Calculations in General Relativity

Lots of Calculations in General Relativity
Susan Larsen
Saturday, August 16, 2014
Contents
1
Introduktion ............................................................................................................................................... 6
Special relativity......................................................................................................................................... 7
2.1
How to calculate: Example ......................................................................................................... 7
2.2
The four velocity and the four force: = ............................................................................. 7
Metric and Vector Transformations. ......................................................................................................... 7

3.1
Flat Minkowski space: ....................................................................................................................... 7
3.2
Other realizations of the flat space: .................................................................................................. 8
3.2.1
Spherical polar coordinates ....................................................................................................... 8
3.2.2
Flat space with a singularity ...................................................................................................... 9
3.2.3
Coordinate transformations ...................................................................................................... 9
3.2.4
Flat space in two dimensions .................................................................................................. 10
3.2.5
The Penrose Diagram for Flat Space........................................................................................ 11
3.3
The line-element and metric of an ellipsoid:................................................................................... 11
3.4
The signature of a metric................................................................................................................. 12
3.5
Three-dimensional flat space in spherical coordinates and vector transformation ....................... 12
3.6
Static Weak Field Metric ................................................................................................................. 13
3.6.1
3.7
NEW - Local inertial frames ............................................................................................................. 14
3.7.1
3.8
Rates of Emission and Reception............................................................................................. 13
The metric of a Sphere at the North Pole................................................................................ 14
New - Length, Area, Volume and Four-Volume for Diagonal Metrics ............................................. 16
3.8.1
Area and Volume Elements of a Sphere .................................................................................. 16
3.8.2
Distance, Area and Volume in the Curved Space of a Constant Density Spherical Star or a
Homogenous Closed Universe................................................................................................................. 17
3.8.3
Distance, Area, Volume and four-volume of a metric ............................................................. 18
3.8.4
The dimensions of a peanut .................................................................................................... 19
3.8.5
The dimensions of an egg ........................................................................................................ 20
3.8.6
Length and volume of the Schwarzschild geometry ............................................................... 20
3.8.7
Volume in the Wormhole geometry........................................................................................ 21
Tensor Calculus ........................................................................................................................................ 22

4.1
Christoffel symbols. ......................................................................................................................... 22
4.1.1
and in a diagonal metric ..................................................................................... 22
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4.1.2
Find the Christoffel symbols of the 2-sphere with radius .................................................... 22
4.1.3
Find the Christoffel symbols of the Kahn-Penrose metric (Colliding gravitational waves) ..... 22
4.2
Alternative solution: Show that = .................................................................................. 23
4.3
One-forms........................................................................................................................................ 23
4.3.1
One-forms: why = .......................................................................................................... 23
4.3.2
The exterior derivative of a one-form. .................................................................................... 24
4.4
The geodesic equation. ................................................................................................................... 24
4.4.1
Find the geodesic equations for cylindrical coordinates ........................................................ 24
4.4.2
Use the geodesic equations to find the Christoffel symbols for the Rindler metric. .............. 26
4.4.3
New - Geodesics Equations of the plane in polar coordinates................................................ 26
4.4.4
New Equations for geodesics in a Wormhole Geometry ..................................................... 27
4.5
New - Solving the geodesic equation .............................................................................................. 28
4.5.1
New - The travel time through a wormhole ............................................................................ 28
4.5.2
NEW - Geodesics in the Plane Using Polar Coordinates. ......................................................... 29
4.6
Killing Vectors .................................................................................................................................. 30
4.6.1
Show that if the Lie derivative of the metric tensor with respect to vector X vanishes
( = ), the vector X satisfies the Killing equation. - Alternative version ................................... 30
4.6.2
Prove that = ............................................................................................... 31
4.6.3
Constructing a Conserved Current with Killing Vectors Alternative version: ....................... 31
4.6.4
Given a Killing vector the Ricci scalar satisfies = : ................................................ 31
4.7
The Riemann tensor ........................................................................................................................ 31
4.7.1
Independent elements in the Riemann, Ricci and Weyl tensor .............................................. 33
4.7.2
Compute the components of the Riemann tensor for the unit 2-sphere ............................... 34
4.8
Show that the Ricci scalar = for the unit 2-sphere .................................................................. 35
4.9
Proof: if a space is conformally flat, i.e. = the Weyl tensor vanishes ..................... 35
4.10
The three dimensional flat space in spherical polar coordinates.................................................... 39
4.10.1 Calculate the Christoffel symbols of the three dimensional flat space in spherical polar
coordinates .............................................................................................................................................. 39
4.10.2
The Riemann tensor of the three dimensional flat space in spherical polar coordinates ...... 40
4.10.3
A Lie derivative in the three dimensional flat space in spherical polar coordinates............... 40
4.11
The Ricci scalar of the Penrose Kahn metric ................................................................................... 41
4.12
A metric example 1: = + .............................................................. 42
4.12.1
The Christoffel symbols of a metric example .......................................................................... 42
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4.12.2
The Ricci scalar of a metric example ....................................................................................... 42
4.13 Calculate the Christoffel symbols for a metric example 2: = + +

..................................................................................................................................... 43
4.14
A metric example 3: = + + + + ...................................... 44
4.14.1
Calculate the Christoffel symbols for a metric example.......................................................... 44
4.14.2
Calculate the Riemann tensor of metric example ................................................................... 45
4.14.3
Calculate the Riemann tensor of metric example Alternative version ................................ 46
Cartans Structure Equations ................................................................................................................... 46

5.1
Ricci rotation coefficients for the Tolman-Bondi- de Sitter metric (Spherical dust with a
cosmological constant) ................................................................................................................................ 46
5.2
The curvature two forms and the Riemann tensor ......................................................................... 49
5.3
Find the Ricci scalar using Cartans structure equations of the 2-sphere ....................................... 49
5.4
The three dimensional flat space in spherical polar coordinates.................................................... 50
5.4.1
Ricci rotation coefficients of the three dimensional flat space in spherical polar coordinates
50
5.4.2
Transformation of the Ricci rotation coefficients into the Christoffel symbols
of the three dimensional flat space in spherical polar coordinates .......................................... 51
5.5
Ricci rotation coefficients of the Rindler metric.............................................................................. 52
5.6
The Einstein tensor for the Tolman-Bondi- de Sitter metric ........................................................... 52
5.7
Calculate the Ricci rotation coefficients for a metric example 3: = + +
..................................................................................................................................... 56
6
The Einstein Field Equations .................................................................................................................... 58

6.1
The vacuum Einstein equations ....................................................................................................... 58
6.2
The vacuum Einstein equations with a cosmological constant ....................................................... 58
6.3
General remarks on the Einstein equations with a cosmological constant .................................... 59
6.4
2+1 dimensions: Gravitational collapse of an inhomogeneous spherically symmetric dust cloud. 60
6.4.1
Find the components of the curvature tensor for the metric in 2+1 dimensions using Cartans
structure equations ................................................................................................................................. 60
6.4.2
Find the components of the curvature tensor for the metric in 2+1 dimensions using Cartans
structure equations alternative solution .............................................................................................. 62
6.4.3
Find the components of the Einstein tensor in the coordinate basis for the metric in 2+1
dimensions............................................................................................................................................... 63
6.4.4
6.5
The Einstein equations of the metric in 2+1 dimensions. ....................................................... 65
Using the contracted Bianchi identities, prove that: = .................................................. 65
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6.6
Ricci rotation coefficients, Ricci scalar and Einstein equations for a general 4-dimensional metric:
= + , + , + , ........................................................................... 66
7
The Energy-Momentum Tensor .............................................................................................................. 71

7.1
Perfect Fluids Alternative derivation ............................................................................................ 71
7.2
The Gdel metric ............................................................................................................................. 72
Null Tetrads and the Petrov Classification............................................................................................... 75

8.1
Construct a null tetrad for the flat space Minkowski metric........................................................... 75
8.2
The Brinkmann metric (Plane gravitational waves) ........................................................................ 77
The Schwarzschild Solution ..................................................................................................................... 87

9.1
The Riemann and Ricci tensor of the general Schwarzschild metric ............................................... 87
9.2
The Riemann tensor of the Schwarzschild metric ........................................................................... 90
9.3
Calculation of the scalar in the Schwarzschild metric ............................................ 91
9.4
Geodesics in the Schwarzschild Spacetime ..................................................................................... 91
9.5
The meaning of the integration constant: The choice of ......................................................... 92
9.6
Time Delay ....................................................................................................................................... 93
9.7
Use the geodesic equations to find the Christoffel symbols for the general Schwarzschild metric.
95
9.8
The Ricci tensor for the general time dependent Schwarzschild metric......................................... 97
9.9
The Schwarzschild metric with nonzero cosmological constant. .................................................. 101
9.9.1
The Ricci rotation coefficients and Ricci tensor for the Schwarzschild metric with nonzero
cosmological constant. .......................................................................................................................... 101
9.9.2
The general Schwarzschild metric in vacuum with a cosmological constant: The Ricci scalar
102
9.9.3
The general Schwarzschild metric in vacuum with a cosmological constant: Integration
constants 103
9.9.4
The general Schwarzschild metric in vacuum with a cosmological constant: The spatial part of
the line element. ................................................................................................................................... 104
9.9.5
The effect of the cosmological constant over the scale of the solar system ........................ 105
9.10
The Petrov type of the Schwarzschild spacetime .......................................................................... 106
9.11
The deflection of a light ray in a Schwarzschild metric with two different masses ...................... 113
9.12
The non-zero Weyl scalars of the Reissner-Nordstrm spacetime ............................................... 113
10
Black Holes......................................................................................................................................... 123
10.1
The Path of a Radially Infalling Particle ......................................................................................... 123
10.2
The Schwarzschild metric in Kruskal Coordinates. ........................................................................ 126
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The Kerr metric .............................................................................................................................. 129
10.3
10.3.1
The Kerr-Newman geometry ................................................................................................. 129
10.3.2
The inverse metric of the Kerr Spinning Black Hole .............................................................. 131
11
Cosmology ......................................................................................................................................... 133
11.1
Light travelling in the Universe ...................................................................................................... 133
11.2
Spaces of Positive, Negative, and Zero Curvature ......................................................................... 133
11.3
The Robertson-Walker metric ....................................................................................................... 135
11.3.1 Find the components of the Riemann tensor of the Robertson-Walker metric (Homogenous,
isotropic and expanding universe) using Cartans structure equations ................................................ 135
11.3.2
The Einstein tensor and Friedmann-equations for the Robertson Walker metric ................ 137
11.3.3
The Einstein tensor for the Robertson Walker metric Alternative version. ....................... 139
Manipulating the Friedmann equations. ....................................................................................... 140
11.4
11.5 Parameters in an flat universe with positive cosmological constant: Starting with = +
use a change of variables = ........................................................................................ 141
12
Gravitational Waves .......................................................................................................................... 142
12.1
Gauge transformation - The Einstein Gauge ................................................................................. 142
12.2
Plane waves ................................................................................................................................... 144
12.2.1
The Riemann tensor of a plane wave .................................................................................... 144
12.2.2
The line element of a plane wave in the Einstein gauge ....................................................... 148
12.2.3
The line element of a plane wave.......................................................................................... 149
12.2.4
The Rosen line element ......................................................................................................... 150
12.3
Colliding gravity waves - coordinate transformation .................................................................... 153
12.4
The delta () and heavy-side () functions: prove that = .................................... 155
12.5
Impulsive gravitational wave Region III ......................................................................................... 156
12.6
Two interacting waves ................................................................................................................... 161
12.7
The Nariai spacetime ..................................................................................................................... 166
12.8
Collision of a gravitational wave with an electromagnetic wave The non-zero spin coefficients
180
12.9
The Aichelburg-Sexl Solution The passing of a black hole .......................................................... 184
12.10
Observations: The Future Gravitational Wave detectors. ......................................................... 185
Bibliografi....................................................................................................................................................... 186
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1 Introduktion
Working with GR means working with differential equations at four different levels. It can be very useful whenever one comes across a GR calculation - to keep in mind, on which level you are working. The four
levels of differential equations are:
1. The metric or line-element:
2 =
1
Example: Gravitational red shift :
2
Light emitted upward in a gravitational field, from an observer located at some inner radius 1 to an observer positioned at some outer radius 2
2
1
2
=
2
1
= 1
2. Killings equations are conservation equations:

+ = 0
If you move along the direction of a Killing vector, then the metric does not change. This leads to conserved
quantities: A free particle moving in a direction where the metric does not change will not fell any forces.

If is a Killing vector, = ( , , , ) is the particle four velocity and is the particle four impulse,
then = = and = = along a geodesic2.

Translational symmetry: Whenever = 0 for some fixed (but for all and ) there will be a symmetry under translation along 3.
Example: Killing vectors in the Schwarzschild metric4.
The Killing vector that corresponds to the independence of the metric of is = (1,0,0,0) and of is =
(0,0,0,1). The conserved energy per unit rest mass: = = = 1 = (1

2
) . The conserved angular momentum

2 sin2 = 2 for = 2
per unit rest mass = = = 1
3. The Geodesic equation leads to equations of motion:

1
=
2

=
(
)
=0
+
2

Example: Planetary orbits5
Manipulating the geodesic equations of the Schwarzschild metric leads to the following equation
2
2 1 2
( ) + 2 =
+ 2 + 23
1
Which can be interpreted in terms of elliptic functions, = , and h and k are constants of integration.
1
(McMahon, p. 234)
(McMahon, p. 168)
3
(Carroll, s. 134)
4
(McMahon, p. 220)
5
(A.S.Eddington, pp. 85-86)
2
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4. The Einstein equations are equations describing the spacetime.

1
=
2
8 = +
In case of a cosmological constant6:
=
=
If = 4, has twenty independent component ten of which are given by and the remaining
ten by the Weyl tensor7.
Example: The Friedmann equations
A homogenous, isotropic and expanding universe described by the Robertson-Walker metric8, in this case
the Einstein equations becomes the Friedmann equations:
3
8 = 2 ( + 2 ) +
1
8 = 2 + 2 ( + 2 ) +

2 Special relativity
2.1
9How
to calculate() : Example
In flat space calculate ()2 for the following pair of events: 1 = (1,3,2,4) and 2 = (4,0, 1,1)
()2 = ()2 ()2 ()2 ()2
(1.11)
2
2
2
2
= (1 4) (3 0) (2 (1)) (4 1)
= 52 32 32 32
= 2
2.2
10The
four velocity and the four force: =
The four velocity =

0
= ( , , , ), the four impulse = 0 , the four force =
. Because = we can calculate

1
1
1
( )
= ( + ) = (0
+ 0

) = 0
2
2
1
2
is an invariant and 0
( )
= = 0
3 Metric and Vector Transformations.

3.1
11Flat
Minkowski space:
Flat Minkowski spacetime is the mathematical setting in which Einsteins special theory of relativity is most
conveniently formulated. In Cartesian coordinates with = 1 the line element is
6
(McMahon, p. 138)
(d'Inverno, p. 87)
8
(McMahon, p. 161)
9
(McMahon, 2006, p. 323), final exam 1. The answer to FE-1 is (c)
10
(McMahon, 2006, p. 324), final exam 4, and the answer to FE-4 is (a)
11
(McMahon, p. 186)
7
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2 = 2 + 2 + 2 + 2
and the metric
1 0 0 0
= { 0 1 0 0}
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
2 < 0, time-like, inside the light cone
= 0: null-vector, on the light cone
2 > 0, space-like, outside the light cone.
3.2 Other realizations of the flat space:

3.2.1 12Spherical polar coordinates
The spherical part of the metric can be transformed into spherical polar coordinates by
= sin cos
(7.2)
= sin sin
= cos
= sin cos + cos cos sin sin
= sin sin + cos sin + sin cos

(7.3)
= cos sin
2
2
= (sin cos + cos cos sin sin )

= sin2 cos 2 2 + 2 sin cos cos 2 2 sin2 sin cos
+ 2 cos2 cos2 2 2 2 sin cos sin cos
+ 2 sin2 sin2 2
2
= (sin sin + cos sin + sin cos )2
= sin2 sin2 2 + 2 sin cos sin2 + 2 sin2 sin cos
+ 2 cos2 sin2 2 + 2 2 cos sin cos sin
+ 2 sin2 cos2 2
2
= (cos sin )2
= cos2 2 2 cos sin + 2 sin2 2
2 + 2 + 2
= sin2 cos 2 2 + 2 sin cos cos 2 2 sin2 sin cos
+ 2 cos2 cos2 2 2 2 sin cos sin cos
+ 2 sin2 sin2 2 + sin2 sin2 2 + 2 sin cos sin2
+ 2 sin2 sin cos + 2 cos2 sin2 2
+ 2 2 cos sin cos sin + 2 sin2 cos2 2 + cos2 2
2 cos sin + 2 sin2 2
2
2
= sin cos 2 + 2 sin cos cos 2 + 2 cos 2 cos2 2
+ 2 sin2 sin2 2 + sin2 sin2 2 + 2 sin cos sin2
+ 2 cos2 sin2 2 + 2 sin2 cos 2 2 + cos 2 2
2 cos sin + 2 sin2 2
2
2
= (sin cos + sin2 sin2 + cos2 ) 2
+ (2 sin cos cos2 2 cos sin + 2 sin cos sin2 )
+ ( 2 cos2 cos 2 + 2 cos 2 sin2 + 2 sin2 ) 2
+ ( 2 sin2 sin2 + 2 sin2 cos 2 ) 2
2
2
= (sin (cos + sin2 ) + cos2 ) 2
+ (2 sin cos (cos2 + sin2 ) 2 cos sin )
+ 2 (cos 2 (cos2 + sin2 ) + sin2 ) 2
+ 2 sin2 (sin2 + cos 2 ) 2
12
(Hartle, 2003, p. 135)
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Susan Larsen
= (sin2 + cos 2 ) 2 + (2 sin cos 2 cos sin )

+ 2 (cos 2 + sin2 ) 2 + 2 sin2 2
2
2
2
= + + 2 sin2 2
The transformed line element is
2 = 2 + 2 + 2 2 + 2 sin2 2
(7.4)
3.2.2 13Flat space with a singularity

Look at the line element of the two-dimensional plane in polar coordinates ( = 0)
(7.6)
2 = 2 + 2 2
and make the transformation, for some constant
2
=
2
2
= ( ) = 2
2 =
2
4
2
4 2
2
2
= 4 + ( ) 2
(7.7)
= 4 ( 2 + 2 2 )
This line element blows up at = 0. Not because something physically interesting happens here, but
2
simply because the coordinate transformation = has mapped all the points at into = 0.
14
We can show that that the distance between = 0 and a point with any finite value of is infinite,
which corresponds to the distance between some finite value of and :

4
= 4 ( 2 + 2 2 )
1
2
2
= 4 (1 + ( ) )
0
2
= 2
= [
=0

]
0
3.2.3 15Coordinate transformations

The following line element corresponds to flat spacetime
2 = 2 + 2 + 2 + 2
with the metric
1 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
= {
}
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
Find a coordinate transformation that puts the line element in the usual flat space form
2 = 2 + 2 + 2 + 2
13
(Hartle, 2003, p. 136)

(Hartle, 2003, p. 163), problem 7.1
15
(Hartle, 2003, p. 164), problem 7.2
14
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We want to find the matrix, that transforms into

=
we have

=

=
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
={
}{
}
0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1
1 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
={
}
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
2 = 2 + 2 + 2 + 2
2
2
= ( )2 + 2( )( ) + +
2
2
= 2 2 + 2 + 2 2 2 + +
2
2
2
= + 2 + +
We check
=
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
={
}{
}
0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1
1 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
={
}
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
3.2.4 16Flat space in two dimensions
Yet another realization of flat space in two dimensions is the line element
(7.20)
2 = 2 2 + 2
This can be found from the coordinate transformation
= sinh()
= cosh()
= sinh() + cosh()
= cosh() + sinh()
2 = 2 + 2
= (sinh() + cosh() )2 + (cosh() + sinh() )2
= sinh2 () 2 2 cosh2() 2 2 sinh() cosh() + cosh2() 2
+ 2 sinh2() 2 + 2 cosh() sinh()
16
(Hartle, 2003, p. 143), example 7.3
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Susan Larsen

= (cosh2() sinh2()) 2 2 (cosh2() sinh2()) 2
= 2 2 2
3.2.5 17The Penrose Diagram for Flat Space

A Penrose diagram is a method to map the infinite coordinates such as , with the range < < +,
and , with the range 0 < < +, into to coordinates with finite ranges.
Begin with the flat space line element in spherical polar coordinates
(7.4)
2 = 2 + 2 + 2 2 + 2 sin2 2
and replace and by the coordinates
=
=+
1
1
= ( + )
= ( )
2
2
1
1
= ( + )
= ( )
2
2
2 = 2 + 2 + 2 2 + 2 sin2 2
2
2
2
1
1
1
= ( ( + )) + ( ( )) + ( ( )) ( 2 + sin2 2 )
2
2
2
1
2
= + (( )) ( 2 + sin2 2 )
4
The (, ) axes are rotated with respect to the (, ) axes by 45 . Radial light rays travel on lines of either
constant or constant . Remember radial light rays has constant and and 2 = 0, which leaves us
with = 0.
Make a further transformation of and to new coordinates and .
= tan1
= tan1
= tan
= tan
2
= (1 + tan )
= (1 + tan2 )
1
2
2 = + (( )) ( 2 + sin2 2 )
4
1
2
= (1 + tan2 )(1 + tan2 ) + ((tan tan )) ( 2 + sin2 2 )
4
Map these coordinates into a ( , ) diagram, where
= tan1 =
= tan1 = +
Because tan1 lies between 2 and + 2 the ranges for ( , ) and ( , ) are finite. This is another
example of how the infinite coordinates (, ) is mapped into a finite region.
3.3
18The
line-element and metric of an ellipsoid:
The line-element of an ellipsoid in Cartesian coordinates

2 = 2 + 2 + 2
We use the parameterization
= cos sin
= sin sin
= cos
With 0 2 in the -plane and 0 where the axis corresponds to = 0.
= (cos cos sin sin )
= (sin cos + cos sin )
= sin
17
18
(Hartle, 2003, p. 137), Box 7.1

(Hartle, 2003, p. 29), problem 2-8.
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Susan Larsen
= 2 (cos cos sin sin )2

= 2 [cos2 cos 2 2 + sin2 sin2 2 2 cos cos sin sin ]
2
= [sin2 cos 2 2 + cos 2 sin2 2 + 2 sin cos cos sin ]
2 = 2 sin2 2
Collecting the results in terms of 2, 2 and we get the line element
2 = [cos2 (2 cos2 + 2 sin2 ) + 2 sin2 ] 2 + sin2 (2 sin2 + 2 cos2 ) 2
+ 2( 2 2 )(cos cos sin sin )
and the metric tensor
cos 2 (2 cos2 + 2 sin2 ) + 2 sin2 ( 2 2 )(cos cos sin sin )
= {
}
( 2 2 )(cos cos sin sin )
sin2 (2 sin2 + 2 cos2 )
As a funny observation you can now calculate the line-element and metric tensor of an idealized egg. For
1
an idealized egg we can choose = = 2
2 = 2 [(cos2 + 4 sin2 ) 2 + sin2 2 ]

2
2
0 }
= 2 {cos + 4 sin
0
sin2
19The
3.4
signature of a metric.
Here we are going to investigate what happens to various quantities when a metric, ,changes signature.
1

No change
= (
Christoffel symbols
+
)
2

No change
= +
Riemann tensor
No change
Ricci tensor
=
Changes sign
Ricci scalar
=
1
No change
Einstein tensor
=
2
No change
Energy tensor
8 =
1
Changes sign
Cosmological constant
= +
2
20Three-dimensional
3.5
flat space in spherical coordinates and vector trans-
formation
19
20
2
The line element
The metric tensor:
Given
=
=
= (,
= 2 + 2 2 + 2 sin2 2
1
={
}
2
2
2
sin
1
1
,
) calculate .
rsin cos2
(2.17)
= (1 )()
1
= ( 2 ) (
)
rsin
sin
(McMahon, 2006, p. 36)

(McMahon, 2006, p. 46), Quiz 2-5, the answer to the quiz 2-5 is (c)
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Susan Larsen
3.6
21

