leading Edge.
Pressure behind normal shock wave is extremely
high and hence the drag is very large at point E.

19

5. Compressibility Effects
Note:

- we have just shown that

MCR <

MDRAG DIV < 1.0

- it is the occurrence of normal shock wave, which is responsible for the drag rise.
For supersonic aircraft, the L.E. is therefore often made sharp to avoid the
creation of normal shock wave (F-104 Ottawa Aviation Museum).
- For transonic aircraft, however, the L.E. is better kept rounded, so the designer
has 2 choices:
a) to employ thinner airfoils (less space for fuel, structural problems)
OR

b) to employ a supercritical airfoil (while keeping the same airfoil thickness)

20

5. Compressibility effects
The phenomena described above can be nicely observed in CFD simulations. The first set
of results is for a shock induced separation over an RAE 2822 airfoil at transonic (M=0.754)
speed.

Shock wave
(sudden pressure rise)

Mach number contours

Pressure contours
cP distribution
(Source: www.aero.gla.ac.uk)

21

5. Compressibility effects
The second set of results are for transonic flow
over an ONERA M6 wing. M=0.84, Re=11.7 million
AOA=3.06 deg. Pressure isolines are show below,
Illustrating a typical lambda-shock near the tip.

(Source: www.aero.gla.ac.uk)

22

5. Compressibility effects

Condensation allows to visualize the supersonic expansion regions over an F-18 airplane
during sonic boom.
(Source: galleryoffluidmecahnics.com)

23

Sonic Boom

Two movies of an F-14 Tomcat flying at supersonic speed near a water surface
creating sonic boom.
(Source: sonicboom.org)

24

5. Compressibility effects
This picture shows an F-5 aircaft with an experimental nose shape, which should reduce
the noise footprint from sonic boom. The test program was officially named as Shaped
Sonic Boom Demonstrator (SSBD). Note the asymmetrical shape of the nose.

(Source: sonicboom.org)

25

5. Compressibility Effects
5. 8. Supercritical Airfoils

The question:

For a given airfoil thickness, how can we delay the large drag rise
to higher Mach numbers ?
lead to the development of supercritical airfoils by R. Whitcomb in 1965

Answer:

- either increase MCR, or

- increase the distance between MCR and MDRAG DIV.
By this, one still allows the presence of supersonic flow over the
upper and lower surfaces, but their effects are mitigated.

So, the purpose of supercritical airfoils is to increase the value of MDRAG DIV and not MCR
(it may change too but only a little).
26

5. Compressibility Effects
How does a supercritical airfoil work?
It has a relatively flat top, thus encouraging a region of supersonic flow with lower
local values of M than conventional airfoils. In turn, the terminating shock wave is
weaker, creating less drag.

conventional

supercritical

27

From NASA Langley

From Shevell (1989)

5. Compressibility Effects
Richard T. Whitcomb with the model of an F-8 supercritical wing
configuration in the Langley 8-Foot Transonic Pressure Tunnel.

Source: NASA Langley

28

6. Drag
- It takes power to move a vehicle through the air!
Example:

- the accelarator (power) must be constantly applied in a forward moving car to

maintain steady speed. Why?
- because power is required to overcome the aerodynamic force (+ rolling
friction force) acting on the vehicle. This force, acting opposite to the velocity
vector, is known as DRAG.

- The force acting opposite the velocity vector is known as DRAG.

- Drag is crucially important for the performance of an aircraft.

Example:

- zero drag would yield infinite range or endurance

(true in space: Pioneer 10 spacecraft, launched in 1972, left Solar system,
last signal sent in Jan 2003)

- Any reduction in drag leads to direct savings in fuel or increase in performance.

