You are on page 1of 36

Building Construction

1. Foundations
CE 2330
Civil Engineering Materials and Construction

Function of foundation
Transmit loads to sub-soil in such a way that
Settlements are within permissible limits,
without causing cracks in the
superstructure, and
Soil does not fail in shear

Foundations
Reduce load intensity (by distributing over large
area)
Distribute loads evenly (minimize unequal
settlements)
Provide level surface
Provide lateral stability
Protect against undermining and soil
movements
Can you draw some foundations on your own???

Some examples from the past..

Next time you visit an


old temple, try to figure
out how the foundation
system works!

What was the function


of this building???

Broad Classification
Shallow foundations when depth <= width (in open
excavation, sometimes w>d is also allowed)
- Spread footings
- Combined footings
- Strap footings
- Mat foundations
Deep foundations
- Piles
- Piers
- Wells

Shallow Foundations

Depth of footing
Footings should be carried below top (organic)
soil, miscellaneous fill, abandoned foundation,
debris, or muck
According to NBC of India, D depends on:
- Securing adequate bearing capacity
- How deep shrinking and swelling soils exist
(clays)
- How deep is the frost penetration (in sand and
silt)

Strip footing design


Width of footing B =
W/qs, where W =
total load, and qs =
safe bearing
capacity
d depends on type
of concrete,
projection of block
and soil bearing
pressure

Used for continuously running walls

Design of isolated
column footings
similar to strip wall
footings

Construction of strip footing


Concreting in progress
for the strip footing

Excavation complete;
reinforcement laid in
position

Isolated footings
Used for columns

Grillage foundations
Used when load is heavy
and bearing capacity is
poor
Primarily for steel
columns (primarily
industrial structures)
Consists of two layers of
steel I-sections in
transverse directions,
encased in concrete (to
prevent corrosion)

Combined footings
Why? Columns too close, bearing
capacity low, end column near property
line
Typically, rectangular or trapezoidal plan
Rectangular CG of footing = CG of
combined loads of the two columns
Trapezoidal Unequal loads on two
columns

Continuous footings for more than 2 columns similar to strip footings

Raft foundations
Used when:
Soil bearing capacity is low
Building loads are heavy
Spread footings cover large area
Difficult to control differential settlement
Reduce settlement on highly compressible
soils (Weight of structure + raft ~ Weight of
soil excavated)

Rafts

For heavier loads, thickened


bands may be provided along
column lines in both directions
2 way grids with cellular construction may
also be used for heavier loads
Also, basement walls could be used as
deep beams

Design of raft footings


Rafts are designed as RC flat slabs, and the
weight of the raft is not considered in the design
(carried by the soil)
However, for differential settlements (related
shear and moment) rafts are reinforced more
heavily than required by analysis
Rafts may undergo large settlements without
showing differential settlement (double
settlement allowed for rafts)

Rafts some examples

Reinforcement for 1.5 m thick raft


Slab on grade

Machine foundations
For heavy machines
Dynamic loads
Rough guide: ratio of weight of foundation to
machine weight may be kept between 2.5 3.5
Permissible bearing pressure under dynamic
loads may be taken as to of pressure for
static loads
Covered in IS 2974
Get some pictures of machine foundations from our labs!

Deep Foundations

Why Deep Foundations?

Heavy loads
Top soil has poor bearing capacity
High water level, with large fluctuations
Tough to retain soil in open excavations
Structure close to sea (scouring may occur)
Foundation close to canal or deep drainage lines
Top soil of expansive nature

Piles

Classification of piles

Concrete piles
- Precast
- Cast in situ
Driven piles (cased/uncased)
Bored piles (pressure, under-reamed, and compaction piles)
Timber piles
Steel piles
- H-pile
- Pipe pile
- Sheet pile
Composite piles
- Concrete and timber
- Concrete and steel

Cased cast in situ pile


(a) Raymond standard pile
(tapered)
Taper of 1 in 30
L: 6 12 m
Dia: 40 60 cm (top); 20 30 cm
(bottom)
Mandrel is withdrawn, leaving
shell, which is filled with
concrete
(b) McArthur cased pile (no taper)
An additional steel casing of heavy gauge is driven with the core. The core
is withdrawn, replaced by shell. Concrete is placed in the shell can casing is
removed

Uncased cast in situ pile


Simplex Pile (for both soft and hard
soils)
After being driven in, steel tube is
removed and space is filled with
concrete
New shoe needed for every pile
Alternatively, alligator jaw point could be
used; opens up as concrete is poured,
and withdrawn with steel tube
Soil needs to be firm around setting
concrete

Vibro-piles: Similar to Simplex, except that while extracting tube, upward


extracting and downward tamping blows given; used in soft soils

Bored Piles
Procedure:
Ground is bored with auger
Concreting is done with/without casing
Pressure piles:
Compressed air forces concrete down,
while steel tube is withdrawn; Pile dia >
dia of bore; hence, soil is compressed;
better friction
3 sizes: Dia 340 mm, 440 mm, and 500
mm
Depth < 25 m

Piles some examples


Excavation
for pile in
progress
Piles
being
driven

Alaskan residence on piles

Sheet piles

Can also be used to dam


water for construction
New Orleans after
Hurricane Katrina

Used for supporting earth


load in an excavation

Under-reamed pile
Bored cast in situ pile
having one or more
bulbs formed by
enlarging the borehole
for the pile stem using an
under-reaming tool
Bulbs increase bearing
capacity
Diabulb ~ 2.5 Diastem

Pile cap and pile group


Pile cap: Rigid, deep RC slab acting
monolithically with the pile group
Piles in a group are arranged
symmetrically about the axis of the column
Pile cap has uniform thickness, and
extends at least 10 15 cm beyond the
edge of exterior piles
Piles in the group are embedded at least
15 cm into the pile cap

Piles and pile cap


Transmission tower superstructure

Pile cap

Piles

Well Foundations or Caissons


French Caisse meaning a chest or box
3 types:
- Box caisson
- Open caisson (well)
- Pneumatic caisson

Box caisson
Built on land and floated to site where
it is sunk in position
Used when load bearing stratum is
available at shallow depth, and where
loads are not very heavy
Mainly used for breakwater and
seawall

Open Caissons
Very popular for bridges in India
Many shapes possible; easy and
uniform sinking for circular
sections
Important features:
1. Well cap
2. Top plug
3. Sand filling
4. Steining
5. Curb
6. Cutting edge
7. Bottom plug (no reinforcement)

Caissons
Extensively
reinforced
caissons under
construction

Completed bridge showing


caissons supporting piers
Next time you travel by train / road,
try to see if you can spot some
caissons

Well sinking operations


Laying the well curb
Masonry in well steining
Sinking:
- Excavate material from inside the curb
- As well sinks deeper, upward force due
to skin friction kentledge required
- Uniform dredging (avoid any tilts)
- Tremie concreting for bottom plug

References

Various web sources


Wikipedia
Building Construction by B C Punmia
Building Design and Drawing by Balagopal
T S Prabhu et al.

You might also like