1
= ( 2 sin2 ) ( 2 ) = 2 tan2
cos
Static Weak Field Metric
In this model the flat spacetime geometry of special relativity is modified to introduce a slight curvature
that will explain geometrically the behavior of clocks. Further, the world lines of extremal proper time in
this modified geometry will reproduce the predictions of Newtonian mechanics for motion in a gravitational potential for nonrelativistic velocities. ( ) is a function of position satisfying the Newtonian field
equation22 2 () = 4()and assumed to vanish at infinity. For example outside Earth () =
. This line element is predicted by general relativity for small curvatures produced by time-independent weak sources, and it is a good approximation to the curved spacetime geometry produced by the
Sun.
2( )
2( )
2
(6.20)
()
2 = (1 +
+
)
(1
) ( 2 + 2 + 2 )
2
2
3.6.1 23Rates of Emission and Reception
We look at a system where two light signals are emitted in a system A, described by a world line (, ),
with a proper time separation . We want to predict: what is the proper time separation in a system
B, described by a world line (, ) in a static weak field limit where 2 1. This implies = 0, ( ) =
2
( , 0,0) = and 2 = 2 . Also notice that because the metric is independent of the coordinate ,
is the same in both systems. This leads to
2
2 = (1 + 2 ) ()2
and
Eliminating we get
2
)
2
~24 (1 + 2 )
~ (1 + 2 )
= (1 +
(6.21)
(6.22)
)
2
=
(1 + 2 )
~25 (1 + 2 ) (1 2 )

(6.23)
~ (1 +
)
2
which tells us the observed fact, that when the receiver is at a higher gravitational potential that the
emitter , the signals will be received more slowly than they were emitted and vice versa.
(1 +
21
(Hartle, 2003, p. 126)

(Hartle, 2003, p. 40) eq. (3.18)
23
(Hartle, 2003, p. 127)
1
24
1 + ~1 + if 1
22
25
1
1+
~1 if 1
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Susan Larsen
3.7
26NEW
- Local inertial frames
A local inertial frame is defined by the conditions
( ) =
and
=0
(7.13)
This means that if you have a system described by a metric it can locally in a point be transformed
into the flat space metric . Furthermore the first derivatives of the transformed metric vanish. This is
best illustrated by an example.
3.7.1 27The metric of a Sphere at the North Pole.
The line element of the geometry of a sphere with radius is
(7.14)
2 = 2 ( 2 + sin2 2 )
At the north pole = 0, and the metric doesnt look like the metric of a flat plane at all. Can we find a
coordinate transformation so that
= {1 0}
or
2 = 2 + 2
0 1
Look at the coordinates
(7.15)
= cos
= sin
At the north pole both and are zero.
Next we calculate
2 + 2 = ( cos )2 + ( sin )2
= 2 2 (cos2 + sin2 )
= 2 2
1
(7.16)
= 2 + 2
sin
=
cos
= tan
(7.16)
= tan1 ( )
The differentials
1
= ( 2 + 2 )
1
1
(2 + 2)
=
2 2 + 2
1
1
( + )
=
2 + 2
(tan ) = ( )
(1 + tan2 ) = 2
(1 + ( ) ) = 2
( 2 + 2 ) =
= 2
+ 2
The line element
2 = 2 ( 2 + sin2 2 )
26
27
(Hartle, 2003, p. 140)

(Hartle, 2003, p. 141) example 7.2
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Susan Larsen

2
1
1
2
2
2
( + )) + sin ( 2
= ((
) )
2 + 2
+ 2
1
( 2 2 + 2 2 + 2)
+ 2
sin 2 2 2
+( 2
) ( + 2 2 2)
+ 2
1
2 sin2 2
2 sin2 2
2
2
2
= 2
(( + 2
) + ( + 2
) 2
+ 2
+ 2
+ 2
=
2 sin2
) )
2 + 2
2
2
1
=( 2
+
2 sin2 ( 2 + 2 )) 2
2
2
2
2
( + )
+
2
2
1
2
2
2 + 2 )) 2
+( 2
+
sin
(
+ 2 ( 2 + 2 )2
1
+ 2( 2
2 sin2 ( 2 + 2 ))
+ 2 ( 2 + 2 )2
+ 2 (1
The metric
2
2
1
+
2 sin2 ( 2 + 2 )
2
2
2
2
2
( + )
+
2
2
1
= 2
+ 2
2 sin2 ( 2 + 2 )
2
2
2
( + )
+
1
= = 2
2
2 sin2 ( 2 + 2 )
2
2
2
( + )
+
If we evaluate these around the north pole where and are small28
2
= 1
32
2
= 1
32
= = 2
3
At the north pole i.e. (, ) = (0,0)
((, ) = (0,0)) =
|
=0
(,)=(0,0)
28
Use wxMaxima http://maxima.sourceforge.net/to evaluate the Taylor polynomials to second order:

g_xx(x,y) := x^2/(x^2+y^2)+a^2*sin(1/a*sqrt(x^2+y^2))*sin(1/a*sqrt(x^2+y^2))*y^2/(x^2+y^2)^2;
g_yy(x,y) := y^2/(x^2+y^2)+a^2*sin(1/a*sqrt(x^2+y^2))*sin(1/a*sqrt(x^2+y^2))*x^2/(x^2+y^2)^2;
g_xy(x,y) :=x*y/(x^2+y^2)-a^2*sin(1/a*sqrt(x^2+y^2))*sin(1/a*sqrt(x^2+y^2))*x*y/(x^2+y^2)^2;
taylor(g_xx(x,y),[x,y],[0,0],[2,2]);
taylor(g_yy(x,y),[x,y],[0,0],[2,2]);
taylor(g_xy(x,y),[x,y],[0,0],[2,2]);
g_xx(x,y)=1-y^2/(3*a^2)+...
g_yy(x,y)= 1-x^2/(3*a^2)+...
g_xy(x,y) =(y*x)/(3*a^2)+...
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Susan Larsen
3.8
29New
- Length, Area, Volume and Four-Volume for Diagonal Metrics
For a diagonal metric of the type

(7.27)
2 = 00 0 0 + 11 1 1 + 22 2 2 + 33 3 3
you can define proper length elements in the various coordinates as
1 = 11 1
2 = 22 2
3 = 33 3
The area element
= 1 2
(7.28)
= 11 22 1 2
Notice, that it is not always the 11 and 22 that are involved in the calculation of the area. As we shall see
below it can also be the 22 and 33
The three-volume element
= 1 2 3
(7.29)
= 11 22 33 1 2 3
The four-volume element
(7.30)
= 00 11 22 33 0 1 2 3
In the case of a non-diagonal metric the four-volume element is
= 4
where is the determinant of the matrix
3.8.1 30Area and Volume Elements of a Sphere
The line element of flat space in polar coordinates
2 = 2 + 2 + 2 2 + 2 sin2
The proper length elements
1 =
2 =
3 = sin
The area element
= 2 3
= 2 sin
The area
=
= 2 sin
(7.31)
(7.32)
= 2 sin
0
= 2 2 [ cos ]0
= 2 2 ((1 1))
= 4 2
The three-volume element
= 1 2 3
=
= 2 sin
The three-volume
=
29
30
(Hartle, 2003, p. 146)

(Hartle, 2003, p. 147) example 7-5
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Susan Larsen

= 2 sin
= 2
= 4 2
0
1
= 4 [ 3 ]
3
0
4 3
=
3.8.2
31Distance,
Area and Volume in the Curved Space of a Constant Density Spherical Star
or a Homogenous Closed Universe
The spherical line element is ( is a constant related to the density of matter)
1
2 + 2 2 + 2 sin2 2
2 =
2
1 ( )
The proper length elements
1
1 =
2
1 ( )
2 =
3 = sin
The circumference around equator where = and = 2
= 3
2
= sin
0
= 2
The distance from the center ( = 0) to surface ( = ) along a line where = . and = .
= 1
1 ( )
2
2
0

= 32 [sin1 ]
0
1
= sin
The area of the two-surface at =

=
= 2 3
0
(7.36)
= 2 sin
0
= 4 2
The volume inside = is
31
32
(7.37)
(Hartle, 2003, p. 147) example 7.6

(Spiegel, 1990) (14.237)
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Susan Larsen
=
= 1 2 3
2
2
=
sin
2
0
0
0
1 ( )
2
= 4
2
2
0
2 1
2
2
= 334 [ sin ( ) ]
2
2
0
2
1 ( ) ]
= 43 [ sin1 ( )
2
=
3.8.3
344 3
1 1
( sin ( )
1( ) )
2
(7.38)
35Distance,
Area, Volume and four-volume of a metric

= (1 2 )2 2 + (1 2 )2 2 + 2 2 + 2 sin2 2
0 = (1 2 )
1 = (1 2 )
2 =
3 = sin
The proper distance along a radial line from the center = 0 to a coordinate radius =
= 1
2
= (1 2 )
0
1 3
= [ ]
3
0
1 3
=
3
The area of a sphere of coordinate radius =
= 2 3
= 2 sin
0
= 4 2
The three-volume of a sphere of coordinate radius =
= 1 2 3
= 2 (1 2 ) sin
0
1
1
= 4 [ 3 5 ]
3
5
0
33
(Spiegel, 1990) (14.239)
34
For / 1: = 43 ( sin1 ( )
43
35
1
2
11 3
1 3
23
( ) + ( ) )=
4
3
1 () ) = 43 1 ( + 1 1 () (1 1 () )) =
23
3 (Spiegel, 1990) (20.27) (20.12)
(Hartle, 2003, p. 166) problem 7-14
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Susan Larsen
1
1
= 4 ( 3 5 )
3
5
The four-volume of a four-dimensional tube bounded by a sphere of coordinate radius and two =
planes separated by a time
= 0 1 2 3
= 2 (1 2 )2 sin
0
= 4
2 (1
2 4
+ 2
2 )
1
2
2 5
= 4 [ 3 + 7
]
3
7
5
0
4 3 6 5 32 7
=
+
)
(
3
5
7
3.8.4 36The dimensions of a peanut
The line-element of a peanut geometry is
2 = 2 2 + 2 2 () 2
3
() = sin (1 sin2 )
4
1 =
2 = ()
The distance from pole to pole ( = 0)
= 1
=
0
=
The circumference at a constant angle
= 2
2
= ()
0
= ()
0
= 2()
3
= 2 sin (1 sin2 )
4
At the center or equator =

2
= 2 sin ( ) (1 sin2 ( ))
2
4
2
3
= 2 (1 )
4
=
2
The area of a peanut
= 1 2
= 2 ()
0
36
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Susan Larsen
3
= 22 sin (1 sin2 )
4
0
3
= 22 (1 (1 cos 2 )) sin
4
0
1
3
= 22 (1 (1 2 ))
4
1
2 1
= (1 + 3 2 )
2
1
2
= [ + 3 ]11
2
2
= (1 1 1 1)
2
= 22
3.8.5 37The dimensions of an egg

The line-element
2 = 2 [(cos2 + 4 sin2 ) 2 + sin2 2 ]
The circumference of the egg at constant
2
() = sin
0
= 2 sin
The distance from pole to pole
= cos2 + 4 sin2
0
= 1 + 3 sin2
0
= 4,84
= 0,77 2
The ratio of the biggest circle around the axis to the pole-to-pole distance is
2
( = 2 )
=
0,77 2
= 1,3
The surface area of an egg
= 2 sin 1 + 3 sin2
0
= 3,41 2 2
3.8.6 38Length and volume of the Schwarzschild geometry

The spatial part of the Schwarzschild line element is
2 1 2
2 = (1
) 2 2 2 sin2 2
(a) The radial distance between the sphere = 2 and the sphere = 3
= 1
37
38

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Susan Larsen
1 2
2
2
2
= 39 [( 2)]
3
2
+
2
( 2)
= 40 [( 2) + 2 ln( + 2)]
(b)
3
2
= 3 + 2 ln(3 + ) 2 ln(2)
3
3 + 1
= ( + ln (
)) 2
2
2
1,52 2
The spatial volume between the sphere = 2 and the sphere = 3
3
1 2 3
=
2
3
sin
0
0
1 2
= 4 17,15 3
4
(2)3
= 6,43
3
2
3.8.7 41Volume in the Wormhole geometry

The three-dimensional volume on a = slice of the wormhole geometry bounded by two
spheres of coordinate radius on each side of the throat.
The line-element
(7.39)
2 = 2 + 2 + ( 2 + 2 )( 2 + sin2 2 )
The volume
= 1 2 3
= ( 2 + 2 ) sin
= 4 ( 2 + 2 )
1
= 4 [ 2 + 3 ]
3
1
1
= 4 (( 2 + 3 ) (()2 + ()3 ))
3
3
4
=
2 (3 2 + 2 )
3
39
40
41
+ =
(+)(+)
(+)(+) =
(+)(+) (Spiegel, 1990) (14.123)
ln(( + ) + ( + )) (Spiegel, 1990) (14.120)
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Susan Larsen
4 Tensor Calculus
4.1 Christoffel symbols.
4.1.1
4.1.2
and in a diagonal metric

1
(4.15)
= ( +
)
2

1
= ( +
)
2

1
= ( )
2
1
= ( +
)
2

1
= ( )
2
42
43Find
the Christoffel symbols of the 2-sphere with radius

The line element:
2 = 2 2 + 2 sin2 2
The metric tensor and its inverse:
We have:

=
4.1.3
= {
2 sin2
1
2
= {
1
2
sin2
1
= ( + ) (4.15)
2
(4.16)
=
1
= = sin cos
= (2 sin2 ) = 2 sin cos
2
1
= (2 sin2 ) = 2 sin cos = = = cot

2
44Find
the Christoffel symbols of the Kahn-Penrose metric (Colliding gravitational

waves)
The line element: 2 = 2 (1 )2 2 (1 + )2 2
1
1
The metric tensor: = {
}
(1 )2
(1 + )2
42
(McMahon, 2006, p. 324), final exam 6. The answer to FE-6 is (d)

(McMahon, 2006, p. 74), example 4-4
44
(McMahon, 2006, p. 75), example 4-5, quiz 4-7, the answer to quiz 4-7 is (b)
43
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Susan Larsen

1
1
and its inverse:
1
(1 )2
1
(1 + )2 }
4.2
1
= ( + )
2
1
= ((1 )2 ) = (1 )
2
1
= (1 )
= ((1 )2 )
2
1
= ((1 + )2 ) = (1 + )
2
1
= (1 + )
= ((1 + )2 )
2
45Alternative
(4.15)
(4.16)
= (1 )
1
1
= (1 + )
1
1+
solution: Show that =
If
p.69:
= :
since = (4.14):
and + = (p. 73):
=
=
=
= ( + )
=
=0
Q.E.D.
4.3 One-forms.
4.3.1 46One-forms: why =
For general forms, let be a -form and be a -form, we have
= (1)
For one-forms this means
=
= = 0
This also holds for = because is a one-form as well.
2
=

2
=

2
=

2
and
=

45
46
(i)
(ii)
(i)
(ii)

(McMahon, 2006, p. 80)
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Susan Larsen
Now, because the partial derivatives commutate, this can only be true if = 0 and 2 = 0
(4.25)
4.3.2 47The exterior derivative of a one-form.
The exterior derivative of a one-form :
( ) =
(4.26)
To use this equation it is important to notice, that the right-hand side includes a summation of the partial
derivatives times the differential in the usual way: ( ) =

( ) .
Example 4-848
= ()
= ( () )
= ( () )
= ( () )
= () ()
= () cos sin
= ( () cos sin )
= ( () cos sin )
()
= ( () cos sin ) +
cos sin )
(
+
( () cos sin )
()
=
cos sin ) +
(
( () cos sin )
= () sin sin + () cos cos
4.4 The geodesic equation.

4.4.1
Find the geodesic equations for cylindrical coordinates

The line element:
2 = 2 + 2 2 + 2
49
1
={
}
1
1
= ( + ) (4.15)
2
1
= ( 2 ) =
2
1
=

= ( 2 )
2
={
1
2
}
1
(4.16)
47
(McMahon, 2006, p. 80) equation (4.26)

You will find a more extended use of equation (4.26) in e.g. the Brinkmann metric, chapter 9, p.195 (McMahon,
2006).
49
48
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Susan Larsen
The geodesics equation:
= :
= :
= :
2

2

2
( )
2

+
2

2

+
+
2

2 2
+
2
2

+
2

2
2
= 0 (4.33)
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
The Christoffel symbols from the geodesic equations
We have
Now we need
1
1
1
1
2
= = ( )2 + 2 () + ( )2
2
2
2
2

=
(
)

=
( )

2 =
( ) =
0
= 2

=
( )

2
0
=
( ) = 2 + 2
1
1
0
= + +
=
( )

0 =
( ) =
= :
= :
= :
(4.35)
(4.36)
Collecting the results

= 2
1
1
0 = + +
0 =
0
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Susan Larsen
We can now find the Christoffel symbols from the geodesic equation :
=
1
1
=
=
4.4.2 50Use the geodesic equations to find the Christoffel symbols for the Rindler metric.
The Rindler coordinate system or frame describes a uniformly accelerating frame of reference in Minkowski space.
The line element:
2
= 2 2 2
2
={
The metric tensor:
}
1
We have
Now we need
= :
= :
0
0
1
1
1
= = 2 ( )2 2
2
2
2

=
(
)

=
( )

=
( ) =
= + 2

=
( )

2
( ) = 2 + 2
=
1
1
= + +
(4.35)
(4.36)

= + 2
= 2 + 2
We can now find the Christoffel symbols from the geodesic equation:
=
1
1
=
=
4.4.3 51New - Geodesics Equations of the plane in polar coordinates

We use the Euler-Lagrange method.

0 =
( ) (10.36)52

50

(Hartle, 2003, p. 171) Example 8-1
52
(McMahon, 2006)
51
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Susan Larsen
1
(4.35)53
=
2
The line element
(8.2)
2 = 2 + 2 2
1 2 1 2 2
= +
2
2
= :
= 2
= 2
= :
=0
= 2
0 =
( )
= 2 + 2
2

(8.6a)
= 2
2
(8.6b)
=
54
The non-zero Christoffel symbols are
=
(8.17)
1
= =
4.4.4 New 55Equations for geodesics in a Wormhole Geometry

We use the Euler-Lagrange method.

0 =
( )

1
=
2
The line element
2 = 2 + 2 + ( 2 + 2 )( 2 + sin2 2 )
1
1
1
1
= 2 + 2 + ( 2 + 2 ) 2 + ( 2 + 2 ) sin2 2
2
2
2
2
= :
=0
(10.36)56
(4.35)57
(8.11)
53
(McMahon, 2006)
(Hartle, 2003, p. 173) Example 8.3
55
(Hartle, 2003, p. 172), example 8.2
56
(McMahon, 2006)
57
(McMahon, 2006)
54
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Susan Larsen
= :
= :

( )


=0
= ( 2 + sin2 2 )
=
= 2 + sin2 2
= ( 2 + 2 ) sin cos 2
= ( 2 + 2 )
= 2 + ( 2 + 2 )
= sin cos 2
= :
( 2
2

+ 2)
=0
= ( 2 + 2 ) sin2
0 =
(( 2 + 2 ) sin2 )
= 2 sin2 + 2( 2 + 2 ) sin cos + ( 2 + 2 ) sin2

2
2 cot
= 2
( + 2 )
(8.13a)
= 0
2
2
2
(8.13b)
= + sin
2
(8.13c)

= sin cos 2 2
( + 2 )
2
(8.13d)
2 cot
= 2
( + 2 )
58
The non-zero Christoffel symbols are
= sin2
=
= sin cos
= = ( 2
(8.18)
+ 2)
= = 2
= = cot
( + 2 )
4.5 New - Solving the geodesic equation

4.5.1 59New - The travel time through a wormhole
Use the geodesic equations to calculate the proper travel time of an astronaut travelling through a wormhole throat along the coordinate radius from = to = . The initial radial four-velocity is ,
and because of spherically symmetry = = 0
The four-velocity is
58
59

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Susan Larsen
= ( , , , )

=( , , , )

= 60 (1 + 2 , , 0, 0)
we will only look at . We use the geodesic equation
= 2 + sin2 2
which we can rewrite
2
= 2 + sin2 2
2
=0
2

=
( )

2
=0
which implies that = is a constant along the astronauts world-line. So we can solve
=
1

1
= []
1
= ( ())
2
=
(8.21)
(8.13b)
(8.22)
(8.24)
4.5.2 61NEW - Geodesics in the Plane Using Polar Coordinates.

We know that the geodesics in the plane are straight lines. We can show this by using the line element,
the Killing vector and the conserved quantity = = .
The line element
(8.2)
2 = 2 + 2 2
2
2
(8.33)
1 = ( ) + 2 ( )
The metric is independent of so we have a Killing vector

= (0,1)
And a conserved quantity
=
=
=
= +
=10
+ 2 1
60
is found from the fact that the = 1 is a conserved quantity: = = ( )2 + ( )2 +

2
( ) + ( ) = ( )2 + 2 = 1 = 1 + 2
61
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Susan Larsen
This we can insert into the line element and integrate

2
2
1 = ( ) + 2 ( )
2
2
( ) = 1 2 ( )
2
= 1 2 ( 2)
2
=1( )
1
2 2
= (1 () )
= 62 2
We want to find as a function of
(8.34)
(8.35)
(8.36)
2 2
2 (1 () )
( 2 2 )2
=
1
( 2 2 )2
= 63
cos1
2
+
2
2 2
= cos 1 ( ) +
= cos( )
= cos cos + sin sin
= cos + sin
= cot +
sin
= +
Straight lines as expected.
(8.38)
4.6 Killing Vectors

4.6.1
that if the Lie derivative of the metric tensor with respect to vector X vanishes
( = ), the vector X satisfies the Killing equation. - Alternative version
Expressions needed:
Killings equation:
(8.1)
b + = 0
62
64Show
Notice this is equivalent with the geodesic equation we found before
( 2 ) = 0
63
= cos 1 (Spiegel, 1990) (14.334)
64
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Susan Larsen
= + +
= 0
Now we can Calculate the Lie-derivative of (4.28) and using (4.18)
= + +
= ( ) + ( )
= +
If = 0 this implies that + = 0, which is the Killing equation.
The Lie derivative of a (0,2) tensor:
(4.28)
(4.18)
4.6.2 65Prove that =

We have
(8.6)
b =
Contracting with :
( b ) = ( )
a b =
(8.7)
a b =
4.6.3 66Constructing a Conserved Current with Killing Vectors Alternative version:
We write = = ( )
and
= b = (b )
1
1
Now
= + b
2
2
1
= 2( ( ) + (b )) is symmetric so =
p.155
1
Killings equation
( ) + (b ) = 0 (8.1)
= (( ) + (b ))
2
=0
4.6.4 67Given a Killing vector the Ricci scalar satisfies = :
We calculate the Lie derivative:
(4.28)
= + +
Multiplikation by :
( ) = ( ) + ( ) + ( )
Using = 0, and = 0:
= ( ) + +
= + +
= + +
= + +
= + ( ) + ( )
= + +
= + ( + )
=
Now the Lie derivative of a scalar is zero = 0, so
= 0
4.7
68The
Riemann tensor
Prove: = +
(4.42)
65
(McMahon, 2006, p. 177) equation (8.7)

(McMahon, 2006, p. 178)
67
(McMahon, 2006, p. 179), quiz 8-3, the answer to Quiz 8-3 is (a)
68
(McMahon, 2006, p. 86), equations (4.42), (4.43) and (4.44)
66
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Susan Larsen
First we need
= = = 0
=
= ( + )
= +
= ( ) ( ) ( ) + ( ) +

= ( + ) + ( + ) +
= ( + ) + ( + ) + e
= +
1
(4.18)
(4.41)
(4.42)
Prove: = 2 (
+ ) +
= +
1