29

6. Drag
6.1 Types of Drag
The total drag of an aircraft builds up from many components, which can be divided into
2 main groups:
cD

cD,PARASITE

cD,INDUCED

drag
NOT ASSOCIATED
with the production
of lift

drag
ASSOCIATED
with the production
of lift

adds up from:

already discussed
in Section 4.7

cD, PROFILE
Shown in experimental
results for 2D airfoils

cD,SKIN FRICTION
cD, PRESSURE
cD, INTERFERENCE
cD, WAVE
cD, COOLING
cD, TRIM

(arises due to flow leakage at

wing tips)

30

6. Drag
6.1.1. Skin Friction Drag: cD,SKIN FRICTION
arises due to the viscosity in the fluid, which leads to friction between the gas and the
solid material:
Boundary layer (viscous flow):
v varies between 0 and vB

Shear stress due to friction

B
tW

Outside potentail flow (flow can be treated as inviscid):

v is in the order of vB

vB

pB =pA

boundary
layer
thickness,

pA

A
Velocity profile

Pressure profile

Note:
the pressure is constant through
the boundary layer this is why cP
distributions from inviscid theory give
accurate results.

31

6. Drag
LAMINAR vs. TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER
The boundary layer (B.L.) can be laminar or turbulent:
y

dTUR

vB

dLAM

vB

Note that at the same flow conditions:

1) Turbulent B.L. is thicker than laminar one:
dTUR >d LAM
2) Turbulent B.L. is fuller, i.e. the velocity
gradient at the wall (dv/dy)y=0 is larger for
turbulent B.L.:

TURBULENT
v

dv
dv


dy TUR , y =0 dy LAM , y =0

Note that (dv/dy) here corresponds

to (dx/dy) and not (dy/dx).

32

6. Drag
SHEAR STRESS:
- has the units of force/area, i.e. [N/m2] or [lbs/in2]
tW is tangential to the surface at any point of the surface
- Integrating tW along the surface would give DSKIN FRICTION
- can be expressed as:

dv

t W =
dy y =0
and since this is larger for
turbulent boundary layers

t W ,TUR t W , LAM
DSKIN_ FRICTION ,TUR DSKIN _ FRICTION , LAM
33

6. Drag
DSKIN_ FRICTION ,TUR DSKIN _ FRICTION , LAM
i.e., at the same flow conditions, a laminar boundary layer yields less skin friction drag
than a turbulent one.
To minimize skin friction drag, the occurrence of turbulent boundary layers should
be delayed.

Examples: this is why laminar airfoils or Wortmann airfoils

(for sailplanes) were developed.

34

6. Drag
MAIN RESULTS ON SKIN FRICTION DRAG
Boundary Layer

Flat plate

d
x
L
LAMINAR
5.2 x
B.L. thickness
Re x
tW
=
c fx = 0.664
Local skin friction drag coefficient q
Re x
0.664 q
t Wx =
Local shear stress
Re x
L
1.328 q L

D
=

f
Total skin friction drag D f = t W dx
Re L
0

Df
1.328
Total skin friction drag coefficient = q S c f =
Re L

d=

at any (x)

For total
length, L

TURBULENT
0.37 x
Re x 0.2
0.0592
c fx =
Re x 0.2
0.0592 q
t Wx =
Re x 0.2
0.074 q L
Df =
0.2
Re L
0.074
35
cf =
0.2
Re L

d=

6. Drag
In the above equations:

Re x =
q =

Notes:

r v x

1
r v 2
2

1) all results are shown for boundary layers starting from the L.E., i.e. for fully
laminar or fully turbulent boundary layers.
2) these are flat plate results, but can be used for approximate calculations on thin
objects, such as tail surfaces, thin airfoil wings, etc.
3) the B.L. develops on both the upper and lower surfaces of a flat plate like
object, so the TOTAL WETTED AREA should be:
AW = ALOWER + AUPPER = 2A
i.e. skin friction drag must be accounted for both on the upper and lower
surfaces.
36

6. Drag
BOUNDARY LAYER TRANSITION:
The boundary layer always starts at the L.E. (Leading Edge) as laminar. At some point
downstream it becomes unstable and transients to turbulent boundary layer. The
location where this happens is called the transition point, xCR (critical length). It is
usually defined through the transition Reynolds number:

ReCR =

r v xCR

TURBULENT
LAMINAR

xCR

Transition occurs through a

finite length
xCR

37

6. Drag
Typical boundary layer transition Re number is around 106 :

Variation of total shear stress coefficient along a flat plate with B.L. transition at ReCR = 5x105 .

