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The result is a final AC power output that is substantially lower but realistically
accounts for expected real-world conditions. To determine the expected energy
production per day, the final AC power output is multiplied by the insolation in
peak sun hours per day. For example, if the calculated AC power output is
2140W per peak sun hour and the average annual insolation is 5.1 peak sun
hours then the average energy production is expected to be 10.9 kWh/day.
The size of an interactive system is primarily limited by the space available for
an array and the owner's budget. However, financial incentive requirements,
net metering limits, and existing electrical infrastructure may also influence
system size decisions. Even if short-term periods of high insolation or low
demand result in excess electricity, it is not wasted because it can be sold back
to the utility for credit against subsequent utility bills.
The only exception is a system that is so large that it maintains a net energy
export over several months or more. Because many utilities will not carry the
credits for more than one year and /or will credit exported electricity at lower
wholesale rates, it is not recommended to size an interactive system larger than
needed for average annual on-site load requirements.
SIZING CALCULATIONS
Sizing PV systems for stand-alone operation involves four sets of calculations.
First, a load analysis determines the electrical load requirements. Then, monthly
load requirements are compared to the local insolation data to determine the
critical design month. Next, the battery bank is sized to be able to
independently supply the loads for a certain length of time, such as if cloudy
weather reduces array output. Finally, the PV array is sized to fully charge the
battery bank under the critical conditions.
A hybrid PV and engine generator system utilizes array energy better (wastes
less energy) than PV-only systems because more of the available energy is
utilized. In some cases, these systems may also cost less overall than PV-only or
engine generator-only stand alone systems sized far the same load
requirements
Load Analysis
Analyzing the electrical loads is the first and most important step in PV-system
sizing. The energy consumption dictates the amount of electricity that must be
produced.
All existing and potential future loads must be considered. Underestimating
loads will result in a system that is too small and can't operate the loads with
the desired reliability. However, overestimating the load will result in a system
that is larger and more expensive than necessary. Comprehensive yet
conservative load estimates will ensure that the system is adequately sized.
A detailed load analysis completed during the site survey lists each load, its
power demand, and daily energy consumption.
for AC loads goes through the inverter, resulting in losses that must be
accounted for separately.
Power Demand
Peak-power information is usually found on appliance nameplates or in
manufacturer's literature. When this information is not available, peak power
demand can be estimated by multiplying the maximum current by the operating
voltage, though this is less accurate for reactive loads. Measurements, meter
readings, or electric bills may also be used to help establish existing load
requirements.
The peak power demands are then summed. The total power demand is
considered when determining the required inverter AC-power output ratio.
While it is not likely that every load would be ON at the same time, it is
recommended to size the inverter with extra capacity.
Energy Consumption
Electrical energy consumption is based on the power demand over time. Loads
rarely operate continuously, so each load's operating time must be determined.
This is the total number of hours per day that the load is operating.
The operating time for loads that cycle on and off automatically is typically
determined from the duty cycle. Duty cycle is the percent age of time a load is
operating. For example, a duty cycle of 40% means that a load is operating 40%
of the time, or 9.6 hr/day (40% x 24 hr/day = 9.6 hr/day). Even loads that are
plugged in all the time, such as refrigerators and air conditioners, have a
variable power requirement based on duty cycle.
User-operated loads are turned on and off manually. Determining the operating
time for these loads is simple if they cycle only once per day. However, if loads
are switched on and off several times per day, a metering device is probably the
easiest method of determining the operating time.
The daily energy consumption for each load is determined by the load's power
demand multiplied by the daily operating time. For example, a 60 W light bulb
that is on for 4 hr/day consumes 240 Wh of energy (60W x 4hr=240Wh).
Some loads may not be used every day. In these cases, the average daily
operating time is calculated by dividing the total operating time over a longer
period by the number of days in the period. For example, a washing machine
that operates for 2 hr/wk has an equivalent operating time of 0.29 hr/day (2
hr/wk - 7 days/wk = 0.29 hr/day).
The AC energy consumption and DC energy consumption values are totaled
separately. These values are used to determine the total amount of DC energy
the system must produce.
Operating Time
Load operating-time data is also used to size the battery bank. For consistent
loads that operate for specific periods, calculating the daily operating time is
very simple. For example, if the loads are night time lighting fixtures that
operate for 6 hr each night, the daily operating time is 6 hr.