1

= ( +
(
+
) +

2

1 2
2
2
1 2
2
2
= ( + ) ( + )
2

2

+
1 2
2
2
2
= ( + ) +
2

(4.43)
(4.42)
(4.43)
Prove that (4.44): = = = and + + = 0

1 2
2
2
2
(4.43)
= ( + ) +
2

1 2
2
2
2
= ( + ) +
2

1 2
2
2
2
= ( + ) +
2

1 2
2
2
2
= ( + ) + ( )
2

1 2
2
2
2
= 69 ( + ) +
2

1 2
2
2
2
= ( + ) + = Q.E.D.
2

2
2
2
1

2
= ( + ) +
2

Q.E.D.
=
2
2
2
2
1

= ( + ) +
2

1 2
2
2
2
= ( + ) +
2

69
= if the metric is diagonal
Page 32

Susan Larsen
1 2
2
2
2
= ( + ) +
2

1 2
2
2
2
= ( + ) +
2

1 2
2
2
2
= ( + ) +
2

Q.E.D.
=
1 2
2
2
2
= ( + ) +
2

2
2
2
1

2
= ( + ) +
2

+
1 2
2
2
2
= ( + ) +
2

2
2
1

2
2
+ ( + ) +
2

1 2
2
2
2
= ( + ) +
2

Q.E.D.
=
Also notice
= + = +
=0
= + = 0
1 2
2
2
2
= ( + ) +
2

1 2
2
2
2
= ( + ) +
2

= + = + = 0
1 2
2
2
2
= ( + ) + = 0
2

2
2
2
1

2
= ( + ) + = 0
2

2
2
2
1

2
= ( + ) + = 0
2

(4.42)
(4.43)
4.7.1 70Independent elements in the Riemann, Ricci and Weyl tensor

In dimensions, there are = 2 (2 1)/12 independent elements in the Riemann tensor. In
the Ricci tensor there are = ( + 1)/2 independent elements, and in the Weyl tensor there are
= 10 independent elements if = 4, if < 4 there are none. Summarized:
( + 1)
2 (2 1)
=
=
2
12
1
3
0
=2
1212
11
12
70
(McMahon, 2006, p. 87)
Page 33

Susan Larsen
=3
1212
1213
1223
1313
1323
2323
=4
20
10
22
11
22
23
13
12
33
=
1212
1213
1214
1223
1224
1234
1313
1314
1323
1324
1334
1414
1423 72
1424
1434
2323
2324
2334
2424
2434
3434
4.7.2
10
71
11
22
23
24
13
14
33
12
34
44
1223
1224
1234
1323
1324
1334
1423 73
1424
1434
2334
2434
74Compute
the components of the Riemann tensor for the unit 2-sphere

The number of independent elements in the Riemann tensor in a metric of dimension = 2 is
=
2 (2 1)
12
= 1 so we can choose to calculate
The Riemann tensor = +

We choose = = , and = =
(4.41)
= +
= +
71
The Weyl tensor possesses the same symmetries as the Riemann tensor: = = = and
+ + = 0. It possesses an additional symmetry: = 0. It follows that the Weyl tensor is tracefree, in other words, it vanishes for any pair of contracted indices. One can think of the Weyl tensor as that part of the
curvature tensor for which all contractions vanish (d'Inverno, 1992, p. 88)
72
Because: + + = 0
73
Because: + + = 0
74
Page 34

Susan Larsen
Sum over : = + +
=
= ( sin cos ) cot ( sin cos )
= cos2 + sin2 + cos 2
= sin2
75Show
4.8
that the Ricci scalar = for the unit 2-sphere
The line element:
= 2 + sin2 2
= {1
The Ricci scalar:
Sum over a:
Sum over b:
Sum over c
sin2
=
=
=
=
=
1
={
1 }
sin2
(4.47)
= +
= + + +
= +
= +
+ +
+
+
2
2
= = 0
=

(4.46)
=0
(4.44)
= sin2
ex 4-11
1
= 2 2 sin2
sin
=2
4.9
Remark
that
= 2
= 222 1212
is a general solution for a 2-dimensional diagonal metric if we

write:
(S1)
76Proof:
if a space is conformally flat, i.e. () = () the Weyl tensor

vanishes
The Weyl scalar
75
76
1
1
(4.49)
= + ( + ) + ( )
2
6
1
1
= + ( + ) + ( )
2
6
1
= + ( + )
2
1
+ ( )
6

(McMahon, 2006, p. 90)
Page 35

Susan Larsen
1
= + ()2 ( + )
2
1
+ ()4 ( )
6
1
2 (
= + () + )
2
1
+ ()4 ( )
6
1 2
2
2
2
= ( + ) +
2

1
1 2
2
2
2
+ ()2 ( ( ( + )
2
2

+
1 2
2
2
2
+ ( ( + ) + )
2

1 2
2
2
2
( ( + ) + )
2

1 2
2
2
2
( ( + ) + ))
2

1
1 2
2
2
2
+ ()4 ( ) ( ( + )
6
2

1
= 77 (( )2 + ( )2 ( )2 ( )2 )() +
2
1
1
+ ()2 ( ( (( )2 + ( )2 ( )2 ( )2 )()
2
2
+
+ ( (( )2 + ( )2 ( )2 ( )2 )() + )
2
1
( (( )2 + ( )2 ( )2 ( )2 )() + )
2
1
( (( )2 + ( )2 ( )2 ( )2 )() + ))
2
1
1
+ ()4 ( ) ( (( )2 + ( )2 ( )2 ( )2 )()
6
2
+ )
= +
1
+ ()2 ( ( + ) + ( + )
2
( + ) ( + ))
1
+ ()4 ( )( + )
6
77
1 + 1 1 1 = 0 = = = =
(( )2 + ( )2 ( )2 ( )2 )() = {
0 0
Page 36

Susan Larsen
= ( + )
1
+ ()2 ( ( + ) + ( + )
2
( + ) ( + ))
1
+ ()4 ( )( + )
6
= () ( + )
1
+ ()3 ( ( + ) + ( + )
2
( + ) ( + ))
1
+ ()5 ( )( + )
6
1
1
= () ( ( ( + )) ( ( + ))
2
2
1
1
+ ( ( + )) ( ( + )))
2
2
1
1
1
+ ()3 ( ( ( ( + )) ( ( +
2
2
2
1
1
)) + ( ( + )) ( ( + )))
2
2
1
1
+ ( ( ( + )) ( ( + ))
2
2
1
1
+ ( ( + )) ( ( + )))
2
2
1
1
( ( ( + )) ( ( + ))
2
2
1
1
+ ( ( + )) ( ( + )))
2
2
1
1
( ( ( + )) ( ( + ))
2
2
1
1
+ ( ( + )) ( ( + ))))
2
2
1
+ ()5 (
6
1
1
) ( ( ( + )) ( ( + ))
2
2
1
1
+ ( ( + )) ( ( + )))
2
2
Page 37

Susan Larsen
1
1
= () ( ( ( + )) ( ( + ))
2
2
1
1
+ ( ( + )) ( ( + ))) ()
2
2
1
1
1
+ ()3 ( ( ( ( + )) ( ( +
2
2
2
1
1
)) + ( ( + )) ( ( + )))
2
2
1
1
+ ( ( ( + )) ( ( + ))
2
2
1
1
+ ( ( + )) ( ( + )))
2
2
1
1
( ( ( + )) ( ( + ))
2
2
1
1
+ ( ( + )) ( ( + )))
2
2
1
1
( ( ( + )) ( ( + ))
2
2
1
1
+ ( ( + )) ( ( + )))) ()
2
2
1
+ ()5 (
6
1
1
) ( ( ( + )) ( ( + ))
2
2
1
1
+ ( ( + )) ( ( + ))) ()
2
2
Page 38

Susan Larsen
1
1
1
1
= 78() ( ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( )) ()
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
+ ()3 ( ( ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( ))
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
+ ( ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( ))
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
( ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( ))
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
( ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( ))) ()
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
+ ()5 ( ) ( ( ) ( )
6
2
2
1
1
+ ( ) ( )) ()
2
2
1
= () ( + )()
4
1
+ ()3 ( ( + )
8
+ ( + )
( + )
( + )) ()
1
+ ()5 ( )( + )()
24
=0
4.10 The three dimensional flat space in spherical polar coordinates.

4.10.1
the Christoffel symbols of the three dimensional flat space in spherical polar
coordinates
The line element:
2 = 2 + 2 2 + 2 sin2 2
1
1
1
The metric tensor and its in
2
=
= {
}
2
verse:
2
2
1
sin
2
{
sin2 }
79Calculate
1
= ( + ) (4.15)
2
1
= ( 2 )
2
(4.16)
1 1 = 0 = = =
( )() = {
0 0
79
(McMahon, 2006, p. 91), quiz 4-2 and 4-3, the answer to quiz 4-2 is (a) 2 sin cos , and the answer to quiz 4-3 is
(c) cot
78
Page 39

Susan Larsen

1
= ( 2 )
2
1
= ( 2 sin2 )
2
1
= ( 2 sin2 )
2
1
= ( 2 sin2 )
2
1
= ( 2 sin2 )
2
= sin2
= sin2
= 2 sin cos
= 2 sin cos
= =
= sin2
1
= sin cos
= =
=
= = cot
4.10.2 80The Riemann tensor of the three dimensional flat space in spherical polar coordinates
The number of independent elements in the Riemann tensor in a metric of dimension = 3 is
=
2 (2 1)
12
= 6 and we have to calculate: ; ; ; ; ;
The Riemann tensor
, = , , = :
= , , :
, = , , = :
= , , :
, = , , = :
= +
, = , = , = :
= , , :
, = , = , = :
= , , :
, = , = , = :
= , , :
(4.41)
= +
1
= = 1 ( ) () = 0
= +
1
= = sin2 ( ) ( sin2 ) = 0
= +
= +
= , , :
1
= cos2 + sin2 + ( sin2 ) ( ) (cot )( sin cos ) = 0
= +
=0
= +
=0
= +
1
1
= ( ) cot ( ) cot = 0
= = = 0
4.10.3 81A Lie derivative in the three dimensional flat space in spherical polar coordinates
Let
= (, sin , sin cos ) and
= (, 2 cos , sin )
Calculate the Lie derivative = = (4.27)
(4.6)
The covariant derivative:
= +
80
(McMahon, 2006, p. 91), quiz 4-4. We see that all the elements of the Riemann tensor equals 0, and the answer to
quiz 4-4 is (d)
81
(McMahon, 2006, p. 91), quiz 4-6, the answer to quiz 4-6 is (a)
Page 40

Susan Larsen
+ )
)
(

= +
= +
= :
=
+

= + = 0
= , , :

= :
=
+

= , , :
=

+ +
+

= , , :
=

+ +
+

=

= ( 2 cos )(cos ) (2 cos ) (sin )( 2 sin ) = 2 (1 2 cos )

= :
=
= , , :
=
+
+ +

= , , :
=
+
+ +
+ +

=
+

2
= ( cos )(cos cos ) + sin ( sin sin ) sin cos (cos )
= 2 cos2 cos sin
So we can conclude:
0
(1
2 cos )
)
= ( ) = (
2
2
cos cos sin
82The
4.11
Ricci scalar of the Penrose Kahn metric

=
=
The Ricci scalar:
The Ricci tensor
Sum over = , , , :
Sum over = , , , :
Sum over = , , , :
82
= = (
(4.47)
(4.46)
= + + +
= + + +
= + + +
= +
+ +
+ +
(McMahon, 2006, p. 92), quiz 4-8.The answer to quiz 4-8 is (b)
Page 41

Susan Larsen

+
+ + +
= :
= + + +
+ + + +
+ +
=
= = :
= 4 + 4 + 2
83A
4.12
= 4 + 4 + 2
Remark we can rewrite this into to a general expression for a non-diagonal metric of the type:
12
12
=
33
44 }
{
(S2)
We write
= 412 3132 + 412 4142 + 233 4343
Now we need to calculate the three elements in the Riemann tensor: ; ;

= + = 0
= + = 0
= + = 0
So we can conclude
=0
metric example 1: = +
4.12.1 The Christoffel symbols of a metric example

The line element:
2 = 2 sin 2 + 2 tan 2
sin
={
2 tan
1
2 sin
1
2 tan }
1
(4.15)

= ( + )
2
1

= ( ) = sin
2
1
=
= sin
2
1

= 2 cos
2

= tan
= tan
1
= 2 (1 + tan2 )
2
(4.16)
=
=
=
=
sin
2 tan
1
= cot
2
tan
= 2
sin
1
=
1 + tan2
=
2 tan
4.12.2 The Ricci scalar of a metric example

From example 4-12 we know that for a 2-dimensional diagonal metric: = 222 1212 which
means we only have to calculate
83
(McMahon, 2006, p. 92), quiz 4-9, quiz 4-10. The answer to quiz 4-9 is (c), and the answer to quiz 4-10 is (b)
Page 42

Susan Larsen

= , :
= +
= + +
= (
tan
1
tan 1
1 2
1 + tan2 1
1
tan
)
(
)
+
(
)
(
cot
)
(
)
+
(
) ( ) ( ) ( 2
)
2
2
sin
sin 2
2 tan
sin
tan 1
cos
1 2
1 tan cos
1 2
1 + tan2
(
)
+
(
)
(
)
(
)
+
(
)
2 sin sin2
2 2 sin2
2 tan
tan
+( 2
)
sin
tan cos
1 tan cos
1 + tan2
=( 2 2 )( 2
)+(
)
sin
2
sin2
2 tan
cos tan2 + sin2 + sin2 tan2
=(
)
2 2 sin2 tan
1
= 2 = 2 ( 2
)(
)
tan
2 2 sin2 tan
=(
)
2 2 sin2 tan2
=
4.13
84Calculate
the Christoffel symbols for a metric example 2: = +

+
The line element: 2
= 2 + sinh2 2 + sinh2 sin2 2
To find the Christoffel symbols we calculate the geodesic from the Euler-Lagrange equation

(10.36)
0 =
( )

where
= 2 + sinh2 2 + sinh2 sin2 2
= :
= 2 cosh sinh 2 + 2 cosh sinh sin2 2
= 2

( ) = 2

0 = 2 2 cosh sinh 2 2 cosh sinh sin2 2
0 = cosh sinh 2 cosh sinh sin2 2
= :
= 2 cos sin sinh2 2
= 2 sinh2

( ) = 4 cosh sinh + 2 sinh2

0 = 2 sinh2 + 4 cosh sinh + 2 cos sin sinh2 2

84
(McMahon, 2006, p. 325), final exam 9. The answer to FE-9 is (a)
Page 43

Susan Larsen
= :
0 = + 2 cosh sinh + cos sin 2

( )

0
=0
= 2 sinh2 sin2
= 4 cosh sinh 4 cos sin + 2 sinh2 sin2
= 4 cosh sinh 4 cos sin + 2 sinh2 sin2

coth
cot
2

0 = + 2
2
sin
sinh2

0 = cosh sinh 2 cosh sinh sin2 2
0 = + 2 cosh sinh + cos sin 2
coth
cot
2

0 = + 2
2
sin
sinh2
4.14
We can now find the non-zero Christoffel symbols:

= cosh sinh
= cosh sinh sin2
= cos sin
85A
coth
sin2
cot
=

sinh2
= cosh sinh
metric example 3: = ( + ) + ( + ) +
4.14.1 Calculate the Christoffel symbols for a metric example

The line ele 2 = (2 + 2 )2 + (2 + 2 ) 2 + 2 2 2
ment:
(2 + 2 )
0
0
={
(2 + 2 )
0
0 }
0
0
2 2
(2
1
+ 2)
(2
1
{
1
= ( + ) (4.15)
2
1

= ( ) =
2
1

= ( ) =
2
1

= ( ) =
2
=
=
=
=
1
+ 2)
2 2 }
(4.16)
= 2
( + 2 )
= 2
( + 2 )
= 2
( + 2 )
85
(McMahon, 2006, p. 324), final exam 7 and 8. All the independent elements of the Riemann tensor is zero and the
answer to FE-8 is (d)
Page 44

Susan Larsen
1
= = 2
= ( ) =
( + 2 )
2
1
= ( ) =
= = 2
( + 2 )
2
1
= ( ) =
= = 2
( + 2 )
2
1
2
= ( ) = 2
= = 2
( + 2 )
2
1
1
= ( ) = 2
= =
2
1
2
2
= ( ) =
= = 2
( + 2 )
2
1
1
= ( ) = 2
= =
2
Collecting the results we find the non-zero Christoffel symbols
= = = 2
( + 2 )
= = = 2
( + 2 )
2
= 2
( + 2 )
2
= 2
( + 2 )
1
=
4.14.2 Calculate the Riemann tensor of metric example

In 3 dimensions the Riemann tensor has six independent elements:
1212 ; 1213 ; 1223 ; 1313 ; 1323 ; 2323
The Riemann tensor
= +
= +
= () () + +
2
2
2
2
= 2 + 2
+
+
+
( + 2 ) (2 + 2 ) (2 + 2 ) (2 + 2 )
=0
= + = 0
= + = 0
= +
= ( 2 ) +
2 2
2 2
= 2 + 2
+
+ 2
( + 2 ) (2 + 2 )
=0
= +
= ( 2 ) +
3
3
= 2 + 2
+
+
( + 2 ) (2 + 2 )
(4.42)
Page 45

Susan Larsen
2
2
= ( 2
+
1)
( + 2 ) (2 + 2 )
=0
= +
= (2 ) +
2 2
2 2
= 2 2
+
+ 2
( + 2 ) (2 + 2 )
=0
4.14.3 Calculate the Riemann tensor of metric example Alternative version86

The answer to Exercise 8 in the Final Exam is given by = 0 for the following reason: Consider the
global Minkowski spacetime 2 = 2 + 2 + 2, in some coordinates ( , , ) [the corresponding Riemannian curvature tensor identically vanishing, of course], and consider the following coordinate
transformation:
= cos
= sin
1
= (2 2 )
2
The differentials are related as
= ( + ) cos sin
= ( + ) sin + cos
=
from which it readily follows that
2 + 2 + 2 = ( + )2 + ()2 2 + ( )2
= (2 + 2 )(2 + 2 ) + 2 2 2
2
2
Thus the line element = ( + 2 )(2 + 2 ) + 2 2 2 must correspond to an identically vanishing Riemannian curvature tensor.
5 Cartans Structure Equations

87Ricci
rotation coefficients for the Tolman-Bondi- de Sitter metric (Spherical dust with a cosmological constant)
5.1
87
The line element: 2
The Basis one forms
=
= (,)
= (, )
= (, ) sin
86
= 2 2(,) 2 2 (, ) 2 2 (, ) sin2 2
= (,)
1
(, )
1
(, ) sin
={
1
1
Kindly provided by Mr. John Fredsted: http://johnfredsted.dk/science/publications.php

Page 46

Susan Larsen
Cartans First Structure equation and the calculation of the Ricci rotation coefficients :
(5.9)
=0
= ( (,) ) = (,) =

(,)
= ((, )) = + = +

= ((, ) sin )
= sin + sin + (, ) cos
cot
= + (,) +

(5.10)
Summarizing the curvature one forms in a matrix:

0
(,) (,)
=

(,)
cot

(,)
cot
0
{
}
Where refers to column and to row.
Now we can read off the Ricci rotation coefficients
=
=
=
(,)
(,)
cot
= (,) =
=
Which means the answer to quiz 5-6 is (b)
Transformation of the Ricci rotation coefficients into the Christoffel symbols bc
We have the transformation bc
( )
= (1 )
=
= (1 )
= (,)
cot
=
(5.14)
= 1
= (1 ) ( )
= 1()(
=
(,) 2
= 2(,)
Page 47

Susan Larsen
1
=
1
= ( ) = (1 ) ( ) = 1 2
=
= (1 ) =
= (,) (,)
=
(,) 2
2

(,)
1
= ( ) = ( ) ( ) =
(
)
= 2(,)
= (1 ) =
= 1
=
= ( ) = (1 ) ( ) = 1 2 sin2
= sin2
(,) (,)
= ( ) =
=
(,) 2 2
2
(,)
1
= ( ) = ( ) ( ) =
(
) sin = 2(,) sin2
cot
= (1 ) =
= cot
=
2
1
cot 2 2
= (1 ) = (1 ) ( ) = (
= cos sin
) sin

However by this method we do not obtain =

To check we calculate the Christoffel symbols directly from the metric
The line element:
The metric tensor
and its inverse:
= 2 2(,) 2 2 (, ) 2 2 (, ) sin2 2
1
0
0
0
2(,)
0
0
0
= {0
}
0
2 (, )
0
0
0
0
2 (, ) sin2
1
0
0
0
2(,)
0
0
0
1
0
2
0
= 0
(, )
1
0
0
0
2
{
(, ) sin2 }
1
= ( + ) (4.15)
2
= (1 )
1
= ( 2(,) ) = 2(,)
2
= = 2(,) 2(,)
1
= ( 2(,) ) = 2(,)
2
= = 1( 2(,) )
1
= = ( 2(,) ) = 2(,)
2
(4.16)
=
= 2(,)
Page 48

Susan Larsen

= = = 2(,) 2(,)
1
= (2 (, )) =
2
= = 1
1
= = (2 (, )) =
2
1
= = = 2 ( )
1
2 (,
= (
)) =
2
=
1
= = ( 2 (, )) =
2
1
= = = 2 ( )
1
2
2
= ( (, ) sin ) = sin2
2
= = 1 sin2
1
= = (2 (, ) sin2 ) = sin2
2
1
= = = ( 2 2 ) ( sin2 )
sin
1
2
2
= ( (, ) sin ) = sin2
2
=
1
= = (2 (, ) sin2 ) = sin2
2
1
= = = ( 2 2 ) ( sin2 )
sin
1
= (2 (, ) sin2 ) = 2 sin cos
2
1
= = 2 2 sin cos
1
= = ( 2 (, ) sin2 ) = 2 sin cos
2
1
= = = 2 2 (2 sin cos )
sin
88The
5.2

=
=
= 2(,)
= sin2
= 2(,) sin2
= sin cos
= cot
curvature two forms and the Riemann tensor
To find the Riemann tensor from the curvature two forms, it can sometimes be more convenient to use
the following expression
1
(5.28)
=
2
= no summations
89Find
5.3
88
89
the Ricci scalar using Cartans structure equations of the 2-sphere
The line element: 2
= 2 + sin2 2
(McMahon, 2006, p. 113)

Page 49

Susan Larsen
The Basis one forms
= sin
=
1
sin
=
=0
(5.9)
= (sin ) = cos = cot
= cot
Curvature two forms:
=
2
(5.27), (5.28)
= {1
Cartans First Structure equation and the calculation of the curvature one forms:
= +
= (cot ) = (cos ) = sin =

=
=0
From which we can identify the single independent element of the Riemann tensor
=1
And the Ricci scalar
(S1)
= 2 = 2
5.4 The three dimensional flat space in spherical polar coordinates

5.4.1
90Ricci
rotation coefficients of the three dimensional flat space in spherical polar coordi-
nates
The line element: 2
90
= 2 + 2 2 + 2 sin2 2
The Basis one forms

=
=
(McMahon, 2006, p. 120), quiz 5-1 and 5-2, the answer to quiz 5-1 is (a) and to 5-2 is (c).
Page 50

Susan Larsen
1
=
sin
= sin
1
={
1
1
We have:

=
=
(5.9)
(5.10)
=0
1
= () = =
1
cot
= ( sin ) = sin + cos = +


1
1
0
1
cot
=
0
1
cot
0
{
}
5.4.2
of the Ricci rotation coefficients into the Christoffel symbols

of the three dimensional flat space in spherical polar coordinates
91Transformation
We have the transformation bc
= (1 ) ( )
= (1 )
= (1 )
= (1 )
= (1 )
91

1
1
=
=
=
1
cot
cot
=
=
=
(5.14)
1
1
1
= 1 ( ) 2
1
= 1
=
=
(McMahon, 2006, p. 120), quiz 5-3, the answer to quiz 5-3 is = sin2
Page 51

Susan Larsen
= (1 )
= (1 )
= (1 )
= (1 ) (
= (1 ) (
The line element: 2
The Basis one forms

=
=
1
=
1
= 1 ( ) 2 sin2
cot
=
1
cot 2 2
= (
) sin
= sin2
= cot
= sin cos
rotation coefficients of the Rindler metric
= 2 2 2
= {1
We have

We calculate
93The
5.6
=
=
(5.9)
(5.10)
=0
1
= () = =
1
=
Einstein tensor for the Tolman-Bondi- de Sitter metric
The curvature two forms:
= +
92Ricci
5.5
=
2
(5.27), (5.28)
2
= ( ) = ( (,) ) = [ (,) + () (,) ]
2
= [ + () ]
= + + +
=0
= [ + () ]
(McMahon, 2006, p. 120), quiz 5-4, the answer to quiz 5-4 is = =
93
(McMahon, 2006, p. 121), quiz 5-7, the answer to quiz 5-7 is (d), almost!
92
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Susan Larsen

= ( ) = ( (, )) = + ( )

( ) (,)
= +
= + + + =
=
(,)
( )