38

6. Drag
B.L. transition along a flat plate:
The general formula for the skin friction drag coefficient along the full length of the plate
with boundary layer transition (i.e. including BOTH laminar and turbulent sections) is:

ReCR 1.33
0.523
0.523

Cf = 2

2
1/ 2

ln (0.06 Re L ) Re L ReCR
ln 0.06 ReCR

39

6. Drag
B.L. transition along a flat plate:
For the special case of ReCR = 5x105, the above equation reduces to the formula shown
below in the right bottom corner. Note that these equations describe the various parts of
the curves shown on the diagram of slide 38.
BOUNDARY LAYER UNDERGOING TRANSITION OVER A FLAT PLATE at ReCR = 5x105
(formulas shown for one side of the flat plate only)

Note that these turbulent boundary layer results are different from those for a fully turbulent
boundary layer (from 4 slides earlier) they now incorporate the effect of the laminar boundary
layer up until the transition point.

40

6. Drag
6.1.2 Pressure or Form Drag (cD, PRESSURE)
- Pressure drag is the drag arising as a result of the pressure distribution over the body.
- In other words, it is that component of the resultant pressure force, which is parallel
to the freestream.
- Examples:

Separated
flow

Separated
flow

B
streamlines

streamlines

A:
B:

stagnation point (high pressure)

separated flow region (low pressure)
pB << pA

means suction over the rear surface, pulling the body backwards. 41

6. Drag
Pressure drag is always associated with flow separation, which is the result of the
boundary layer experiencing an adverse pressure gradient. What is an adverse
pressure gradient? It is a pressure gradient adversely affecting the boundary layer,
i.e. de-energizing it.
Original
boundary layer
profile

at this x
location along
the surface

42

6. Drag
As a result of the adverse pressure gradient:
- all particles are decelerated
- although particles far from the wall will decelarate, they continue along their
trajectory
- particles close to wall are too slow to overcome this effect & become reversed
- i.e. the B.L. separates, creating a recirculation zone behind the separation point (S)

43

6. Drag
Note the adverse pressure gradient occurring on the airfoil:
IF there was NO FLOW SEPARATION, i.e. if the boundary layer would be able to follow the
airfoil upper surface, then (follow the numbers)

3.

IDEAL PICTURE OF FLOW

1.

Low
Pressure
(max. velocity,
suction peak)

Pressure gradient (from high-p to low-p)

goes against the B.L. flow, so it is adverse

2.

High(er)
Pressure
(lower velocity,
relatively high p)

As a result of this adverse pressure gradient, the B.L. will separate (with the same
mechanism as shown in p. 42,43).
So, the real flow will be separated and will look like .
44

6. Drag
B.L. SEPARATION POINT !!!

REAL PICTURE OF FLOW

Low
Low
Pressure
Pressure
(max. velocity,
(trying to equal
suction peak) the pressure at the
point of separation)

Note that we have changed

High Pressure to Low
Pressure, which will create suction
and will pull the body backwards,
against the airfoil motion, this is:
PRESSURE DRAG.

CONCLUSION: adverse pressure gradient leads to B.L. separation & pressure drag
45

6. Drag
- The larger the speed of the air molecules in the B.L., the better can they resist the
adverse p-gradient.

- It was shown in section 6.1.1, that turbulent B.L.s are fuller, i.e.
- a turbulent boundary layer will resist adverse p-gradients better,
i.e. it will separate later than a laminar one

- A nice example of this is the flow over a sphere (e.g. a golf ball):

Laminar boundary layer

Note that the separation region is larger

for the laminar case, resulting in higher
pressure drag than in the turbulent case.

Turbulent boundary layer

Golf balls have dimples to promote

turbulent B.L. and thus to minimize
the pressure drag i.e. to fly further.

46

6. Drag
So, we have two contradicting guidelines:
- to minimize skin friction drag:

promote laminar B.L.

- to minimize pressure drag:

promote turbulent B.L.

Note:
- For 2D airfoils, we measure skin friction & pressure drags simultaneously:
DSKIN FRICTION + DPRESSURE = DPROFILE

- This means that we cannot distinguish skin friction drag from pressure drag
from the 2D airfoil data available from experiments. We can only measure their
sum but not separately.
47