Most often, however, there are multiple loads to consider that each operate for
various lengths of time. The battery-bank discharge rate will then change as
various loads turn ON and OFF during the day.
If the system includes both AC and DC loads, the AC load energy requirement
must be first be converted to equivalent DC energy. This is done by dividing
each AC energy consumption amount by the inverter efficiency.
Inverter Selection
If the system includes AC loads, an inverter must be selected. Several factors
must be considered when selecting the inverter. First, the inverter must have a
maximum continuous power output rating at least as great as the largest single
AC load. A slightly oversized inverter is usually recommended to account for
potential future load additions. The inverter must also be able to supply surge
currents to motor loads, such as pumps or compressors, while powering other
system loads.
Inverter voltage output is another consideration. Most stand-alone inverters
produce either 120 V single-phase output or 120/240 V split-phase output.
Inverter Efficiency
Inverters are not 100% efficient. Some power is lost in the process of converting
DC energy to AC energy. Therefore, more DC energy is required to produce a
certain amount of AC energy. Both the AC and DC energy requirements from the
load analysis are used to determine how much total DC energy will be required.
The total amount of DC energy required by the loads is calculated using the
following formula:
ESDC = required daily System DC electrical energy (in Wh/day)
EAC = AC energy consumed by loads (in Wh/day)
= inverter efficiency
EDC = DC energy consumed by loads (in Wh/day).
For example, if a load analysis determines that a system requires 800 Wh/day
for the AC loads and 200 Wh/day for the DC loads and the inverter efficiency is
90%, what is the daily DC electrical energy required by the system?
ESDC = ( EAC / ) + EDC
ESDC = ( 800/0.9 ) + 200
ESDC = 1089 Wh/day
Inverter efficiency is typically between 80% and 95%. Also, an inverter's
efficiency varies with its power output, though usually not more than about 5%
over most of its power range. Manufacturer's specifications will typically include
efficiency ranges. For sizing calculations, the average efficiency for the expected
operating power range should be used.
If the loads are constant over the entire year, the critical design month is the
month with the lowest insolation on the array surface. For most locations in the
Northern Hemisphere, this is a winter month, either December or January.
However, when the load requirements vary from month to month, the critical
design month must take into account both the loads and the available
insolation. Because of these two factors, the critical design month may turn out
to be any month of the year.
Sizing for the critical design month typically results in excess energy at other
times of the year, if this excess is significant, the system designer may want to
DC-System Voltage
The DC-system voltage is established by the battery-bank voltage in batterybased systems. This voltage dictates the operating voltage and ratings for all
other connected components, including DC loads, charge controllers, inverters,
and (for battery-based systems) the array.
DC voltage in battery-based systems is critically important. The DC voltage for
battery-based PV systems is usually an integer multiple of 12 V, usually 12 V, 24
V, or 48 V.
DC loads, charge controllers, and inverters that operate at these voltages are
commonly available. The selection of the battery-bank voltage affects system
currents. For example, a 1200W system operating at 12 V draws 100A (1200Wl2V= 100A). The same 1200Wsystem draws only 50A at 24V,or 25A at 48 V.
Lower current reduces the required sizes of conductors, overcurrent protection
devices, disconnects, charge controllers, and other equipment. Also, since
voltage drop and power losses are smaller at lower currents, higher-voltage
systems are generally more efficient.
As a rule of thumb, stand-alone systems up to 1 kW use a minimum 12 V
battery-bank voltage, which limits DC currents to less than 84A. Similarly,
battery voltages of at least 24 V are used for systems up to 2 kW, and at least 48
V for systems up to 5 kW. Very large stand alone systems may use battery
voltages of 120V, though battery banks over 48 V involve additional code
requirements and safety measures.
System Availability
The size of a system in relation to the loads determines its system availability.
System availability is the percentage of time over an average year that a standalone PV system meets the system load requirements. For example, 98% system
availability means that a system is able to meet the energy demand about 98%
of the time. This means that for 2% of the year, the system can't meet the load
requirements.
No energy-producing system can achieve 100% availability, because of
unpredictable events that affect system output. Days or weeks of below-