( ) + (,)
= +
= ( ) = ( (, ) sin )
= sin + ( ) sin + cos
( ) (,)
= +
+ 2 cot
= + + + = +
cot
= (,) ( ) +

( ) + (,)
= +
(,)
= (
) = ( (,) )
= [( ) (,) + (,) ] + [ (,) + (,) ]

(,)
2(,)
+ [ + ]

+ + + = =
= [( ) + ]
( )
= [( ) + ]
= (
(,)
2(,)
+ [( + )
+
]
(,)
) = ( (,) sin )
= [( ) (,) sin + (,) sin ]

+[ (,) sin + (,) sin ] + (,) cos
= [( ) + ]
(,)
2(,)
+ [ + ]
+ 2 (,) cot
= + + + = +

cot (,)
= ( ) +

2(,)
(,)

= [( ) + ]
+ [( + )
+
]
cot
1
= (
) = (cos ) = sin = 2
= + + + = +

= + (,) ( (,) )
Page 53

Susan Larsen

2
( )2
1 ( )
= [ 2 + 2 2 2(,) ]
Summarized in a matrix:

() +
[( ) + ]
+ [( + )
+
]
2
[ + () ]

() +
[() + ] + [( + )
+
]
2
( )2
1 ()
+ 2 2 2(,) ]
2
Now we can find the independent elements of the Riemann tensor in the non-coordinate basis:
= [
R ()
()
2
() ]
()
()
(,)
2(,)
)
= [( +

+
]
= [( ) + ]
()
()
= [( ) + ]
(,)
2(,)
)
= [( +

+
]
2
( )2
1 ( )
= [ 2 + 2 2 2(,) ]
()

()
Where A,B,C,D,E will be used later, to make the calculations easier
The Ricci tensor:
= = + + +
(4.46)
= + +
= [ () ] 2
= + 2

+ + +
= +
(,)
(,)
(,)
[( ) + ]
= 2 [( ) + ]
= 2
= + + + = 0
= [() + ]
= = + + +
= = + +
= 0
+ = R
2(,)
)
= [ () ] 2 [( +
= = + + +
+ +
] = + 2
= + +
2
( )2
2(,)
1 ( )
)
= [( +
+
] + [ 2 + 2 2 2(,) ] = + +
Page 54

Susan Larsen
= = + + +
2(,)
1 ( )
)
= [( +
+
]+[ 2+ 2
+ =
2
[ () ] 2
+
+
2
( ) 2(,)
] = +
2
2 [() + ]
2
[ () ] 2
[(
2
]
+
+
=
0
2
( )2
2
1 ()
] + [ 2 + 2 2 2 ]
[( + )
+
0
2
( )2
1 ()
] + [ 2 + 2 2 2 ]
[( + )
+
}
2
Where refers to column and to row
The Ricci scalar:
(4.47)
=

= + + + =
= + 2 ( + 2) 2( + + ) = 2 + 4 4 2
= 2 + 4 4 2
2
( )2
2(,)
1 ( )
= 2 [ () ] 4 + 4 [( + )
+
] 2 [ 2 + 2 2 2(,) ]
The Einstein tensor:

1
(4.48)
=
2
1
1
1
= = = + 2 (2 + 4 4 2) = 2 +
2
2
2
= 2 +
2
( )2
2(,)
1 ( )
= 2 [( +
+
] + [ 2 + 2 2 2(,) ]
1
2
= 2 [1 2 + ( ) (2 + 2 + ( )2 ) 2(,) ]
1
(,)
= = = + = 2 [( ) + ]
2
1
= = 0
2
1
1
1
= = + = + 2 + (2 + 4 4 2) = 2
2
2
2
2
( )2
1
(
)
= 2 = 2 [ 2 + 2 2 2(,) ]
1
2
= 2 [( )2 2(,) 2 1 ( ) ]
Page 55

Susan Larsen
1
1
1
= = + = + + + (2 + 4 4 2) = +
2
2
2
2(,)
2
= R + = [ () ] + [( + )
+
]
1
2
= [ () ] + [( + ) 2(,) + ]
1
2
= = [ () ] + [( + ) 2(,) + ]
1
2
[1 2 + ( ) (2 + 2 + ( )2 ) 2 ]
2
2 [() + ]
1
2
[( )2 2 2 1 () ]
2
2
[ () ] +
1
[( + ) 2 + ]
0
2
[ () ] +
The Einstein tensor in the coordinate basis:
The transformation:
=
2
= ( )
= ( )
= ( )
= (
1
2
[1 2 + () (2 + 2 + ( )2 ) 2 ]
2
=
(6.34)
1
2
[1 2 + ( ) (2 + 2 + ( )2 ) 2 ]
2
( )
= 2 [
+
]
1
2
= 2 [( )2 (2 + 1 + ( ) ) 2 ]
1
2
= 2 ([ () ] + [( + ) 2 + ])
1
2
2
2
= sin ([ () ] + [( + ) 2 + ])
1
[( + ) 2 + ]}
2 [
()
]
+
1
2
[( )2 (2 + 1 + () ) 2 ]
2
2 ([ () ] +
1
[( + ) 2 + ])
0
2
2 sin2 ([ ( ) ] +
1
[( + ) 2 + ])}
5.7
94Calculate
the Ricci rotation coefficients for a metric example 3: =

+ +
The line element: 2
94
= 2 + sinh2 2 + sinh2 sin2 2
(McMahon, 2006, p. 325), final exam 10
Page 56

Susan Larsen
The Basis one forms

=
=
1
= sinh
=
sinh
1
= sinh sin =
sinh sin
1
={
1
1
We have:

=0
= (sinh )
=
=
(5.9)
(5.10)
= cosh
1
sinh
= coth
= (sinh sin )
= cosh + cos
1
1
1
= cosh
+ cos

sinh sin
sinh
sinh sin
coth
cot
=
+

sin
sinh2
= cosh

coth
0
coth
sin
cot
= coth
sinh2
coth
cot
0
{ sin
}
sinh2
Now we can find the non-zero Ricci rotation coefficients
coth
= coth = coth

=
sin
cot
cot
coth
=
=
=
2
sinh
sinh2
sin
Page 57

Susan Larsen
6 The Einstein Field Equations

95The
6.1
vacuum Einstein equations
Prove that the Einstein field equations = reduces to the vacuum Einstein equations
= 0 if we set = 0
The Einstein tensor

1
(4.48)
=
2
Now setting = = 0 and calculating
1
= = 0
2
1
=
2
Multiplying by
1
=
2
using the definition
(4.47)
=
and that in 4 dimensions = 4

1
= 4
= 2
2
Now this can only be true if = 0
Q.E.D.
6.2 The vacuum Einstein equations with a cosmological constant
Prove that the Einstein field equations = reduces to = and = 4 for metrics
with positive signature and = and = 4 for metrics with negative signature in
vacuum with a cosmological constant96.
The Einstein equation in vacuum with a cosmological constant and positive signature is
1
0 = +
2
1
0 = +
2
1
= 4 + 4
2
= 4
Next we rewrite the Einstein equation
1
0 = +
2
1
= (4) +
2
=
=
In the non coordinate basis
=
95
96
(6.6)
Q.E.D.
Q.E.D.
(McMahon, 2006, p. 138)

An excellent qualitative explanation of the cosmological constant, you can find in (Greene, 2004, s. 273-279)
Page 58

Susan Larsen
In the case of metrics with negative signature the Einstein equation in vacuum with a cosmological constant
1
(6.6)
0 =
2
and we can see that
Q.E.D.
= 4
Q.E.D.
=
In the non coordinate basis
=
6.3
97General
remarks on the Einstein equations with a cosmological constant
If we demand that the gravitational field equations are

(1) generally covariant
(2) be of second differential order in
(3) involve the energy-momentum linearly
it can be shown that the only equation which meets these requirements is
+ =
where , , and are constants.
The demand that satisfies the conservation equation
= 0
leads to
Proof:
if
98
99
1
2
= 0
( + ) = 0
+ ( ) = 0
+ (( ) + ( ))
98
+ ( )
Next we use the Bianchi identity:
+ +
( + + )
+ +
+ +
( + )
+
+
99
1
2 ( )
2
1
2 ( )
2
1
2 ( ( ) )
2
97
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
(d'Inverno, 1992, p. 172)

= 0
= = =
Page 59

Susan Larsen

1
2 ( ) = 0
2
Now if we compare with
+ ( )
=0
we see that
1
2
1002+1
dimensions: Gravitational collapse of an inhomogeneous spherically

symmetric dust cloud.
6.4
6.4.1
Find the components of the curvature tensor for the metric in 2+1 dimensions using
Cartans structure equations
The line element: 2 = 2 + 2(,) 2 + 2 (, ) 2
The Basis one forms
=
= (,)
= (, )
1
={
1
1
Cartans First Structure equation and the calculation of the curvature two-forms
= (,)
1
(, )
(5.9)
(5.10)
=0
= ( (,) ) = (,) =
= ((, )) = + = + (,)

0
(,)
=

0

(,)
0
{
}
100
(McMahon, 2006, pp. 139-150), example 6-2, example 6-3, example 6-4
Page 60

Susan Larsen
= +
=
2
(5.27), (5.28)
2
= ( ) = ( (,) ) = [ (,) + () (,) ]
2
= [ + () ]
= + +
=0
= [ + () ]

= ( ) = ( (, )) = + ( )

( ) (,)
=
= + + = = (,)
(
)
= (
) (,)
= ( (,) ) = ( (,) )
= [( ) (,) (,) ] + [ (,) + (,) ]

(,)
2(,)
]
[

+

= + + = =

(,)
2(,)
= [() ]
([ + ]
)
= [() ]
0
=
0

( ) (,)
2
[ + () ]
[( ) ]
(,)
2(,)
([ + ]
)
}
0
2
R () = [ + () ]
()
(,)
2(,)
(D) = ([ + ]
)
(C)
= [() + ]
Page 61

Susan Larsen
Where A, B, C and D will be used later to make the calculations easier

6.4.2
Find the components of the curvature tensor for the metric in 2+1 dimensions using
Cartans structure equations alternative solution
The line element: 2 = 2 + 2(,) 2 + 2 (, ) 2
Now we can compare with the Tolman-Bondi de Sitter line element, where the primes should not be
mistaken for the derivative /.

2 = 2 2( , ) 2 2 (, )2 2 (, ) sin2 2
And chose:
=
( , )
= (,)
)
( ,
=0
( , ) sin = (, )
Comparing the two metrics we see: = , = , ( , ) = (, ), =

2
Next we can use the former calculations of the Tolman-Bondi de Sitter metric to find the Riemann and
Einstein tensor for the 2+1 metric.
But first we need to find

( , )

(, )
( , )
( , )
(,)
(,)
= (, )
(
)
(
)
=

2 ( , )
=
= () = (, )
2
( , )

( , )
( , )
( , )
(,)
=
=
(
)
(
)

= ( , ) (,) (, )
( , ) (, )
=
=
= (, )

2 ( , ) 2 (, )
=
=
= (, )
2
2
( , ) (, )

=
=
= ( , ) (,) (, )

2 ( , )
( , )

=
(
) = ( (, )) = ( , ) (,) (, )
=
The Riemann tensor
Tolman Bondi de Sitter

2
R = [ () ]
2+1
= [() + ]
2
R () = [ + () ]
(,)
Page 62

Susan Larsen
= [( + )
2(,)
+
]
()
(,)
(,)
() = [() ]
2(,)
2(,)

= [( + )
+
] () = [( )
]
2
( )
1 ( )
= [ 2 + 2 2 2(,) ]
Where A, B, C and D will be used later to make the calculations easier
= [() + ]
6.4.3
Find the components of the Einstein tensor in the coordinate basis for the metric in 2+1
dimensions.
The Ricci tensor:
= = + +
(4.46)
2
= [ + () ]
= + + = = [() ]
= + + + = 0
= + + = R +
2(,)
= [ + () ] [(
= +
= = + +
(,)
=+
] = +
2(,)
[( )
]
= +
2
[ + () ]
2
2
[ + () ] [( )
]
{
[( ) ]
0
0
2
[( )
]
The Ricci scalar:
(4.47)
Page 63

Susan Larsen
= + + = + + = ( + ) + ( + ) + ( + )
= 2 2 + 2 = 2 2 + 2
2(,)
2
= 2 [ + () ] + 2 2 [( )
]

1
(4.48)
=
2
1
1
1
= = + = + + (2 2 + 2) = =
2
2
2
2

= [( )
]
= = = = [( ) ]
2
1
= = 0
2
1
1
1
= = = + (2 2 + 2) = = =
2
2
2
1
1
1
2
= = = + (2 2 + 2) = = R = [ + () ]
2
2
2
2

] [() ]
0
0
{
[( )
0
2
[ + () ]}
The Einstein tensor in the coordinate basis:
The transformation:
=
=
= ( )
=
2
= ( )
(6.34)
= [( )
=
2
]
[() ]
= 2
Page 64

Susan Larsen
2
= 2 [ + () ]
= (
[() ]
2
[(
]
0
2
0
2
0
0
2 [ + () ]}
{
6.4.4 The Einstein equations of the metric in 2+1 dimensions.

Given the Einstein equation ( if = = 1): + =
with = 2 you get
2 =
0
and the stress-energy tensor:
= {0 0
0 0
You can find the Einstein equations
2

[(
] [( ) ]
0
0
{
(6.40)
0
0}
0
0
0
2
[ + () ]}
= {0
0
0
0
0
0
0}
0
2 {
1
1
2
[(
] + 2
:
[( ) ]
( )
:
2
+ 2
2
:
[ + () ] 2
6.5
101Using
=0
=0
p.152
=0
=0
(6.41)
=0
(6.42)
the contracted Bianchi identities, prove that: =
Expressions needed:
Bianchi identity:
Proved page 78:
101
= p.152
(4.45)
0 = a + +
0 =
0 = = 0 = 0 (S3)
(McMahon, 2006, p. 152), quiz 6-1, the answer to quiz 6-1 is (c)
Page 65

Susan Larsen
Riemann tensor:
Ricci tensor:
Ricci scalar:
Kronecker delta
use (2.15)
The proof:
Multiply (4.45) by :
(use (S3))
(use (4.44) and (4.46))

(use (4.46))
Multiply by
(use (4.47))
(use (S4))
0 =
=
=
= =

= = =
1
=
2
= =
1
1
= ( ) =
2
2
1
1
= =
2
2
1
=
2
(use (S5))
Multiply by
(4.44)
(4.46)
(4.47)
(S4)
(4.48)
(2.15)
(S5)
(a + + )
a + +
a + +
+
+
( + )
+
+
+
+
1
0 = 2 [ ]
2
0 =
0 = = =
0=
0=
0=
0=
0=
0=
0=
0=
0=
0=
102Ricci rotation coefficients, Ricci scalar and Einstein equations for a general
6.6
4-dimensional metric: = + (, ) + (, ) + (, )
The line element: 2
The Basis one forms
= (, )
= (, )
= (, )
= 2 + 2 (, ) 2 + 2 (, ) 2 + 2 (, ) 2
(, )
1
(, )
1
=

(, )
=
={
1
1
102
(McMahon, 2006, pp. 152-53), quiz 6-5, 6-6, 6-7 and 6-8, the answer to quiz 6-5 is (a) and quiz 6-6 is (c), the answer
to quiz 6-7 is (a), the answer to quiz 6-8 is (a)
Page 66

Susan Larsen
=0
= ((, )) = =
(5.9)
(5.10)

= ((, )) = + = +

= ((, )) = + =

0
0
0
0
0 }
{
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
= +
=
2
(5.27), (5.28)
= ( ) = ((, )) = + =
= + +
+ = 0
Page 67

Susan Larsen

= ( ) = ((, )) = +
= +

+ +
+
+

= + ( 2 )

= ( ) = ((, )) = +

= +

= + + + = =

= +
+

= + ( 2
)

= ( ) = ( ) =
2
2

+

2
3

= + + + = =

+

2
3
+
+ )
(
2
3

= (
) = ( ) =
+

2
2

=
+

2
= + + + = =

+

2
3

=
+ (
+
)
2
=0
= = + + +
= + = +
(
)
=(
2
)

Page 68

Susan Larsen
+ ( 2 )
+ )
( 2 ) + (

+ ( 2
)

+
( 2
) + (
)
(
)
2
}
0
R () =
()
()
() =
+
3

() =
+
3
() =
2
Where A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H will be used later, to make the calculations easier
()
()
The Ricci tensor:

=
(4.46)
= = + +
+ = + +

= =++

= = + + + = +

= 2
+
= +
= = + + + = 0
= = + +
= = + +
+ +

= +
+
+
+
= + +
= = + + + = + +

= +
+
+
= + +
3
2
= = + + + = + +

= +
+
+
= + +
3
2
+ = 0

+ = R
Page 69

Susan Larsen

2 2

+
+
+
+
0
0
+
+
+
3
2

0

+
+
+
2
3
The Ricci scalar:
(4.47)
=

= + + + = + + +
= ( + + ) + + + + + + = 2 2 2 + 2 + 2 + 2
= 2R 2 2 + 2 + 2 + 2

= 2( + + +
+
+
+
+
)

3
3
2

1
(4.48)
=
2
1
1
1
= = + = + + + (2 2 2 + 2 + 2 + 2) = + +
2
2
2

= + + =
+
+
+
+
3
2
1

= = = 2
+
2
1
= = 0
2
1
= = 0
2
1
1
1
= = = + + (2 2 2 + 2 + 2 + 2)
2
2
2
=++

= + + = +
2

1
= = 0
2
1
= = 0
2
1
1
1
= = = + + (2 2 2 + 2 + 2 + 2)
2
2
2

= + + = R + + =
+

3
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Susan Larsen

1
= = 0
2
1
1
1
= = = + + (2 2 2 + 2 + 2 + 2)
2
2
2
=++

= R + + = +
+

3

+
+
+
+
3
2
2 2
0
0
0
0

+

3
0

+
+ }

3
7 The Energy-Momentum Tensor

7.1
103Perfect
Fluids Alternative derivation
The most general form of the stress energy tensor is

(7.8)
= +
In the local frame we know that
0 0 0
0 0 0
(7.6)
}
= {
0 0 0
0 0 0
and
= (1,0,0,0)
Then we choose the metric with negative signature
1 0
0
0
0
1
0
0
}
= {
0 0 1 0
0 0
0 1
This we can use to find the constants and
00 = 0 0 + 00 = + =
=
= + = = {

0
= and = = +
Which leaves us with the most general form of the stress energy tensor for a perfect fluid for a metric
with negative signature
(7.11)
= ( + )
If we instead choose the metric with positive signature
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
}
= {
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
103
(McMahon, 2006, p. 160)
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Susan Larsen
00
= 0 0 + 00 = =
=
= + = = {

0
= and = + = +
Which leaves us with the most general form of the stress energy tensor for a perfect fluid for a metric
with negative signature
(7.12)
= ( + ) +
104The
7.2
Gdel metric
The Gdel metric is an exact solution of the Einstein field equations in which the stress-energy tensor
contains two terms, the first representing the matter density of a homogeneous distribution of swirling
dust particles, and the second associated with a nonzero cosmological constant.105
1
1
(( + )2 2 2 2 2 )
2
2
2
1
1
2
2
2
=
( + 2 + 2 2 )
2
2
2
1
0
0
0 1 0
0
1
The metric tensor
=
0
0
1
0
2 2
1
0
0
2
{
}
2
1
0
0
2
0
1 0
0
and its inverse
= 22 {
}
0
0 1
0
2 0
0 2 2
1 0 0
0 0 0 0
The stress energy tensor
=
{
}
2 2 0 0 0 0
0 0 2
The Einstein equation for a metric with a negative signature
8 =
106
8 =
1
8 = ( ) 4
2
1
= 4
2
1
= 4 4
2
= 4
1
= (8 + )
4
To find we work in the non-coordinate basis
The line element:
The Basis one forms
104
(McMahon, 2006, p. 326), final exam 14, the answer to Final Exam quiz 14 is (a).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6del_metric
106
= 2 22 (1 1 + 2 + 2 2 2 2 ) = (1 + 2 + 2 2) =
105
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Susan Larsen
1
2
1
2
1
( + )
= 2 2
= 2
2
1
=

2
={
1
1
= 2
Cartans First Structure equation:
= 2
(5.9)
( + )
2
=

2
=
(2 ) (2 )
2
= 2
= +
=
=0
=0
1
1
1
= ( ) =
=
(2 ) (2 ) = 2
2
2
2
=

0

0
0
0 2
=
0
0
0
0
{
2 0
0 }
The curvature two forms and the Riemann tensor:
= +
=
2
(5.27), (5.28)
=0
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Susan Larsen
= 0
) = 0
2
+ + + = 0
=
=0
=0
= + + + = 0
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
+ = 0
1
1
1
) = = (2 ) 2
2
2
2
= ( ) = (
= (2 ) ( ) = 22
=0
=0
=0
= 22
= + + + =
= ( ) = (
=0
= + +
= 0
=0
= (2 ) = (
1
2
) =
1
2
(2 ) (2 )
= 22
= + + + =
= ( ) ( ) = 2
= 2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 2
}
= {
0
0
0
0
0 2 0
0
Now we can see that the nonzero elements of the Riemann tensor in the non-coordinate basis are =
2
The Ricci tensor, the nonzero elements:
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Susan Larsen
(4.46)
=
= = = = 2
= = = 2
0
0
0
0
0 2 0
0
= {
}
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 2
The Ricci scalar:
(4.47)
=

= + + + = = 22
Now we can find
1
= (8 + )
4
1
= (8 + 22 )
4
If we use geometrized units107 i.e. 8 = 1 we get
1
= ( + 22 )
4
The first term represents the matter density of a homogeneous distribution of swirling dust particles,
4
and the second term =
2
2
is associated with a nonzero cosmological constant.
8 Null Tetrads and the Petrov Classification

108Construct
8.1
107
108
a null tetrad for the flat space Minkowski metric
The line element:
The metric tensor:
and its inverse:
= 2 2 2 2 2 sin2 2
1
1
={
}
2
2 sin2
1
1
1
=
2
1
2 2 }
{
sin
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometrized_unit_system
(McMahon, 2006, p. 186), example 9-3 and 9-4
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Susan Larsen
The basis one forms
=
=
=
= sin
The null tetrad
Now we can use the basis one-forms to construct a null tetrad

+
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 0
1

(9.10)
=
( ) =
(
)
( + sin )
0
0
1
2
2
sin
0 0 1 ( )
Written in terms of the coordinate basis

1
1
(1, 1, 0, 0)
(1, 1, 0, 0)
=
=
2
2
1
1
(0, 0, , sin )
(0, 0, , sin )
=
=
2
2
Next we use the metric to rise the indices
1
1
=
= = = 1
2 2
1
1
= = = (1)
=
2
2
= = 0
1
1
=
= = = 1
2 2
1
1
= = = (1) (
)=
2
2
= = 0
= = 0
1
1
=
= = = ( 2 )
2
2
1
sin
1
=
= = = ( 2 2 )
sin
sin 2
2
1
(1, 1, 0, 0)
=
2
1
(1, 1, 0, 0)
=
2
1
(0, 0, , sin )
=
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
(1, 1, 0, 0)
(1, 1,
(0,
0, 0)
)
0, ,
sin
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Susan Larsen
1
2
(0, 0,
109The
8.2
sin )
=
1
2
(0,
)
0, ,
sin
Brinkmann metric (Plane gravitational waves)
The line element:
The metric tensor:
and its inverse:
The basis one forms
= (, , )2 + 2 2 2
1
= {1
}
1
1
1
= { 1
}
1
1
Finding the basis one forms is not so obvious, we write:

2
2
2
2
2 = (, , )2 + 2 2 2 = ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
[(, , ) + 2] 2 2
+

1
= ( + 1) +
2
1
= (1 )
2
=
=
= ( + )( ) ( ) ( )
=
= + 2
=
=
= +
1
1
= (1 ) (1 + )
2
2
=
=
={
1
1
The orthonormal null tetrad
Now we can use the basis one-forms to construct a orthonormal null tetrad
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 0
1
1
+ 2
(
) ( ) =
( ) =
(
) (9.10)
( ) =
2 0 0 1
2 +
2

0 0 1

1
1
(1, 0, 0, 0)
(, 2, 0, 0)
=
=
2
2
1
1
(0, 0, 1, )
(0, 0, 1, )
=
=
2
2
109
(McMahon, 2006, p. 195), example 9-5. The answer to quiz 9-3 is (a) and to quiz 9-4 is (d)
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Susan Larsen

= = = 1 0 = 0
1
1
= = + = 1 ( ) + () 0 =
2
2
= = 0
2
= = = 1 ( ) = 2
2
1
2
1
= = + = 1 ( ) + () ( ) =
2
2
2
= = 0
= = 0
1
1
= = = (1)
=
2
2
1
1
= = = (1)
=
2
2

1
(1, 0, 0, 0)
=
2
1
(, 2, 0, 0)
=
2
1
(0, 0, 1, )
=
2
1
(0, 0, 1, )
=
=
=
=
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
(0, 1,
(2, ,
0, 0)
0, 0)
(0, 0,
1, )
(0, 0,
1, )
The non-zero Christoffel symbols
1
= ( + ) (4.15)
2
1

=
2
1

=
2
1

=
2
1
=

2
1
=

2
(4.16)
=
=
=
=
1
2
1
=
2
1
=
2
1
=
2
1
=
2
The spin coefficients calculated from the null tetrad
1
= (
)
2
(9.15)
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Susan Larsen
1
= (
)
2
1
= (

)
2
1
= (
)
2
Calculating the spin-coefficients

=
=

=
= ( )
( )
=0
=
=

=

= ( )
( )
( )
( )

=
+

1 1
1 1
1
= (
+
) = (
( )+
) 2 2 =
(
+
)
2 2
2 2
2

=

=
=

= ( )

( )

( )

( )

=0
=
= 0

= = = + = ( ) + ( )
=0
= = + = + + +
= ( ) + ( ) + ( )
+ ( )
=0
=
+
=
+
+
+
=
= ( )
+ ( )
+ ( )
+ ( )
=0
= = 0
1
1
= (
) = (
)
2
2
1
1
= (
) + (
)
2
2
1
= (( ) ( )
)
2
1
+ (( ) ( )
)
2
=0
1
1
1
= (
) = (
) + (
)
2
2
2
1
1
1
= (
) + (
) + (
)
2
2
2
1
+ (
)
2
1
= (( ) ( )
)
2
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Susan Larsen
1
+ (( ) ( )
)
2
1
+ (( ) ( )
)
2
1
+ (( ) ( )
)
2
=0
1
1
1
= (

) = (

) + (

)
2
2
2
1
1
1
= (

) + (

) + (

)
2
2
2
1
+ (

)
2
1
= (( )
( )

)
2
1
+ (( )
( )

)
2
1
+ (( )
( )

)
2
1
+ (( )
( )

)
2
=0
1
= (
) = 0
2

=0
(
+
)
=
2
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
The Weyl Scalars and Petrov classification
0 = ( + ) (3 ) + ( + + 3)
1 = ( + ) ( ) + ( + ) + ( )
2 = + ( ) + ( + ) + 2
3 = + ( + ) ( + ) + ( ) + ( )
4 = + ( + ) (3 ) + (3 + + )
Where
=
=
=

=
(13.22)
(13.23)
(13.24)
(13.25)
(13.26)
(9.13)
We see that 0 = 1 = 2 = 3 = 0 and

1
=
( (
+
))
4 = =
2
1
=
x (
+
)+
y (
+
)]
[
Page 80

Susan Larsen
2
2
1
2
2
1 2 2
2
=
[( ) ( 2 +
+ 2 )] = [ 2 2 2
]
) + ( ) (
2
2
2
4 0: This is a Petrov type N, which means there is a single principal null direction of multiplicity 4.
This corresponds to transverse gravity waves.
1
The Ricci tensor

= 2 ( + ) + ( 3 ) = =
1
= ( (
+
))
22
= ( (
+
)) + ( (
+
))
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
= ( ) ( ) ( 2 +
+ 2)
) + ( ) ( ) (
2 2
2 2
2
2
1
= [ 2 + 2]
2
1
1
1
= =
2
2
2
1
1
1
1

=
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
= 2 2 2 (
) (
) (
)
2
2
2
2
2
2
1 2 2
= +
= [ 2 + 2 ]
4
2
1 2 2
110 = [ 2 + 2 ]
2
= = 0
22
(9.22)
The Weyl tensor calculated from the null tetrad found in example 9-5. This calculation show that
the spin coefficients and the Weyl scalars depend on the chosen null tetrad, and the Ricci tensor
does not (of course).
The null tetrad (9.26), (9.27), (9.28)

= (1, 0, 0, 0)
1
= ( , 1, 0, 0)
2
1
(0, 0, 1, )
=
2
1
(0, 0, 1, )
=
110
(9.24)
= (0, 1, 0,
1
= (1, ,
2
1
(0, 0,
=
2
1
(0, 0,
=
2
0)
0, 0)
1, )
1, )
According to the Cartan calculation further below the sign is wrong
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Susan Larsen
=
=

=

= ( )
( )
( )

( )

=
+
= (
+
)
1 1
1
1
1
=(
( )+
( )) 1 1 =
(
+
)
2 2
2
22
2
(
+
))
22
1
= (
) [
x (
+
)+
y (
+
)]
22
1
1
2
2
1
2
2
= (
) [( ) ( 2 +
+ 2 )]
) + ( ) (
22
2
2
1 2 2
2
= [ 2 2 + 2
]
4
= = = (
(
+
))
22
= =
=
(
22
(9.30)
(9.31)
(9.24)
(
+
)) + (
(
+
))
22
22
1
1 2
2
1
2
2
1 2 2
= (
) [( ) ( 2 +
+ 2 )] = [ 2 + 2 ] (9.32)
) + ( ) (
22
2
2
= (
22
111
111
1
1
= (9.22) = (1, , 0, 0)
2
2
1
1
1
1
=
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1 2
= 1 1 1 ( ) ( )
2
2
2
2
1
2
1 2 2
= +
= [
+
]
2
2
8 4 2 2
1 2 2
= [ 2 + 2]
2
= = 0
Finding the Ricci tensor of the Brinkmann metric using Cartans structure equation
Cartans First Structure equation and the calculation of the curvature one-forms
According to the Cartan calculation further below the sign is wrong
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Susan Larsen
(5.10)
=0
=0
The curvature one-forms summarized in a matrix:

0
1
( + )()
2
1
( + )()
2
1
1
( + )()
( + )()
2
2
1
1
( + )()
( + )()
2
{2
and A and B will be used later, to make the calculations easier
1
1
= ( ((, , ) + 1) + ) = ( +
)
2
2
1

= ( ( + ) +
( + ))
2
1
1
= ( (1 ) ) = ( +
)
2
2
1

= ( ( + ) +
( + ))
2
(5.9)
1
( + )()
2
1
( + )()
2
= +
=
2
(5.27), (5.28)
First we will calculate

1
1
( + )
( + )
2
2
1 2
=(
) ( + + + )
2
1 2
1 2
=(
) ( + ) = (
) ( ) = 0
2
2
1
1
( + )
( + ) = 0
=
2
2
1
1 (, , )
)
( + )) = (
= (
2
2
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Susan Larsen
1 2 (, , )
1 2 (, , )
=
+

2
2
2
1 2 (, , )
1 2 (, , )
+
( + )
(
)
2
2
2
1
1 (, , )
1 2
1 2
) =
+

( + )) = (
= (
2
2
2
2 2
1 2
1 2
=
( + ) +
( + )
2
2 2
Now we are ready to calculate the curvature two-forms
:
= 0
= + + + = +
=+ =0
= + = 0
:
= 0
= + + + = +
= () () + () () = 0
= 0
1 2
1 2
:
= =
+
( + )
(
)
2 2
2
= + + + = 0
1 2
1 2
+
( + )
(
)
2 2
2
1 2
1 2
:
= =
( + ) +
( + )
2
2 2
= + + + = 0
1 2
1 2
=
( + ) +
( + )
2
2 2

= 0
= + + + = +
= () () () () = 0
= 0
1 2
1 2
:
= =
+
( + )
(
)
2 2
2
= + + + = 0
1 2
1 2
+
( + )
(
)
2 2
2
1 2
1 2
:
= =
( + ) +
( + )
2
2 2
= + + + = 0
1 2
1 2
=
( + ) +
( + )
2
2 2
:
= 0
= + + + = () () () () = 0
= 0
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Susan Larsen
=0
=
= () () () () = 0
=0
=0
0
= 0
1 2
1 2
) +
(
+
( + )
2 2
2
1 2
1 2
( + ) +
( + )
2
2
2
0
0
1 2
1 2
( + ) +
( + )
2
2 2
1 2
1 2
( + ) +
( + )
2
2 2
0
}
0
Now we can write down the independent elements of the Riemann tensor in the noncoordinate basis:
1 2
1 2
R () =
R () =
2 2
2 2
2
1 2
1
R () =
R () =
2 2
2 2
2
1
1 2
R () =
R () =
2
2 2
1 2
R () =
2
1 2
R () =
2 2
1 2
R () =
2
1 2
R () =
2
Where C,D and E will be used later, to make the calculations easier
The Ricci tensor:
= = + + +
= = + + +
=0
=0
= = + + +
=0
=0
(4.46)
1 2 1 2
+
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2
=+ =
+
2 2 2 2
=+ =
=+ =
1 2 1 2
+
2 2 2 2
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Susan Larsen
= + = 0
+ + + = + = 0
+ + + = + = 0
= = + + +
= =
= =
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
+
+
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2
2
2
2
= 1 + 1 1 + 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
0
0
{
0
0
0
0
0
0}
The Ricci tensor in the coordinate basis:
The transformation:
= +
= + + +
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
= ( ( + 1)) ( + ) + ( + 1) (1 )( + ) + (1 ) ( + 1)( + ) + ( (1 )) ( + )
2
2
2
2
2
2
= ( + )
1 2 1 2
=
+
2 2 2 2
=
= +
= + + +
1
1
1
= ( + 1) 1( + ) + ( + 1)(1)( + ) + (1 ) 1( + )
2
2
2
1
+ (1 )(1)( + )
2
=0
=
= +
= + + +
= 1 1( + ) + 1(1)( + ) + (1)1( + ) + (1)(1)( + )
=0
= = = 0
= = 0 = 0
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Susan Larsen
1 2 1 2
+
0 0
2 2 2 2
=
0
0 0
0
0 0
{
0
0 0
1 2 1 2
=
+
2 2 2 2
0
0
0
0}
9 The Schwarzschild Solution

112The
9.1
The line element: 2
The Basis one forms
= ()
= ()
= sin
= 2() 2 2() 2 2 2 2 sin2 2
= ()
= ()
1
=
sin
={
1
1
112
Riemann and Ricci tensor of the general Schwarzschild metric
(5.9)
(5.10)
= ( () ) = () = ()
= ( () ) = 0
1
= () = = ()
1
cot
= ( sin ) = sin + cos = () +

(McMahon, 2006, p. 204)
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Susan Larsen

()
0
()
0
1 ()
0
1 ()
cot
()
0
1
cot
0
()

1
= ()
= ()
= ()
1 ()
cot
=
=
1 ()
1
= ()
cot
=
= +
=
2
(5.27), (5.28)
= ( () ) = ( ()() ) = ( + ( )) ()()
= ( + ( )) 2()
= + + +
= ( + ( )) 2()
=0
=0
= + + +
1
= () () = 2()
= 2()
=0
= + + + =
= 2()
2()
=

= ( () ) = ( () ) = () = 2()
= + + + = 0
= 2()
Page 88

Susan Larsen
= ( () ) = ( () sin )
= () sin + () cos
1
= 2() + 2 () cot
= + + + =
cot 1 ()
=

= 2()
cot
1
= (
) = (cos ) = sin = 2
= + + + =
1
= 2 2()
(1 2() )
=

2
2()
2()
0 ( + ( )) 2()

= ( + ( )) 2()

= 2()
= 2()
2()
2()
=
=
(1 2() )
=
2
The Ricci tensor:
=
(4.46)
= = + +
= ( + ( ) + 2
2()
2()
(1 2() )
}
0
= + +
2()
)
= = + + +
= ( + ( ) 2 ) 2()
= R + +
Page 89

Susan Larsen
2()
= = + + +
= + +
2() 2() (1
)
+
+
2
= = + + + = + +
=
2() 2() (1 2() )
+
+
( + ( ) + 2
2
)
( + ( ) 2 ) 2
(1 2 )
2 + 2 +

113The
9.2
2 2 (1 2 )
+
+
}
Riemann tensor of the Schwarzschild metric
Solving the vacuum equations we find = and 2 = 1
The line element: 2
= (1
2
,
2 = (1
2 1
)
2
2 1 2
) 2 (1
) 2 2 2 sin2 2
First we calculate
1
2
1
2
= 2 ( 2 ) = 2 (1
) = 2 ( 2 ) = 2
2
2
2
1 2 2
( )) = 2 ( 2 ) + 2 2 ( 2 )
(
=
2
2
2
= 2 + 2 ( 2 ) = 2 3 2
2

R = ( + ( )) 2() = ( + 2 ) 2() = (2 3 2 + 2 ) 2()
2
= 3
2() 2() 1 1 2 2 2()
=
=
=
( 2 )
= 3
2()
=
= 3
2()
=
= 3
2()
=
= 3
113
(McMahon, 2006, p. 215)
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Susan Larsen
9.3
(1 2() ) (1 2() )
=
=
=
2
2
= 3 = 3
= 3
114Calculation
2
(1 (1 ))
2
2
3
= 3
2
= 3
of the scalar in the Schwarzschild metric
= + + +

+ + + +

+ + + +

+ + + +

+ + + +
+ + + +
2 2
2
2
2 2
2
2
= ( 3 ) ( 3 ) + ( 3 ) ( 3 ) + ( 3 ) ( 3 ) + ( 3 ) ( 3 )
+ ( 3 ) ( 3 ) + ( 3 ) ( 3 ) + ( 3 ) ( 3 ) + ( 3 ) ( 3 )
+ ( 3 ) ( 3 ) + ( 3 ) ( 3 ) + ( 3 ) ( 3 ) + ( 3 ) ( 3 )

+ ( 3 ) ( 3 ) + ( 3 ) ( 3 ) + ( 3 ) ( 3 ) + ( 3 ) ( 3 )
+ ( 3 ) ( 3 ) + ( 3 ) ( 3 ) + ( 3 ) ( 3 ) + ( 3 ) ( 3 )
2
2
2 2
2
2
2 2
+ ( 3 ) ( 3 ) + ( 3 ) ( 3 ) + ( 3 ) ( 3 ) + ( 3 ) ( 3 )
482
(10.35)
=
6
9.4
115Geodesics
in the Schwarzschild Spacetime
To find the geodesic we use the Euler-Lagrange equation

0 =
( )

where
2 2
2 1 2
= (1
) (1
) 2 2 2 sin2 2
= :
=0
= 2 (1
)
114
115
(10.36)
(McMahon, 2006, p. 216), equation (10.35)

(McMahon, 2006, p. 216)
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Susan Larsen
4
2
+ 2 (1
)
2
4
2
0 = 2 + 2 (1
)
2

0 = +
( 2)

( )

= :
2 2
2
+
2 2 2 2 sin2 2
2
(
2)2
2 1
= 2 (1
)
2 1
2 2 2 2
= 2 (1
) + 2 (1
)
2
2 1
4
= 2 (1
) +
2
( 2)2
2 1
2
2
0 = 2 (1
) +
2 2 2 + 2 2 + 2 sin2 2
2
( 2)
2)
0 =
2 +
2 ( 2) 2 ( 2) sin2 2
( 2)
3

( )

= :
= :
= 2 2
= 4 2 2
= 4 2 2 + 2 2 cos sin 2
2
0 = + cos sin 2
(10.39)
=0
= 2 2 sin2
= 4 sin2 4 2 cos sin 2 2 sin2

2
0 = + + 2 cot
116The
(10.38)
= 2 2 cos sin 2

( )

0
9.5

( )

0
(10.37)
(10.40)
meaning of the integration constant: The choice of
We can use the geodesic equations to justify the choice of 2 by investigating the geodesic equations in
the classical limit i.e. 2, 1 and = , where is the velocity and is the proper time.
We want to investigate the case of a radially infalling particle i.e. = 0 and = 0. We also want to
work in SI-units so we have to substitute by 2 . Also remember that = = , = = =
116
and =
2
2
2
2 2
,
2
where is the particle acceleration. We use equation (10.38):
(McMahon, 2006, p. 218)
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Susan Larsen
( 2) 2
2 +
( 2) 2 ( 2) sin2 2
( 2)
3
Now before we carry on with the physics we also have to be sure that each term in this equation has the
same dimension. It turns out that they dont and therefore the third term has to be multiplied by 2 , in
1
which case each term gets the dimension117
.
0 =
( 2) 2 2
0 =
2 +
( 2) 2 ( 2) sin2 2
( 2)
3
( 2) 2 2
= 0, = 0
0 =
2 +

( 2)
3
0 = 2 2 + 2 2 2
2
2
2

= , = , = 2
0 = 2 2 2 + 2 = 2 ( 2 2 + 2 )
0 = 2 ( ) + 2
2
= 2
Multiplying with on both sides we get precisely the Newtonian gravitational law
= = 2
118Time
9.6
Delay
To describe the time delay of a light ray outside a massive body, like the Sun we can use the Schwarzschild
metric. We can choose to work in the plane with = , and together with 2 = 0 (light rays are placed
2
on the cone) we can rewrite the Schwarzschild line element:
2
2 1 2
0 = (1
) 2 (1
) 2 2
Now we would like to describe the time delay of the light ray as a function of the distance, from the
massive body, and therefore we have to get rid of the s. Its not that difficult. If we use polar coordinates
the least distance, 0 , the light ray passes the massive body is:
0 = sin
0
= sin1
0
0
1
=
(sin1 ) = 119 2
2
1 (0 )
2
2
0
( ) = 4
1 ( 0 )
Now we can begin rewriting the Schwarzschild line element and solve the differential equation
2
2 1 2
2
0 = (1
) (1
) 2 2
117
This actually originates from the line element of the Schwarzschild metric itself, because in order to get the same
dimension of each term, the first term has to be multiplied by 2 : 2 = (1

2
) 2 2 (1
2 1
sin
118
(McMahon, 2006, p. 229)
1
119
sin1 =
(13.20) (Spiegel, 1990)
2
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Susan Larsen

2 2
2 02
= 1 + (1
) ( ) = 1 + 2 (1
)
1
2
1 ( 0 )
2
2 2
2
2 2 (1 20 )
(1 ) ( 0 )
1 ( 0 ) + (1 ) ( 0 )
3
=1+
=
=
2
2
2
1 ( 0)
1 ( 0)
1 ( 0)
202
(1 3 )
( ) =
2
2 2
(1 ( 0 ) ) (1 )
2 2
2 2
1 3 0
1 3 0
(1 + 2)
120
=
2
2
2
1 (0 )
(1 ) 1 ( 0 )
2
02
121
(1 +
) (1 3 )
2
0
1 ( )
2 02
3 )
(1 +
2
0
1 ( )
To get the total time delay between points (1 , 2 ) we have to integrate from 0 to 1 and from 0 to 2
2 02
2 02
3 )
3 )
1 (1 +
2 (1 +
2
+
=
2
2
0
0
1
1 (0 )
1 (0 )
1
1
1
1
2
02
=
+

2
2
2
0
0
1 ( 0 )
1 ( 0 )
3 1 ( 0 )
2
2
2
1
2
02
+
+

2
2
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
1 ( )
1 ( )
3 1 ( )
1
1
1
1
1
=
+ 2
02
2
2
2
2
2
2
0 0
0 0
0 2 0
2
2
2
1
1
+
+ 2
02
2
2
2
0 2 0
0 2 0
0 2 2 0
2 2 2
(1
) ( )
2 1
= 1221 2 02 0 2 02
+1232 [ln (1 + 1 2 0 2 ) ln (0 + 0 2 0 2 )]
120
1
1
121
1 + 0 (20.8) (Spiegel, 1990)
1 1 2 0 (20.12) (Spiegel, 1990)
122
123
2 2
2 2
= 2 2 (14.210) (Spiegel, 1990)

= ln( + 2 2 ) (14.210) (Spiegel, 1990)
Page 94

Susan Larsen
12402 [
1 2 0 2 0 2 0 2
] + 2 2 02 0 2 02
0 2 1
0 2 0
+2 [ln (2 + 2 2 0 2 ) ln (0 + 0 2 0 2 )]
02 [
2 2 0 2 0 2 0 2
]
0 2 2
0 2 0
= 1 2 02 + 2 2 02
(1 + 1 2 0 2 )(2 + 2 2 0 2 )
1 2 0 2 2 2 0 2
)
]
2
1
2
0
We can use this formula to calculate the time delay from e.g. Venus to Earth. The first term is the ordinary flat space distance, and the delay is characterized by the remaining terms. We have 2 = , 1 = .
+ [2 ln (
Remember to get the right unit we must multiply by 3.
9.7
( + 2 0 2 )( + 2 0 2 )
2 0 2 2 0 2
ln
(
)
[2
]
3
02
125Use
the geodesic equations to find the Christoffel symbols for the general
Schwarzschild metric.
To find the geodesic we use

0 =
( )

where
1
1
1
1
1
= = 2() 2 2() 2 2 2 2 sin2 2
2
2
2
2
2
= :
=0
= 2()
( ) = 2 2() + 2()

0 = 2 2() + 2()
0 = + 2
= :
= 2() 2 2() 2 2 sin2 2
= 2()
( ) = 2 2() 2 2()

2()
0 =
2() 2() 2 + 2 + sin2 2
124
125
2 2 2
2 2
2
(4.36)
(4.35)
(14.214) (Spiegel, 1990)
(McMahon, 2006, p. 231) quiz 10-1. Answer: 10-1 is (a)
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Susan Larsen
0 = +
= :

( )

0
= :
+ 2(()()) 2 2() 2 sin2 2() 2
= 2 cos sin 2
= 2
= 2 2
= 2 2 + 2 cos sin 2
2
0 = + cos sin 2

( )

0
=0
= 2 sin2
= 2 sin2 2 2 cos sin 2 sin2

2
0 = + + 2 cot
0
0
0
0
= + 2
= + + 2(()()) 2 2() 2 sin2 2() 2
2
2
= + cos sin
2
= + + 2 cot
Now we can find the Christoffel symbols from the equation

2

(4.33)
=0
+
= =
= 2(()())
= 2()
= sin2 2()
= =
= cos sin
= cot
Page 96

Susan Larsen
126The
9.8
Ricci tensor for the general time dependent Schwarzschild metric.
The line element: 2
The Basis one forms
= (,)
= (,)
= sin
= 2(,) 2 2(,) 2 2 2 2 sin2 2
= (,)
= (,)
1
=
sin
={
1
1
Cartans First Structure equation and the calculation of the Cartan structure coefficients :
(5.9)
(5.10)
= ( (,) ) = (,) = (,)

= ( (,) ) = (,) = (,)
1
= () = = (,)
1
cot
= ( sin ) = sin + cos = (,) +

In this case we have to be particular careful in reading off the curvature one forms. The curvature one
forms are antisymmetric in the sense that: = (5.11). This means that = =
= = . But in the former calculation we found that = (,) and =

(,) , which means that we in order to fulfill the antisymmetric properties need to require that
= = (,) + (,) , because = (,) + (something that makes antisymmetric), and = (,) + (something that makes antisymmetric).

0
(,) + (,)
(,) + (,)
0
{
126
0
1
(,)
(,)
0
1 (,)
cot
0
1 (,)
cot
(McMahon, 2006, p. 231), quiz 10-2. Answer to quiz 10-2: = ( )
Page 97

Susan Larsen
= +
=
2
(5.27), (5.28)
= ( (,) + (,) ) = ( (,)(,) + (,)(,) )

= ( + ( ) (,)(,) + ( + ( )) (,)(,)
= [ ( + ( )) 2(,) + ( + ( )) 2(,) ]
= + + +
=0
)) 2(,)
= [ ( + ( )) 2(,) + ( + (
=0
= + + +
1
= (,) ( (,) + (,) )
(,)(,)
=
+ 2(,)
=0
= + + + =
1
= (,) ( (,) + (,) )
= (,)(,) + 2(,)
= ( (,) ) = ( (,) ) = (,) (,)
= (,)(,) + 2(,)
= + + + = 0
= (,)(,) + 2(,)
= ( (,) ) = ( (,) sin )
= (,) sin (,) sin + (,) cos
1
= (,)(,) + 2(,) + 2 (,) cot
= + + + =
cot 1 ()
=

= (,)(,) + 2(,)
cot
1
= (
) = (cos ) = sin = 2
= + + + =
Page 98

Susan Larsen

1 2(,)

2
(1 2(,) )
=

2
0
[ ( + ( )) 2(,) + ( + ( )) 2(,) ]
(,)(,)
+ 2(,)
(,)(,) + 2(,)
(,)(,)
+ 2(,)
(,)(,) + 2(,)
2(,)
(1
)

2
}
0
Now we can find the independent elements of the Riemann tensor in the coordinate basis:
= ( + ( )) 2(,)
+
)) 2(,)
2(,)
= (,)(,)
2(,)
=
2(,)
= (,)(,)
2(,)
=
(1 2(,) )
=
2
=
The Ricci tensor:
(4.46)
=
+ +
2(,)
)
= = + + + = + = 2 (,)(,)
= = + + + = R + +
= ( + ( )) 2(,) + ( + ( ) + 2
= ( + ( )) 2(,) ( + ( ) 2 ) 2(,)
= (

(1
+ ) 2(,) +
= + +
= = + + +
= (
2(,)
= = + + +

(1 2(,) )
+ ) 2(,) +
Page 99

Susan Larsen
( + ( )) 2 + ( + ( ) + 2
2
)
( + ( )) 2
( + ( ) 2 ) 2
(1 2 )

( + ) 2 +
The Ricci tensor in the coordinate basis:
The transformation:
0
(1 2 )

( + ) 2 +
}
= = ( )
= 2(,) ( ( + ( )) 2(,) + ( + ( ) + 2
2(,)
)
)
2(,)2(,)
)
= (,) (,) 2 (,)(,) = 2
= ( + ( )) + ( + ( ) + 2
= =
= = ( )
= 2(,) (( + ( )) 2(,) ( + ( ) 2 ) 2(,) )
= ( + ( )) 2(,)+2(,) ( + ( ) 2 )
= = ( ) = 2 ((

(1 2(,) )
+ ) 2(,) +
)
= (( + ) 1) 2(,) + 1
= = ( ) = 2 sin2 ((

(1 2(,) )
+ ) 2(,) +
)
= ((( + ) 1) 2(,) + 1) sin2
( + ( )) + ( + ( ) + 2
2
r
0
22
)
2
( + ( ))
2+2
( +
2 )
(( + ) 1) 2 + 1
0
((( + ) 1) 2 + 1) sin2 }
Page 100

Susan Larsen
9.9 The Schwarzschild metric with nonzero cosmological constant.

9.9.1
127The
Ricci rotation coefficients and Ricci tensor for the Schwarzschild metric with nonzero cosmological constant.
The line element:
= () 2 + () 2 + 2 2 + 2 sin2 2
() = 1
Where
1
3
Now we can compare with the line element of the Schwarzschild metric with zero cosmological constant,
where the primes should not be mistaken for the derivative /.
2 = 2( ) 2 2( ) 2 2 2 2 sin2 2
And choose:
( ) = ()
1
( ) =
()
sin = sin
Comparing the two metrics we see: = , = , = , ( ) = (), = , =

Next we can use the former calculations of the Schwarzschild metric with zero cosmological constant to
find the Ricci rotation coefficients and the Ricci tensor for the Schwarzschild metric with non-zero cosmological constant.
But first we need to calculate
( )

= ( ) ( ( ) ) = ( ) (() ) = ( ) (())
() 1
1 ()
( )
=
=
2() 2()
2
2 ( )
1 ()
1 ()
1
()
1 2 ()
= [
]=
[
]= 2
(
) +
2()
2()
2 ()
2() 2
2 1 2
2 2
1
=
(1
) = 2 = (() + 2 1)
2 2
4 2
2 ()
=
(
) = 3 = (
+ )
2 3
2
()
2 ()
2
The Ricci rotation coefficients
127
( ) ( )
1 ()
1 ()
() =
=
=
=
2()
2()
1
3 3
2 1 3
3
2 2
r
2 3
2 1
21 3 2
3 3
9 18 3 3
(McMahon, 2006, pp. 231-32), quiz 10-3 and 10-4. The answer to quiz 10-3 is (b) and the answer to quiz 10-4 is (a)
Page 101

Susan Larsen
= = = =
= =
1 ( )
1
1
2 1 2
= () = 1

cot
cot
=
The Ricci tensor
2
2

2
= [ 2 + ( ) ( ) ( ) + ] 2( )
2
2 2
= [ 2 + 2 ( ) + ] 2( )
2
2
1
()
1 2 ()
1 ()
2 1 ()
=[ 2
(
) +
+ 2(
) +
] ()
2
2 ()
2()
2()
2()
1 2 () 2 1 ()
=[
+
] ()
2() 2
2()
1
2 ()
2 1 ()
=[
( (
+ )) +
] () =
2()

2()
2
2
= [ 2 + ( ) ( ) ( ) ] 2( ) = =
1
1 2( ) 1 2( )
= [ + ]
+

2
2 2( ) 1 2( )
=
+

2
2 1 ()
1 ()
1 () 1 ()
=
() +
=
+
2
2()

2
1
1
1 ()
= ( (() + 2 1)) +
2
1
1 ()
= 2 ((() + 2 1)) +
2
=
(10.24)
(10.25)
(10.26)
Alternatively we could use the formula calculated earlier on page 138: = valid in vacuum systems with a cosmological constant and positive signature, from which we immediately can see that
= = = =
9.9.2
128The
general Schwarzschild metric in vacuum with a cosmological constant: The Ricci
scalar
The metric
2
128
= 2() 2 2() 2 2 ( 2 + sin2 2 )
(McMahon, 2006, p. 277), quiz 12-1. And the answer to quiz 12-1 is (c)
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Susan Larsen
In this case we can write the Einstein equation in the local frame (non-coordinate basis) we name the
cosmological constant 129:
1
(6.6)
0 = +
2
1
0 = +
2
1
= 4 + 4
2
= 4
9.9.3
130The general Schwarzschild metric in
vacuum with a cosmological constant: Integration
constants
We know that
() = ln ()
() = ()
1
and
2() = 2 2()
We also need to find
2()
+ 2 () 2()
( 2() ) =
1
( 2() )
2()
2
2
As in quiz 12-1 we use the Einstein equation in the non-coordinate basis, but this time for the coordinate
1
(6.6)
0 = +
2
1
= +
2
1
= + 4
2
= +
=
Earlier (p.211) we calculated the Ricci tensor:
(1 2() )
= 2() + 2() +
2()
1
= 2 2 2() + 2 2 2

2()
1
2() 1 2()
(
)
= 2 (
) 2 + 2 2 2
2

2 2()
Renaming
() = 2()
() 1 () 1 ()
)
+
= (
() 2 2 2 2 3
2 + 2 2 = ()
() =
129
If you compare this to quiz 10-3 and 10-4 page 231-32 you can conclude that = . The reason is that the metric
in the two cases changes signature, which implies that in the first case = 4, and in the second = 4 = 4. You
might also check the proofs on page 138.
1
130
(McMahon, 2006, p. 277), quiz 12-2 and 12-3. The answers to quiz 12-2 is: 2() = + + 2 3 and quiz
3
12-3 is = 2 .
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Susan Larsen
We guess the solution (polynomials with exponents higher than 3 cannot contribute):
() = 2()
= + + 2 + 3
() = + 2 + 3 2
+ 2 2 = + 2 + 3 2
Now comparing the coefficients we find
= 2
=0
1
= 2
3
and we can conclude that
1
2() = + 2 + 2 3
3
1 2 2
2()
2
= + +
3
and the line element
2 = 2() 2 2() 2 2 2 2 sin2 2
becomes
1 2 2
1 2 2 1 2
2
2
2
2
2
2 = ( + + 3 ) ( + + 3 )
2 sin2 2
2
If = 1 and = 0 this should be identical to the ordinary Schwarzschild vacuum metric, which means
that has to be equal to: = 2
9.9.4
general Schwarzschild metric in vacuum with a cosmological constant: The spatial

part of the line element.
The line element
2 = 2() 2 2() 2 2 2 2 sin2 2
can in Gaussian normal coordinates be written as
2 = 2 2 () 2
In this case we want to find the spatial part of the line element
2 =
and to do that we will use the method outlined on page 260, where the metric is found from the Riccitensor:
= 2
1
=
2
1
=
2
1
2
=
( )
2
1
2
=
( () ) ()
2
2()
=
2
In the former quiz we found that
1
2() = 2 2()
131
131The
(McMahon, 2006, p. 277), quiz 12-4
Page 104

Susan Larsen
1 1
1
(2 + 2 + 2 3 )
2

3
2 1 2
= 1 2 +
3
1
=
2 1 2 + 1 2
2 3
1
=
2
2
1
=
( )
2
1
()2 ()
=
2
2
=
2
1
=
2
2
1
=
( )
2
1
( sin )2 ()
=
2
2 2
=
sin
2
2
2 2
2 2
=

sin 2
2
2 1 2 + 1 2 2
2
2 3
where we can omit the common factor = and finally get if we choose = 1
2
2
2 =
+ 2 2 + 2 sin2 2
2 1 2
1 + 3
=
9.9.5 132The effect of the cosmological constant over the scale of the solar system
To check the effect of the cosmological constant over the scale of the solar system we will look at the line
element of a radially moving (i.e. = 0, = 0) light ray ( 2 = 0) in the solar system with a sun mass
= 0 in a universe with a cosmological constant proportional to the size of the Universe.
The line element:
1
2
2 = 133 (1 + 2 ) 2
1
3
1 + 3 2
()
=
1
1 + 3 2
2

1
1 1 + 2
3
3 2
=
1 3 + 2
132
133
(McMahon, 2006, p. 277), Quiz 12-5, answer (c)

Notice: If we set = 0 we get the usual Minkowski line element.
Page 105

Susan Larsen

2
3
3
= 134 [ tan1 ( )]
3
3
3
= tan1 ((2 1 ) )
0 (2 1 )
So the effect of the cosmological constant on a small scale is negligible.
135The
9.10
Petrov type of the Schwarzschild spacetime

1
The metric tensor:
1
2
(1
)
2 sin2 }
1
2
(1 )
and its inverse:
(1
2
)
1
2
The basis one forms
2
= 1
1
=
2
1
= sin
1
2 sin2 }
1
1 2
2
= 1
1
=
sin
={
1
1
2 2 = tan1 (Spiegel, 1990) eq.( 14.162)

+
135
(McMahon, 2006, p. 232), quiz 10-5
134
Page 106

Susan Larsen
Now we can use the basis one-forms to construct a orthonormal null tetrad (9.10)
1
1
1
1
( ) =
(
2 0
0
2
+
1
1 2
0 0
1
1
0 0

=
=
)
2
1
2 +
2 1
2
1 ( )
1
( )
1
1
0
0
+ sin
sin
2
(1 ,
2
1
1
(0, 0,
1 2
, 0, 0)
sin )
2
2
(1 ,
2
1
0, 0)
1
2
, 1
,
(
2 1 2
0, 0)
1
2
(0, 0,
1 2
sin )
1
1
2
1
1
1
=
2
2
(1 ) 2
1 2
= =
= = (1
= = 0
= =
= = (1
= = 0
= = 0
= = (
2 1
)
2
1
1 2
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
=
2
2
(1 ) 2
1 2
2 1
1
1
2
1
)
=
2
2
1 2
(
)
1 1
1 1
)
=
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
= = 2 2
sin =
sin 2
2 sin
2
(1 ,
2
1
1
1 2
, 0, 0)
Page 107

Susan Larsen
2
(1 ,
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
1 2
0, 0)
(0, 0,
sin )
(0, 0,
sin )
1
2
, 1
, 0, 0)
(
2 1 2
1
1
1
=
(0, 0, ,
)
sin
2
1
1
1
=
(0, 0, ,
)
sin
2
=
1
= (
)
2
1
= (
)
2
(9.15)
1

= (

)
2
1
= (
)
2

=

=

=

= ( )
( )
( )

( )

=0
=

=0
=

= ( )

( )

( )

( )

=

+

1
1
1
= ( 2) ( ( )) ( 2) sin2 ( (
))
2
2 sin
=0
=

=0
=
= +
= + + +
= ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( )
=0
Page 108

Susan Larsen
=
=0
=
=
+

=
+
+
+
= ( )
+ ( )
+ ( )
+ ( )
2 1
= (1
)
2
(1
1
( ( ))
2
1 2
2
1
+ (1
) sin2
1
1
1
1
( (
)) (
)
sin
2
2 sin
2
1
2 1
)

2
=
=
=0
1
= (
)
2
1
1
= (
) + (
)
2
2
1
1
1
= (
) + (
) + (
)
2
2
2
1
+ (
)
2
1
1
= (( ) ( )
) + (( ) ( )
)
2
2
1
+ (( ) ( )
)
2
1
+ (( ) ( )
)
2
1
1
1
= (( ) ) + (( ) ( )
) + (( ) )
2
2
2
1
+ (( ) ( )
)
2
1
1
1
2 1
1
= (( )
) + (( ))
) + (( ) ( ) 1
2
4
4
4
1
1
2
2
+ (( ) (1
) + ( ) 1
)
4
sin
Page 109

Susan Larsen
22
(
2
(1
)
2
(
+
1
2
1 2 1
)
5 ( ( (
22
1
2
1
2 1
1
) 2
) ( () ) 1
)
2
1
2
1
)
2
5 ( 2
1
22
1
5
22
( (
1
2
( 1 )
1
1
2
(
1
)
2 1 2
1 )
1
2
+ ( ( sin ) sin ) 1
sin
)
=
1
5
22
1
1 2
)
1
5
22

( (
5
22
1
1 2
1
3
2
2
(1 )
1
1 2
))
1
3
2
2
(1 )
)
(1
1
5
22
1
1 2
)
2
)
)
1
1
= 3 2
22 1 2
1

= (
)
2
1
1
= (
) + (
)
2
2
1
1
1
1
= ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( )
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
= ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( )
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
= ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( )
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
2
= ( ) + + ( ) ( )2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
= 5
+
+
3
5
5
5
2
2
2
2
2
22 1 2
22 1 2
22 1 2
22 1 2
22 1 2
1
1
= 3
2
22 1 2
Page 110

Susan Larsen
1
= (

)
2
1
1
= (

) + (

)
2
2
1
1
1
= (

) + (

) + (

)
2
2
2
1
+ (

)
2
1
= (( )
( )

)
2
1
+ (( )
( )

)
2
1
+ (( )
( )

)
2
1
+ (( )
( )

)
2
1
1
1
=

+ ( ( )

) +

2
2
2
11
1
1
1 1
= 5 cot + (( ( sin ) cot ( sin ))

) + 5 cos sin
2
sin2
22
22
11
= 3 cot
22
1
= (
)
2
1
1
1
=
+ ( ( )
) +

2
2
2
11
1
1 1
= 5 cot + (( ( sin ) cot ( sin ))
) 5 cot
22
22
11
= 3 cot
22
=0
=0
=0
=0
2
=0
=
2
1
1
1
3
=0
=
2
22 1 2
1
1
1
2 1
=
=
(1
3 cot
)
2
22
11
=0
= 3 cot
22
3
22
= ( + ) (3 ) + ( + + 3)
(13.22)
Page 111

Susan Larsen
1 = ( + ) ( ) + ( + ) + ( )
2 = + ( ) + ( + ) + 2
3 = + ( + ) ( + ) + ( ) + ( )
4 = + ( + ) (3 ) + (3 + + )
Where
=
=
=

=
0
1
(13.23)
(13.24)
(13.25)
(13.26)
(9.13)
=0
=
=
=
= (
1
2
2
1 1
11
1
2 1
) ( 3 cot ) ( 3 cot ) ( (1
) )

2
22
22
1
2
1
1
= (1
) cot [ ( ) + 2 ]
4
=0
= + 2
= + 2
= + 2
= (
1
2
2
1
2 1
1
2 1
1
1
) ( (1
) ) + 2 ( (1
) ) 3

2
2
2
22 1 2
(
)
1
2
1
2 1
1
= ( 1
) 3
(1
) 2 3
2

2
1 2
(
)
1
2
= 2 3
2
=
=

= (
1
2
2
11
) ( 3 cot )
22
1
2 1
= 136 cot 1
4
2
4 = 0
2 0: This is a Petrov type D, which means there are two principal null directions. The Petrov type D is
associated with the gravitational field of a star or a black hole. The two principal null directions correspond
to ingoing and outgoing congruence of light rays.
136
This should be 0. However, the result is reproduced in FE-12 concerning the Reissner-Nordstrm metric.
Page 112

Susan Larsen
9.11
137The
deflection of a light ray in a Schwarzschild metric with two different

masses
The metric
21
22 1 2
) 2 (1
) 2 2 2 sin2 2
Copying the method pp 224-229

21 2
22 1 2
(10.52)
0 = (1
) (1
) 2 2
21 2 2
2 = 138 (1
2 = 4 2
)
21 1 2
22 1 2 2
(10.53)
0 = (1
) (1
) 2
1
1
if
= = 2 =
= ( ) = 2
21
22 1 2 2
21 2 2
0 = 2 (1
) (1
) (1
)
(1 21 ) 2 2
= 2
(1 21 ) 2 2
(1 22 )
Differentiating with respect to
(1 21 ) 2 2
(1 21 ) 2
21
2
=
2 22
2
+ 21 2 2
2
0
(1 22 )
(1 22 )
(1 22 )
2 (1 21 ) 2
(1 21 ) 2
(1 21)
21
2
= 2 (
22
2
+ 21 2
2
(1 22 )
(1 22 )
(1 22)
2
= (1
2(1 21))
2
2
= 1 (1 22 ) 2 (1 21 ) (1 21 )(1 22 )
+ 1 (1 22 )2 2 (1 21 )(1 22 )2
2
= (1 2 ) (1 21 )(1 22 ) + 1 (1 22 )22
(1 21)(1 22 )2
2
= (1 2 ) (1 21 )(1 22 ) + (31 1)(1 22 )2
In the limit where = 0
0 = (1 2 ) 2 +
From which we can conclude, that the deflection is somehow dependent on (1 2 )
9.12
139The
non-zero Weyl scalars of the Reissner-Nordstrm spacetime
The Reissner-Nordstrm spacetime is a static solution to the Einstein-Maxwell field equations140, which
corresponds to the gravitational field of a charged non-rotating, spherically symmetric of mass 141.
1
2 2
2 2
The metric:
2 = (1
+ 2 ) 2 (1
+ 2 ) 2 2 2 2 sin2 2
137
(McMahon, 2006, p. 326) final exam 13

Killing vectors p.220
139
(McMahon, 2006, p. 325), final exam 12, If 2 = 0 the results from Quiz 10-5 are reproduced
140
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein-Maxwell_equations#Einstein.E2.80.93Maxwell_equations
141
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reissner%E2%80%93Nordstr%C3%B6m_metric
138
Page 113

Susan Larsen
(1
The metric
tensor:
2 2
+ 2)
2 2
(1
+ 2)
{
2 1
(1
and its inverse:
2
+ 2)
2 2
(1
+ 2)
1
2
2 sin2 }
1
2 sin2 }
The Christoffel symbols
To find the geodesic we use the Euler-Lagrange equation

(10.36)
0 =
( )

where
1
2 2 2
2 2
= (1
+ 2 ) (1
+ 2 ) 2 2 2 2 sin2 2
= :
=0
2 2
= 2 (1
+ 2 )
2
2 2

+
2
+ 2 )
)
(1
( ) = 4(
3

2

2 2
0 = 4(
+ 2 )
) + 2 (1
3
1
2 2
2
0 = + 2 (1
+ 2) (
)
3
= :
2
2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2 2
= ( 2 3 ) + (1
+ 2 ) ( 2 3 ) 2 2 2 2 sin2 2
= 2(

( )

2 2
2 2
+
2
+ 2)
)
(1
3
2 2
+ 2)
2 2
= 2 (1
+ 2)
= 2 (1
2 2
) 2 2 2 sin2 2
3
2 2
+ 2 (1
+ 2)
2 2 2 2
( 2 3 )
Page 114

Susan Larsen

2 2
= 2 (1
+ 2)
2 2
+ 2)
= 2 (1
2 2
+ 4 (1
+ 2)
2 2
)
3
2 2
2 2
2
)
(
)
3
3
2 2
+ 2)
+ 4 (1
2 (1
2 2
+ 2)
2 2
) + 2 2 + 2 sin2 2
3
2 2
2 2
= 2 (1
+ 2 ) + 2 (1
+ 2)
2
2
2
+ 2 + 2 sin
2 2
2 2
(
) 2 (
)
3
3
2 2
= (1
+ 2)
2 2
2 2 2 2
+ 2) (
)
(1
)
3
3
2 2 2
2 2
(1
+ 2 ) (1
+ 2 ) sin2 2
= :

( )

0
= :
= 2 2 cos sin 2
= 2 2
= 4 2 2
= 4 2 2 + 2 2 cos sin 2
2
0 = + cos sin 2

( )

0
=0
= 2 2 sin2

2
0 = + + 2 cot
(10.39)
(10.40)
0
0

1
2 2
2
= + 2 (1
+ 2) (
)
3
1
2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
= (1
+ 2) (
+ 2 )
)
(1
)
(
)
(1
2
3
2
2
(1
+ 2 ) sin2 2
2
= + cos sin 2
= + + 2 cot
Page 115

Susan Larsen
We can now find the Christoffel symbols:

1
2 2
2
= (1
+ 2) (
)
3
1
2 2
2
= (1
+ 2) (
)
3
2 2 2
= (1
+ 2) (
)
3
2 2
= (1
+ 2)
2 2
= (1
+ 2 ) sin2
1
=
= cos sin
1
=
= cot
The basis one forms

1
2 2 2
= (1
+ 2 )
2 2
= (1
+ 2)
= sin
1
2
2
= (1 2 + )
1
2
2 2
= (1 2 + )
2
1
=
sin
={
1
1
Page 116

Susan Larsen
( )
1
1 1
=
(
2 0
0

1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0

)
=
2 +
( )
( )
1
2 2 2
2 2
(1
+ 2 ) + (1
+ 2)
2 2 2
2 2
+ 2 ) (1
+ 2)
2 (1
+ sin
(
sin
2 2
2
=
((1 2 + ) , (1 2 + )
2
2
1
2 2
2
((1 2 + ) , (1 2 + )
=
2
2
1
(0, 0, , sin )
=
2
1
(0, 0, , sin )
=
2
2 2
= = (1
+ 2)
, 0, 0)
2 2 2
1
2 2
+ 2) =
+ 2)
(1
(1
2
2
1
2 2 1
2 2
= = (1
+ 2)
+ 2)
(1
= = 0
1
2 2
= = (1
+ 2)
0)
, 0,
2 2 2
=
+ 2)
(1
2
1
2 2 2
1
2 2
+ 2) =
+ 2)
(1
(1
2
2
1
1
2
2 2 1
2 2 2
1
2 2 2
= = (1
+ 2)
( (1
+ 2) ) =
+ 2)
(1
= = 0
= = 0
= = (
1 1
1 1
)
=
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
= = 2 2
sin =
sin 2
2 sin
1
2 2
1
2 2
((1 2 + ) ,
2
2
((1 2 + ) ,
2
2 2
(1
+ 2)
2 2
(1
+ 2)
0, 0)
, 0, 0)
1
2
1
2 2
1
2 2
((1 2 + )
2
2
((1 2 + )
2
2 2 2
, (1
+ 2) ,
0, 0)
2 2 2
, (1
+ 2 ) , 0, 0)
Page 117

Susan Larsen
=
=
1
2
1
2
(0, 0,
sin )
(0, 0,
sin )
1
2
1
2
(0,
(0,
1
1
)
0, ,
sin
1
1
)
0, ,
sin
1
= (
)
2
1
= (
)
2
(9.15)
1

= (

)
2
1
= (
)
2

=

=

=

= ( )
( )
( )

( )

=0
=
= 0
=

= ( )

( )

( )

( )

=

+

2 2
1
1
2 2
1
1
= (1
+ 2 ) ( ( )) (1
+ 2 ) sin2 ( (
))
2
2 sin
=0
=

=0
=
= +
= + + +
= ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( )
=0
=
=0
=

=
+
=
+
+
+
Page 118

Susan Larsen
= ( )
+ ( )
+ ( )
+ ( )
2 2 1
2 2
= (1
+ 2)
+ 2)
(1
1
2
1
( ( ))
2 2
1
2 2
+ (1
+ 2 ) sin2
+ 2)
(1
1
2
1
1
1
1
( (
)) (
)
sin
2
2 sin
2 2 2 1
=
+ 2)
(1
2
=
=
=0
1
= (
)
2
1
1
= (
) + (
)
2
2
1
1
1
= (
) + (
) + (
)
2
2
2
1
+ (
)
2
1
1
= (( ) ( )
) + (( ) ( )
)
2
2
1
+ (( ) ( )
)
2
1
+ (( ) ( )
)
2
1
1
1
= (( ) ) + (( ) ( )
) + (( ) )
2
2
2
1
+ (( ) ( )
)
2
1
1
1
1
2 2 2
1
= (( ) ) + (( (1
+ 2 ) ) ( () )
)
2
2
2
2
1
+ (( ) )
2
1
1
2 2
+ (( (1
+ 2)
2
1
2
( ( sin ) )
)
2
Page 119

Susan Larsen
1
= (( ) )
2
1
1 2 2 2 1
2 2
+ (( ( 2 3 ) (1
+ 2)
2
1
1
( )
) + (( ) )
2
2
1
1 2 2 2
1
2 2
+ (( ( 2 3 ) ( ) (1
+ 2)
2
( ( sin ) )
)
2
1
= (( ) )
2
1
1 2
2 2
+ (( (
+ 2)
) (1
2
3
2
1
2 2
(1
+ 2)
1
2
2 1
2 2 2
+ 2) )
(
)
(1
3
1
1 1
1
(
)
) + (( ) )
2
2 2
1
1 2
2 2
+ ((
+ 2)
(
)
(1
2
3
2
1
2 2
+ (1
+ 2)
2 1
2 2 2
+ 2) )
(
)
(1
3
1
1 1
( ( sin )
sin )
)
2
2
1
1
= (( ) ) + (( ) )
2
2
1
= ( + )
2
Page 120

Susan Larsen
1
2 2 2 1
2 2
= ((1
+ 2) (
+ 2)
)
(1
2
2
1
2 2
+ (1
+ 2)
2 2
+ 2)
(1
2
1
1
2
2 1
2 2 2 1
2 2 2
+ 2) )
(
)
(1
)
(1
3
2 2
1 2 1
2 2
= (
+ 2)
)
(1
2
3
2
1 2
2 2
= 3(
+ 2)
)
(1
3
2
2
1
= (
)
2
1
= ( + )
2
1
2
1
2
1 2
2 2 2
= 3(
+ 2)
) (1
3
22
1
= (

)
2
1
1
= (

) + (

)
2
2
1
1
1
= (

) + (

) + (

)
2
2
2
1
+ (

)
2
1
= (( )
( )

)
2
1
+ (( )
( )

)
2
1
+ (( )
( )

)
2
1
+ (( )
( )

)
2
1
= (

( )

+

)
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
= (cot
sin
( ) ( ( sin ) cot
sin )
2
2
2
2
1 1
1
cos sin
2 2 sin
1
= cos
2
1
1
1
= cos
2
2 sin
11
= 3 cot
22
1
= (
)
2
Page 121

Susan Larsen
1
= cos
2
1
1
1
= cos
(
)
2
sin
2
11
= 3 cot
22
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
2 2 2 1
=
+ 2)
(1
2
1
=0
=0
1
2
1
2
1 2
2 2
= 3(
+ 2)
)
(1
3
22
11
= 3 cot
22
11
= 3 cot
22
0 = ( + ) (3 ) + ( + + 3)
1 = ( + ) ( ) + ( + ) + ( )
2 = + ( ) + ( + ) + 2
3 = + ( + ) ( + ) + ( ) + ( )
4 = + ( + ) (3 ) + (3 + + )
Where
=
=
=

=
0
1
1 2
2 2
= 3(
+ 2)
)
(1
3
22
=0
= ( ) +
= + +
= +
=
1
(13.22)
(13.23)
(13.24)
(13.25)
(13.26)
(9.13)
2 2 2
11
1 1
1
2 2 2 1
=
+ 2 ) ( 3 cot ) ( 3 cot )
+ 2)
(1
(1
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2 2 2
11
1 1
=
+ 2 ) ( 3 cot ) ( 3 cot )
(1
2
22
22
=0
= + ( + )
= + 2
= + 2
1
Page 122

Susan Larsen

1
2 2 2 1
= ( (1
+ 2) )
2
1
2 2 2 1
1 2
2 2 2
+ 2 ( (1
+ 2 ) ) ( 3 (
+ 2) )
)
(1
2
2
2
1
2 2 2 1
2 2 2
1
2 2 2 1
2 2
=
+ 2)
((1
+ 2 ) ( 2 ) + ( 2 3 ) (1
+ 2)
(1
2
2
1
1
21
1 1 2
( (
))
2
3
1
2 2
1
2 2 2 1 1
1 1 2
= ((1
+ 2 ) ( 2 ) + ( 2 3 ) ) ( (
))
2
2
2
3
11
1 2 2
2
2
(( + 2 3 ) + ( 2 3 ) + (
))
2

3
1
2 3 2
= 2 3 + 4
2
2
2 4 + 3 2
=
2 4
= + + +
=

=
+

=
2 2 2
11
= ( (1
+ 2 ) ) ( 3 cot )
2
22
1
1
1
2 2 2
= cot 2 (1
+ 2)
4
=0
10 Black Holes
10.1
142The
Path of a Radially Infalling Particle143
Particle orbits in the Schwarzschild space time are described by

= (1
2 2
2 1 2
2
) ( ) (1
) ( ) 2 ( )
2 sin2 ( )
(10.44)
where is the local particle time (proper time) and t can be described as a distant observers (our) time.
For paths along radial lines we can set = = 0, and rearrange the Schwarzschild line element:
2 2
2 1 2
1 = (1
) ( ) (1
) ( )
142
(McMahon, 2006, p. 238)

A more thorough review of the physical interpretation of the equations can be found here: http://physicssusan.mono.net/upl/9129/Radiallyinfallingparticle.pdf
143
Page 123

Susan Larsen
2
2 2 2
2
= (1
) ( ) ( )
2
On page 220 we investigated the Killing vector = (1,0,0,0) and found that (1 ) is a conserved
quantity and, since (1
2
)

1 , (1
2
)

must have the overall value 1:
)( )
and from the Schwarzschild line element above we can conclude

1 = (1
2
2
=( )
1 = (1
2 2 2
) ( )
2
=
Notice that for : = 1, and the particle proper time, , and the time of the distant observer, , are
equal. Notice also that for :
= 0, which means the velocity of the particle is zero in this limit. Also
notice that
has to be negative because decreases as the particle moves inwards. Next we rearrange
the two equations into a differential equation:
= 1
(i)
2 (1 2)
We can solve this by integration from 0 (far out) to (in the vicinity of 2), and find the () which
describes the particles path from our distant point of view, or more popular: what happens to the poor
astronaut as he approaches the black holes event horizon from viewed from our distant position.
0
1
0
2 (1 2)
0
1
3/2
=
2 ( 2)
0 (
1
+ 2)3/2
= 2
=
0 (
1
2( + 2)3/2 0
+ 2)
144
=
([
] + 2
)
3
0
0
2( + 2)3/2
([
+ 22( + 2)] + (2)2
)
3
+
2
2
2( + 2)3/2
42 + 2 2
= 145
[
+ 4( + 2) +
ln
]
3
2
2 + 2 + 2
1
2 3/2
2
= + 2
=
[
+ 4 + (2)3/2 ln
]
2 3
+ 2
0
2
0
2
3/2
=
+ 6] + [2 ln
]
[
32
+ 2
2
0 2 + 2
=
(0 3/2 3/2 + 60 6) + 2 ln
32
0 + 2 2
0
0 2: We set 0 = 1 2 0, = 1 2 0
1
144
145
(+)/2
=
1
2(+)/2
(+)(2)/2
(14.102) (Spiegel, 1990)
+ = ln ++ > 0 (14.87) (Spiegel, 1990)
Page 124

Susan Larsen
32
2 ln
= 2 ln
(0 2 2 + 60 6) + 2 ln
0 2 + 2
0 + 2 2
0 2 + 2
0 + 2 2
0 1
2
2 + 1
1
2 + 1 2
1 0 1 1 + 1
2 ln
1 0 + 1 1 1
1
1
1 2 0 1 1 2 + 1
2 ln
1
1
1 0 + 1 1 1
2
2
1
1
0 2 2
= 2 ln 2
1
1
2 2 0 2
0
2 ln
1 0
2
= 2 ln
1 2
2 0
= 2 ln
2
1
( 0 ))
2 = 146(2 0 ) exp (
2
Another way to come around this is to insert = 1 2 0 in the differential equation (i) and solve it.
146
2 (1 2)
1
=
2 (1 2)
1
1
1
1 (1 + )
1
1
1 (1 )
1
= 1
1 1
(1 )
2
1
1
=
1 2
=
(d'Inverno, 1992, p. 219)
Page 125

Susan Larsen

0
0 =

1 2
120
= 2
=
= 1 /2
12
12
2[ln ]120
0
)]
2
0
= 2 (ln (1
) ln (1
))
2
2
0
(1 2
)
= 2 ln
(1 2)
(0 2)
= 2 ln
( 2)
= 2 [ln (1
10.2
2 = (0 2) 20
147The
Schwarzschild metric in Kruskal Coordinates.
The Kruskal coordinates > 2
= 4
1 cosh
2
4
= 4
1 sinh
2
4
where
1)
2 2 = 2 (
2
We calculate
=
4
1 sinh
=
4
2
4 4
=
4
1 cosh
=
4
2
4 4
1
1
4
1 cosh
+ 4
4
2
4
2
1
1
4
1 sinh
+ 4
4
2
4
2
(11.5)
(11.8)
22 1
1
22 1
cosh
sinh
1
=
(
)
4 4 1 2
1
=
(
)
4 4 1 2
Now we can use the chain rule
=
+
=
+
Written as a matrix

{ } = { } { }

147
(McMahon, 2006, p. 242)
Page 126

Susan Larsen
With the inverse

1
1
} {} =
} {}
{
1
(
)
(
)
1
2
4 1
4 1 2
=
{ }
2
1
2
1
(4) (
2) (4) (
2) {
}
4
4
1
1
4
2
2 } {}
= 2
{
2 (1 ) (1 )
4
= 2
( )
2
162
( 2 2 + 2 2 2)
= 2
( 2 )2
4
2
= 2
(1
) ( + )
2

162
2 2 2 2
= 2
(1
) ( + 2 2 2)
( 2 )2
{ } = 148 {
Next we find
2
(1
) 2
(1
= (1
2
162
( 2 2 + 2 2 2 )
) 2
( 2 )2
2
162
(2 2 + 2 2 2)
= (1
)
( 2 2 )2
2
) 2
Inserting into the Schwarzschild metric

2
2 1 2
2 = (1
) 2 (1
) 2 ( + sin2 )
2
162
= (1
) 2
( 2 2 + 2 2 (2 2 + 2 2 ))
( 2 )2
2 ( + sin2 )
2
162
( 2 2 ) 2 ( + sin2 )
= (1
) 2
( 2 )
1
2
= 162 (1
) 2 (
1) (2 2 ) 2 ( + sin2 )
2
323
(11.7)
=
2 ( 2 2 ) 2 ( + sin2 )
The Kruskal coordinates < 2
148
1
1
} =
{

= 4 1
sinh
2
4
(11.6)
Page 127

Susan Larsen
where
2 2
We calculate
= 4 1
cosh
2
4
= 2 (
1)
2
(11.8)
4 1
cosh
=
4
2
4 4
1
=
4 1
sinh
=
4
2
4 4
=
1
1
4 1
sinh
4
4
2
4
2
1
1
4 1
cosh
4
4
2
4
2
21 2
1
21 2
sinh
1
=
(
)
2
4 4
cosh
1
=
(
)
2
4 4
As before we find
1
1
} {} =
} {}
{
1
(
)
(
)
1
2
2
4
4
1
=
{ }
2
1
2
1
(4) (2
) (4) (2
){
}
4
4
1
1
2
2
= 2
{
}{ }
2 ( 1) ( 1)
4
= 2
( )
2
162
( 2 2 + 2 2 2)
= 2
( 2 )2
4
2
= 2
(
1) ( + )
2

2
162
2
(2 2 + 2 2 2)
= 2
(
1)
( 2 )2
{ } = {
Next we find
2
(1
) 2
= (1
2
162
( 2 2 + 2 2 2 )
) 2
( 2 )2
= (1
2
162
(2 2 + 2 2 2)
) 2
( 2 )2
(1
2
) 2
Inserting into the Schwarzschild metric we find as before

2
2 1 2
2 = (1
) 2 (1
) 2 ( + sin2 )
Page 128

Susan Larsen
323
2 ( 2 2 ) 2 ( + sin2 )
(11.7)
10.3 The Kerr metric

10.3.1 149The Kerr-Newman geometry
A more general metric is the Kerr-Newman geometry, corresponding to a simultaneously rotating and
electrically charged black hole of mass , charge and angular momentum .
sin2
2
(33.2)
2 = ( sin2 )2
(( 2 + 2 ) ) 2 2
= [ 2 + ( sin2 )2 2 2 sin2 ]
sin2 2 2
[ + ( 2 + 2 )2 2 2( 2 + 2 )] 2 2
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
= [ sin ] + [2 sin + 2 sin ( + )] 2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
+ [( sin ) sin ( + ) ]
1
2 sin2
2
2
2
[
[ + ( 2 + 2 )] 2 2
=
sin ] +
sin2
[2 sin2 ( 2 + 2 )2 ] 2
+
1
= [( 2 + 2 sin2 + 2 ) 2 sin2 ] 2
2 sin2
[( 2 + 2 sin2 ) + ( + 2 sin2 )] 2 2
+
sin2
[( 2 + 2 sin2 )2 sin2 ( + 2 sin2 )2 ] 2
+
2 2
4 sin2
= (1
+ ) 2 +
2 2
2
sin
[2 sin2 22 sin2 + (2 sin2 )2
+
( 2 + (2 sin2 )2 + 22 sin2 )] 2
2 2
4 sin2
2
= (1
+ ) +
2 2
2
sin
[2 sin2 22 sin2 2 ] 2
+
2 2
4 sin2
= (1
+ ) 2 +
2 2
22 sin2
sin2 [2 sin2 +
+ ] 2
2 2
4 sin2
2
= (1
+ ) +
2 2
2
2
2 sin
( 2 + 2 +
) sin2 2
= 2 2 + 2 + 2
= 2 + 2 cos2
149
(C.W.Misner, 1973) chapter 33
Page 129

Susan Larsen
= 2 + 2 2 sin2
= 2 + 2 2 sin2
We look at three special cases:

10.3.1.1 =
In the case of = 0 we see immediately that the Kerr-Newman geometry reduces to the Kerr geometry
describing a non-charged rotating black hole.
2
4 sin2
= (1
) 2 +
2 2
2
2
2
2
sin
( 2 + 2 +
) sin2 2
= 2 2 + 2
= 2 + 2 cos2
= 2 + 2 2 sin2
= + 2 2 sin2
10.3.1.2 =
In the case of = 0 we see immediately that the Kerr-Newman geometry reduces to the ReissnerNordstrm geometry describing a charged non-rotating black hole.
2 2
4 sin2
= (1
+ ) 2 +
2 2
2
2
2
2 sin
( 2 + 2 +
) sin2 2
2 2
= (1
+ ) 2 2 2 2 sin2 2
2
2
1
= (1
+ 2 ) 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2
1 + 2
= 2 2 + 2
= 2
10.3.1.3 = and =
In the case of = 0 and = 0 we see immediately that the Kerr-Newman geometry reduces to the
Schwarzschild geometry describing a non-charged non-rotating black hole.
2
4 sin2
= (1
) 2 +
2 2
2
22 sin2
2
2
( + +
) sin2 2
2
1
= (1
) 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
2
1
2
= 2
= 2
Page 130

Susan Larsen
10.3.2 150The inverse metric of the Kerr Spinning Black Hole

The Kerr metric of a spinning black hole with mass and angular momentum .
2
= (1
2
4 sin2
2 2 sin2
) 2 +
2 2 ( 2 + 2 +
) sin2 2
(11.9)
where
= 2 2 + 2
= 2 + 2 cos2
= 2 + 2 2 sin2
= + 2 2 sin2
the metric tensor

2
(1
)
2 sin2
2 sin2
( 2 + 2 +
22 sin2
) sin2
with the inverse
}
{
1
(( 2 + 2 )2 2 sin2 )
( 2 sin2 )
sin2 }
where we can calculate , , from the inverse151

1
=
2 {
}
( )
First we calculate the common factor
2 1
1
2
22 sin2
2 sin2
2
2
2
2 = ( (1
) ( + +
) sin (
) )
( )
2
22 sin2
2 2 2
= ( (1
) ( 2 + 2 +
) sin )
)(
= ( ( 2 + 2 +
1
sin2
22 sin2
2 2
22 sin2
2 2 2
)+
( + 2 +
)(
) sin )
1
sin2
150
(McMahon, 2006, p. 246)

1
1

151
{
} =
{
}

Page 131

Susan Larsen

1
22 sin2
2 2
( + 2 ))
= ( ( 2 + 2 +
)+
1
sin2
2 2 2
2 2
1
( + 2 ))
sin ) +
sin2
1
2 2 2
2 2
1
( + 2 cos 2 + 2 sin2 ))
= ( ( 2 + 2 +
sin ) +
sin2
1
2 2
1
( + 2 cos2 ))
= (( 2 + 2 ) +
sin2
2 1 1
= (( 2 + 2 ) +
)
sin2
1
= (( 2 + 2 ) + 2)1 2
sin
1
=
sin2
Now we can calculate the inverse metric
2
( )
=
sin2
22 sin2
( 2 + 2 +
) sin2
=
sin2
2
1 2
2
sin2
= ( + 2 +
)
1
(( 2 + 2 ) + 22 sin2 )
=
1
=
(( 2 + 2 cos2 )( 2 + 2 ) + ( 2 + 2 )2 sin2 )
1
=
(( 2 + 2 cos2 )( 2 + 2 ) + ( 2 + 2 )2 (1 cos2 ) 2 sin2 )
1
(11.13)
(( 2 + 2 )2 2 sin2 )
=
2
=
( )
=
sin2
1
2 sin2
=
sin2
2
(11.13)
=
2
=
( )
=
sin2
1
2
=
(1
)
2
sin
1
( 2)
=
sin2
= ( ( 2 + 2 +
Page 132

Susan Larsen

1
( + 2 2 sin2 2)
sin2
( 2 sin2 )
=
sin2
=
(11.13)
11 Cosmology
11.1
152Light
travelling in the Universe
Light travelling in the universe can be described by the line element 2 = 2 2 () 2 , where 2 =
1 2 + 2 2 + 3 2 and the are commoving coordinates. Light travel along null geodesic i.e. 2 = 0.
We can now write 0

for the total commoving distance light emitted at time can travel by time 0 . If
()
we multiply this by the value of the scale factor (0 ) at time 0 , then we will have calculated the physical
distance that the light has traveled in this time interval. This algorithm can be widely used to calculate how
far light can travel in any given time interval, revealing whether to points in space , for example are in causal
contact. As you can see, for accelerated expansion, even for arbitrarily large 0 the integral is bounded, showing that the light will never reach arbitrarily distant commoving locations. Thus, in a universe with accelerated
expansion, there are locations with which we can never communicate.
11.2
153Spaces
of Positive, Negative, and Zero Curvature
According to (12.5) the spatial part of a homogenous, isotropic metric is

2
(12.5)
2 =
+ 2 2 + 2 sin2
1 2
rewriting it in a more general form
(12.6)
2 = 2 + 2 () 2 + 2 () sin2 2
we see that
2
2 =
1 2
=
1 2
and in order to identify the metric for the different -values we solve the latter differential equation.
= 0:
=
=
2
() = 2
and the metric
2 = 2 + 2 2 + 2 sin2 2
> 0:
=
1 2
1
=
= 154
sin1
=
=
2
2
1
1
152
(Greene, s. 516) note 10

(McMahon, 2006, p. 262)
154
2 2 = sin1 (14.237) (Spiegel, 1990)
153
Page 133

Susan Larsen
=
1
sin1
sin() =
sin()
2 () = sin2 ()
if = 1 we get
2 () = sin2()
and the metric
2 = 2 + sin2() 2 + sin2 () sin2 2
< 0:
=
1 + 2
2
1 + ()
1
1 + 2
1
= 155
ln ( + 2 + 1)
1
= 156
sinh1
1
=
sinh1()
1
sinh()
1
=
sinh()
2 () =
sinh2()
if = 1 we get
2 () = sinh2()
and the metric
2 = 2 + sinh2 () 2 + sinh2 () sin2 2
= =
Note: We have omitted the constants of integration because of symmetry reasons. The metrics have to
fulfill the requirement of homogeneity and isotropy
155
156
2 2
1
sinh
= ln( + 2 2 ) (14.210) (Spiegel, 1990)
= ln( + 2 + 1) (8.55) (Spiegel, 1990)
Page 134

Susan Larsen
157The
11.3
11.3.1
Robertson-Walker metric
158Find
the components of the Riemann tensor of the Robertson-Walker metric (Homogenous, isotropic and expanding universe) using Cartans structure equations
2 ()
The metric: 2 = 2 +
2 + 2 () 2 2 + 2 () 2 sin2 2
1 2
The Basis one forms
= () sin
158
1 2
= ()
157
()
1 2
()
()
() sin
={
1
1
Cartans First Structure equation and the calculation of the curvature one forms:
=
=0
()
= (
) =
=
1 2
1 2
1 2
= (()) = + = +

= (() sin ) = sin + sin + cos

1
1 2
1
1
= sin
+ sin

+ cos
sin
sin
sin
1 2
cot
= +
+

The curvature one-forms summerized in a matrix

Page 135

Susan Larsen

1 2
0
1 2
1 2
1 2
cot
cot
Where refers to the column and the row
Curvature two forms:
= +
=
2
(5.27), (5.28)
= ( ) = (
) = (
) =

2
2
1
1
1 2
1 2
=

=
1 2
= + + + = 0
= ( ) = ( ) = ( ) = +
1
1 2 1
1 2
= +
= +

2
= + + + + =
1 2

2
= ( ) = ( sin ) = ( sin )
=
= sin + sin + cos
1 2
cot
= +
+ 2
2
= + + + = +
1 2
cot
+

2
2
1 2
1 2
= (
) = (
) = (1 2 )
Page 136

Susan Larsen
1 2
= + + + =
2
= ( )
( 2 + )
=

2
1 2
= (
) = (1 2 sin )
=
sin + 1 2 cos
1 2
1 2 cot
= 2 +

2 2
= + + + = +
2
1 2 cot
= 2

2 2
( 2 + )
=

2
cot
cot
= (
) = (
sin ) = (cos ) = sin
= 2 2

= + + + = +
2
1 2
= ( )

2
()
( 2 + )
=

2
Summarized in a matrix

( 2 + )
0

=
2
( 2 + )

2
( 2 + )
0

2
{
}
0
Now we can read off the elements in the Riemann tensor in the non-coordinate basis
=
=
=
2
2
(
(
+
)
+ )
=
=
2
2
2
=
2
11.3.2 The Einstein tensor and Friedmann-equations for the Robertson Walker metric
The Ricci scalar:
Page 137

Susan Larsen
= = + + + = + + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ +
= 2 2 2
+ 2 + 2
+ 2
( 2 + )
( 2 + )
( 2 + )
a ( 2 + k)
=2 +2 +2 +2
+
2
+
2
=
+
(
)
2
2
2
a
a2

1
=
2
1
=
2
(4.48)
+ (2 2 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 )
2
( 2 + k)
+ = 3 (
)
a2
= + +
= +

1
= = = 0
2
= = = = = = = = = = = 0
1
=
2
1
= + + (2 2 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 )
2
= + + + + +
= +
2 +
2 2 +
=
=
+
(
)

2
1
=
2
2
+ 2
(2 2
+ 2

+ + + + +
2 +
2 2 +
+ =
=
+
(
)

2
= + +
=
=
+ 2
1
=
2
= + + (2 2 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 )
2
= + + + + +
2 +
2 2 +
= + =
=
+
(
)

2
Page 138

Susan Larsen
3(

( 2 + k)
)
a2
0
0
(
2 2 +
+
)
2 2 +
+
)
2
0
0
(
2
2 +
+
)
2
}
The Friedmann equations:
Given the Einstein equation ( if = = 1):
and the stress-energy tensor:
= 8
0
= 8 {
0
0
0
0
0
0
(7.14)
0
0
} (7.16)
0
You can find the Friedmann- equations

( 2 + k)
)
3(
a2
2 +
)
( +
2 2 +
)
( +
1
{
2
2 +
)
( +
2 }
1
1
0
= 8 {
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
}
0
3
(7.17)
( + 2 ) + = 8
2
1
2 + 2 ( + 2 ) + = 8 (8.18)

11.3.3 The Einstein tensor for the Robertson Walker metric Alternative version.
2 ()
The line element: 2 = 2 +
2 + 2 () 2 2 + 2 () 2 sin2 2
1 2
Now we can compare with the Tolman-Bondi de Sitter line element, where the primes should not be
mistaken for the derivative /.

2 = 2 2( , ) 2 2 (, )2 2 (, ) sin2 2
And chose:
=
()
( , ) =
1 2
( , ) = ()
Page 139

Susan Larsen
( , ) sin = () sin
Comparing the two metrics we see: = , = , = , ( , ) = (), =
Next we can use the former calculations of the Tolman-Bondi de Sitter metric to find the Einstein tensor for the Robertson-Walker metric.
But first we need to find

( , )
() 1 2
()
( , )
( , )
=
=
=
(
)
(
)=
()
()
1
2
()
()
()
()
( ()() () ())
= (
=(
) = (
)=
)
2
()
()
()
()
()
)
2
( ,
1

=
= ( , ) ( ( , ) ) = ( , ) (
)

()

=
( , )
()1 2
( , ) ()
=
=
= ()

() ()
=
=
= ()

( , )
1 2 ( , )

=
(())
=
=
() = 1 2 ( , )

()
()
= (1 2 ( , ) ) = (1 2
)=0

1 2

()1 2 ( , )
= ( ()) = ( ()) =

()
Tolman Bondi de Sitter

1
2
= 2 [1 2 + ( )
(2 + 2 + ( )2 ) 2(,) ]
= 2 [( ) + ]
159
1
2
[( )2 2(,) 2 1 ( ) ]
2
1
2
= [ () ] + [( + ) 2(,) + ]
1
2
= [ () ] + [( + ) 2(,) + ]
159Manipulating
11.4
(,)
Robertson-Walker
()2 +
()2
=3
=0
= (2
() ()2 +
+
)
()
()2
() ()2 +
= (2
+
)
()
()2
() ()2 +
= (2
+
)
()
()2
the Friedmann equations.
Show that the two Friedman equations
(McMahon, 2006, p. 165), quiz 7-3
Page 140

Susan Larsen
3
( + 2 ) + = 8
2
1
2 + 2 ( + 2 ) + = 8

can be manipulated into:
(3 ) + (3 ) = 0
(7.17)
(8.18)
Rewriting (7.17):
3
( + 2 ) +
2
83 = 3( + 2 ) + a3
8 (3 ) = (3( + 2 ) + a3 ) = 3 ( + 2 ) + 6 + 32
Rewriting (7.18):
1
8 = 2 + 2 ( + 2 ) +

3
1
8 ( ) = (2 + 2 ( + 2 ) + ) (3 ) = (2 + 2 ( + 2 ) + ) 32

= 6 + 3 ( + 2 ) + 32
8 (3 ) = (6 + 3 ( + 2 ) + 32 )
Now adding
8 (3 ) + 8 (3 ) = 3 ( + 2 ) + 6 + 32 (6 + 3 ( + 2 ) + 32 )
= 0 Q.E.D.
8 =
11.5
160Parameters
in an flat universe with positive cosmological constant: Start-
ing with = + use a change of variables =
We have
2
and
2
( )
2
+
3

= 3+
3
=
2 3
3
2 2
= 3
=3
Rearranging we get
2
1 2
( ) = 3 + 3
3
=
160
(McMahon, 2006, p. 278), quiz 12-6. The answer to quiz 12-6 is (a)
Page 141

Susan Larsen
= 3 + 2
3
3
= 3 + 2
=
3 + 2
1
2 ln( + 2 + )
0 = 161
3
1
2
=
ln( + 2 + )
3
1
=
ln(2 + 2 + 2 + 2)
3
1
=
ln (2 + 2 + 22 + 2)
3
1
=
ln (2 + 2 + 2( + 1)2 1)
3
1
=
ln 2 ( + 1 + ( + 1)2 1)
3
1
=
(ln 2 + ln ( + 1 + ( + 1)2 1))
3
1
(ln 2 + cosh1( + 1))
= 162
3
= cosh(3( 0 ) ln 2) 1
3C
3 =
[cosh(3( 0 ) ln 2) 1]
2
Leaving out the constants of integration 30 ln 2 we get
3C
3 =
[cosh(3) 1]
2
12 Gravitational Waves
12.1
163Gauge
transformation - The Einstein Gauge
Requiring that
and are unchanged under a gauge-transformation of first order in , show
that this is fulfilled by the coordinate transformations
(13.11)
= +
,
,
, , = ,
where is a function of position and | , | 1. We have
2
2
1
2
2
(13.4)
= ( + + )
2

1
2
2
2
(13.5)
= ( + )
2

161
162
163
(+)(+)
1
ln(( + ) + ( + )) (14.280) (Spiegel, 1990)
cosh = ln( + 2 1) (8.56) (Spiegel, 1990)

(McMahon, 2006, p. 286)
Page 142

Susan Larsen
2
(13.6)
= ( )

1
(13.8)
=
2
The Einstein gauge transformation is a coordinate transformation that leaves , and unchanged.
The coordinate transformation that will do this is
= +
(13.11)
In order to show this you only have to convince yourself that the line element is unchanged. Checking
2 =
= ( + )
2
=
=
= ( + )
= ( + )( + )( + )

= ( + ) ( + ) ( + )
= ( + )( + , )( + , )
= ( + )( + , + , )
+ 2
= ( + )( + , + , )
= ( + )( + , + , )
= ( + ) + ( , + , )
+ 2
= ( + ) + ( , + , )
= ( + ) + (, + , )
Renaming the dummy variables
= ( + ) + (, + , )
= ( + + , + , )
= ( + )
if
Q.E.D
= , ,
Next we are going to investigate the transformation of the derivative of the trace reverse ,
, = ,
, = ,
1
= ( , ,
)
2
1
= ( , , )
2
1
= ( , , )
2
1
= (, , , ) (, , , )
2
1
1
= (, , ) (, + , (, + , ))
2
2
1
1
= (, , ) , (, (, + , ))
2
2
Page 143

Susan Larsen
1
= (, , )
2
1
( , (, + , ))
2
1
= , ( , (, + , ))
2
1
= , ( , ( , + , ))
2
1
= , ( , ( , + , ))
2
Renaming the dummy variables
1
= , ( , ( , + , ))
2
, = ,
P.288: The choice of
, = ,
Q.E.D.
164
= 0 leads to
1
= ( , , )
2
1

= , ,
2
1
= , , = 0
2
12.2 Plane waves

12.2.1 165The Riemann tensor of a plane wave
Here we want to show that the Riemann tensor only depends on , , and . For symmetry
reasons it is only necessary to show that the Riemann tensor does not depend on and . The Riemann
tensor
2
1 2
2
2
(13.4)
= ( + )
2

For plane waves we have
= ( )
=
=0
We also need
( )
=
=
( )
( )
( )
=
=
( ) ( )
2
2
=
2
2
and
164
165
However I dont know how to show that the Riemann-tensor keeps the same form if we make this choice
(McMahon, 2006, pp. 288,13)
Page 144

Susan Larsen
=
(
The Minkowski
1
( + )
2
1
( 2 ( + )
(13.16)
)
=(
1
1
1
The dependence on
= = ( = ):
1
2
2 2 2
= ( + 2
)
2

= :
1
2 2 2 2
= ( + 2 2 ) = 0
2

= :
1
2
2 2 2
1
2 2
= ( + 2
) = ( + 2 )
2

2

= :
1
2 2
= ( 2 + 2 ) = 0
2

= :
1
2 2
1 2
= (
+ 2 )= 2
2

2
= :
1
2 2
1 2
= (
+ 2 )= 2
2

2
= :
1
2 2
1 2 2
= (
+ 2 ) = ( 2 2 ) = 0
2

2

= :
2 2 2
2 2
1
2
1
= ( + 2
=
)
( + 2 )
2

2

= :
2
2
1
= ( 2 + 2 ) = 0
2

= :
2 2
1
1 2
= (
+ 2 )= 2
2

2
= :
Page 145

Susan Larsen


2 2
1
1 2
= (
+ 2 )= 2
2
= :

2 2
1
1 2 2
= (
+ 2 ) = ( 2 2 ) = 0
2
= :

1
2 2 2 2
= ( + 2
)
2

= :

1 2 2 2 2
= (
2 + 2
)=0
2
= :

1 2 2 2 2
1
2 2
= (
+ 2
) = ( 2 + 2 ) = 0
2

= :

2 2
1 2 2 2 2
1
= (
+ 2
) = ( 2 + 2 ) = 0
2

= :

1 2 2 2 2
= ( 2
+ 2
)
2

1
1
2 ( 2 ( + ))
2 ( 2 ( + ))
1
2
2
=
+
+ 2 +
2
2
2

2
=0
= = :
2
1
2
2 2
= ( +
2 )
2

= ( = ):
1 2
2 2 2
1 2 2
= ( +
2 ) = ( 2 )
2

2

= :
1 2 2
1 2
= (
2 )= 2
2

2
= :
1 2 2
1 2
= (
2 )= 2
2

2
= :
1 2 2
1
2 2
= (
2 ) = ( 2 + 2 ) = 0
2

2

= ( = ):
2
1
2 2 2
1 2 2
= ( +
2 ) = ( 2 )
2

2

= :

Page 146

Susan Larsen

1 2 2
1 2
= (
2 )= 2
2
= :
1 2 2
1 2
= (
2 )= 2
2
= :
2 2
1 2 2
1
= (
2 ) = ( 2 + 2 ) = 0
2

2

= ( = ):
1
2 2 2 2
= ( +
2 )
2

1 2 2 2 2
= ( +
2 )
2

= :
1 2 2 2 2
= (
+
2 )=0
2

= :
1 2 2 2 2
= (
+
2 )=0
2

= :
1 2 2 2 2

= (
2 +
2 )=0
2

The dependence on
= , = ( = ):
1
2
2 2 2
1
2
2
= ( +
)
(
)
2

2
= :
= 0
= :

=0
= :
1
2 2
= (
)
2
= , = :
2
1
2
2 2
1 2
2
= ( +
)
(
)
2

2

= ( = ):
1
2 2
= ( ) = 0
2

= ( = ):
1
2 2
1 2
= ( ) =
2

2
= ( = ):
2 2
1
1 2

= ( ) =
2

2
= ( = ):
Page 147

Susan Larsen

1 2 2
1
2 2
= ( ) = ( + ) = 0
2

2

= , = :
2 2
2
2
1
2
1 2
= (
)
(
)
2

2

= ( = ):
1
2 2
= ( ) = 0
2

= ( = ):
1
2 2
1 2
= ( ) =
2

2
= ( = ):
1
2 2
1 2
= ( ) =
2

2
= ( = ):
1
2 2
1
2 2
= ( ) = ( + ) = 0
2

2

= , = ( = ):
1
2 2 2
2
1 2
2
= (
)
(
)
2

2

The nonzero calculated elements of the Riemann tensor, from which we can conclude that the Riemann tensor only depends on , , and .
1 2
= 2
2
1 2
= 2
2
1 2
= 2
2
1 2
= 2
2
1 2
= 2
2
1 2
= 2
2
1 2
= 2
2
1 2
= 2
2
1 2
= 2
2
1 2
= 2
2
1 2
= 2
2
1 2
= 2
2
1 2
= 2
2
1 2
= 2
2
12.2.2 166The line element of a plane wave in the Einstein gauge

The perturbation
1
( + )
2
1
( 2 ( + )
(13.16)
)
the perturbation in the Einstein gauge

166
(McMahon, 2006, pp. 290,12)
Page 148

Susan Larsen
0
0
=(
0
0
0

0
0

0
0
0
)
0
0
(13.17)
with the transformation

= , ,
where we can assume that = ( )
How to prove (13.17)167:
1) and are unchanged by the transformation
= , , = 2 =

= , , =
2) Choosing the remaining elements

= 0 leaves and unchanged
= , , = 2 = 0
= 2
= , , = = = 0
= , , = = = 0
= , , = = 0

= , , =
=0
= = +
= , , = 2 = 0
= 2
12.2.3
With
168The
line element of a plane wave
0 0
0
0
0 0
= (
)
0 0
0 0
0
0
we find the line element
2 =
= ( + )
167
168
(13.17)
(d'Inverno, 1992, pp. 277-278)

(McMahon, 2006, p. 291)
Page 149

Susan Larsen
= ( + ) 2 + ( + ) + ( + ) + ( + )
+ ( + ) + ( + ) 2 + ( + )
+ ( + ) + ( + ) + ( + )
+ ( + ) 2 + ( + ) + ( + )
+ ( + ) + ( + ) + ( + ) 2
2
= (1 ) 2 + + (1 + ) 2 2
= 2 (1 ) 2 (1 + ) 2 2 + 2
= :
2 = 2 (1 ) 2 (1 + ) 2 2
= :
2 = 2 2 2 2 + 2
Considering the following transformation

+
=
=
2
2
1
1
( + )
( )
=
=
2
2
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
2
2
= + +
= +
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
= ( )
+
= + 2
2
we can rewrite the line element
2 = 2 2 2 2 + 2
= 2 2 2 2 ( 2 2 )
= 2 (1 + ) 2 (1 ) 2 2
(13.18)
(13.19)
(13.20)
12.2.4 169The Rosen line element

The line element: 2 = 2 () 2 2 () 2
1
2
1
The metric tensor: =
2
2 ()
{
2 ()}
The basis one forms

2 = 2 () 2 2 () 2
2
= (0 ) (1 ) (2 ) (3 )
2
169
= (0 + 1 )(0 1 ) (2 ) (3 )
= 0 + 1
= 0 1
(McMahon, 2006, p. 298)
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Susan Larsen
0
1
0
1
2
3
1
= ( + )
2
1
= ( )
2
= ()
= ()
= 0 + 1
= 0 1
1
=
2
()
1
=
3
()
={
1
1
(5.9)
=
1
= ( ( + )) = 0
2
1
= ( ( )) = 0
2
0
1
1 2
= (()) =
=
2 =
(0 + 1 )
( + 1 )
()

0
1
1 3
= (()) =
=
3 =
(0 + 1 )
( + 1 )
()


1 2
1 3
0
0
()
()

1 2
1 3
0
0
()
()

=
1 2
1 2
()
()
0
0

1 3
1 3
0
0
{ () ()
}

and A and B will be used later, to make the calculations easier
= +
=
2
(5.27), (5.28)
First we will calculate

1 2
2
2 0
1
= (
) = ( ) =
=
( + 1 ) 2
2
2

1 2 0
2
1
2
=
( + )
2
Page 151

Susan Larsen
1 3
2
2 0
1 3
1
) = ( ) =
=
+
(
)

2
2
1 2 0
=
( 3 + 1 3 )
2
Now we are ready to calculate the curvature two-forms
0 0 = 0 0 + 0 0 = 0 0 0 0 + 0 1 1 0 + 0 2 2 0 + 0 3 3 0 = 0
= (
1 0
= 1 0 + 1 0 = 1 0 0 0 + 1 1 1 0 + 1 2 2 0 + 1 3 3 0 = 0
2 0
= 2 0 + 2 0 = 2 0 + 2 0 0 0 + 2 1 1 0 + 2 2 2 0 + 2 3 3 0
1 2 0
=
( 2 + 1 2 )
2

= 3 0 + 3 0 = 3 0 + 3 0 0 0 + 3 1 1 0 + 3 2 2 0 + 3 3 3 0
1 2 0
=
( 3 + 1 3 )
2
= 1 1 + 1 1 = 1 0 0 1 + 1 1 1 1 + 1 2 2 1 + 1 3 3 1 = 0
3 0
1 1
= 2 1 + 2 1 = 2 1 + 2 0 0 1 + 2 1 1 1 + 2 2 2 1 + 2 3 3 1
1 2 0
=
( 2 + 1 2 )
2
= 3 1 + 3 1 = 3 1 + 3 0 0 1 + 3 1 1 1 + 3 2 2 1 + 3 3 3 1
1 2 0
=
( 3 + 1 3 )
2
= 2 2 + 2 2 = 2 0 0 2 + 2 1 1 2 + 2 2 2 2 + 2 3 3 2 = 0
= 3 2 + 3 2 = 3 0 0 2 + 3 1 1 2 + 3 2 2 2 + 3 3 3 2
1 3 1 2 1 3
1 2
=

+
(
)=0

= 3 3 + 3 3 = 3 0 0 3 + 3 1 1 3 + 3 2 2 3 + 3 3 3 3 = 0
2 1
3 1
2 2
3 2
3 3
1 2 0
0 0
( 2 + 1 2 )
2
2
= 0 0 1 (0 2 + 1 2 )
2

0
{
0
1 2 0
( 3 + 1 3 )
2
1 2 0
( 3 + 1 3 )
2
0
}
0
1 2
1 2
3
R
R2 020 =
=
030
2
2
2
1
1 2
3
R
R2 021 =
3
1
=
0
2
2
2
1
1 2
3
R
R2 121 =
=
131
2
2
The Ricci tensor:
Page 152

Susan Larsen
00
= 00 = 0000 + 1010 + 2020 + 3030
10
= 10 = 0100 + 1110 + 2120 + 3130
20
= 20 = 0200 + 1210 + 2220 + 3230
30
= 30 = 0300 + 1310 + 2320 + 3330 = 0
01
= 01 = 0001 + 1011 + 2021 + 3031 = (
11
= 11 = 0101 + 1111 + 2121 + 3131
12
13
= 12 = 0102 + 1112 + 2122 + 3132
02
= 02 = 0002 + 1012 + 2022 + 3032 = 0
12
= 12 = 0102 + 1112 + 2122 + 3132 = 0

1 2 1 2
= 22 = 0202 + 1212 + 2222 + 3232 =
=0
2 2
= 32 = 0
(4.46)
1 2 1 2
= (
+
)
2 2
1 2 1 2
= (
+
)
2 2
=0
1 2 1 2
+
)
2 2
1 2 1 2
= (
+
)
2 2
=0
= 13 = 0103 + 1113 + 2123 + 3133 = 0
22
32
03
= 03 = 0003 + 1013 + 2023 + 3033 = 0

= 13 = 0103 + 1113 + 2123 + 3133 = 0
1 2 1 2
= 33 = 0303 + 1313 + 2323 + 3333 =
=0
2 2
13
33
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
(
+
+
)
(
)
2 2
2 2
2
2
2
2
= (1 + 1 ) (1 + 1 )
2 2
2 2
0
0
{
0
0
12.3
170Colliding
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0}
gravity waves - coordinate transformation
The metric of a plane gravitational wave

(13.42)
2 = ()( 2 2 )2 + 2 2 2
can be written in terms of the null coordinates and by using the following coordinate transformation171
=
1
1
= ()(1 ) 2 + ()(1 + ) 2
2
2
170
171
(McMahon, 2006, p. 304)

http://www-staff.lboro.ac.uk/~majbg/jbg/book/chap3.pdf
Page 153

Susan Larsen
= (1 ())
= (1 + ())
=
+
+ +
1
1
= ( ( ()(1 ) ()) 2 ( ()(1 + ) + ()) 2 )
2
2
()(1 ) + ()(1 + )
1
1
= 172 ( (() ()) 2 (() + ()) 2 ) ()(1 )
2
2
+ ()(1 + )
1
= (()( 2 2 ) ()( 2 + 2 )) ()(1 ) + ()(1 + )
2
= (() ()) + (1 ())
= () + (1 ())
= (() + ()) + (1 + ())
= () + (1 + ())
2
2
2
2

= (1 ()) 2 (1 + ()) 2
= (1 + 2 2 ())( 2 2 ) 2()( 2 + 2 )
2
()( = ()(1 + 2 2 ())( 2 2 ) ()2()( 2 + 2 )
2)
= ()( 2 2 )
2
2 = (() + (1 ()))
2
= 2 () 2 2 + (1 ()) 2 2()(1 ())

2
= (() + (1 + ()))
2
= 2 () 2 2 +(1 + ()) 2 + 2()(1 + ())

2
= 2 () 2 2 + (1 ()) 2 2()(1 ()) + 2 () 2 2
+ 2
+ (1 + ()) 2 + 2()(1 + ())

2
= 2 ()( 2 + 2 )2 + (1 ()) 2 2()(1 ())

2
+ (1 + ()) 2 + 2()(1 + ())

2
2 ) 2
= ()(
+ 2 2 2
2
2 ) 2
= ()(
1
+ 2 ( (()( 2 2 ) ()( 2 + 2 )) ()(1 )
2
+ ()(1 + ))
2
(2 ()( 2 + 2 )2 + (1 ()) 2 2()(1 ())

2
+ (1 + ()) 2 + 2()(1 + ()))

= 2 + 2(()(1 ) + ()(1 + ))
2
2
((1 ()) 2 2()(1 ()) + (1 + ()) 2
+ 2()(1 + ()))
2
= 1732 (1 ()) 2 (1 + ()) 2

172
173
(13.43)
() = () = 0
2 () = ()
Page 154

Susan Larsen
12.4
174The
delta () and heavy-side () functions: prove that () =
Definitions
+ = 0
() = {
;
0 0
0 0
() = {1 > 0;
We calculate
()
=1
() = 175 () =
();
()
= ()
()()
= () ()
= [()()]
()()
= () ()
0
= () (() (0))
= (0)
if () = we find
()()
= () = 0
Next we assume that () = 0. Multiplying both sides with a test function () and integrating we get
()()
= () 0
0 (0) = 0
which is consistent with our initial assumption and we can therefore conclude that
() = 0
Next we calculate
() ()
= [()()]
()()
[()()]
() ()
= [()()]
([ ()()] ()() )
= 0 (() ())
0
= ( () ( () (0)))
= 176 (0)
if () = we find
() ()
= () = 1
Next we assume that () = (). Multiplying both sides with a test function () and integrating
we get
()()
= () ()
(0) = (()) ( = 0)
174
(McMahon, 2006, p. 304)

(13.44)
176
The general formula is () () () = (1) () (0)
175
Page 155

Susan Larsen
= ( () + ())( = 0)
= (0)
which is consistent with our initial assumption and we can therefore conclude that
() = ()
177Impulsive
12.5
gravitational wave Region III
The line element: 2
= 2 [1 ()]2 2 [1 + ()]2 2

(10.36)
0 =
( )

where
= 2 [1 ()]2 2 [1 + ()]2 2
= :
=0
= 2

( ) = 2

0 =
= :
= 2()[1 ()] 2 2()[1 + ()] 2
= 2

( ) = 2

0 = ()[1 ()] 2 + ()[1 + ()] 2

= :
=0
= 2[1 ()]2
()

) 2[1 ()] 2[1 ()]2
( ) = 2 ( ()

= 1784(() + ())[1 ()] 2[1 ()]2
0 = 179[1 ()]2 2()[1 ()]

2()
0 =

[1 ()]
= :
177
178 ()
179
= ()
() = 0
Page 156

Susan Larsen
=0
= 2[1 + ()]2

()
( ) = 2 ( () +
) 2[1 + ()] 2[1 + ()]2

= 4(() + ())[1 + ()] 2[1 + ()]2

0 = [1 + ()]2 + 2()[1 + ()]
2()
0 = +

[1 + ()]

0 =
0 = ()[1 ()] 2 + ()[1 + ()] 2
2()
0 =

[1 ()]
2()
0 = +

[1 + ()]

()

= ()[1 ()] =
[1 ()]
= ()[1 + ()]
The Petrov type
The line element
The metric tensor:
and its inverse:
The basis one forms
()
[1 + ()]
= 2 [1 ()]2 2 [1 + ()]2 2
1
1
={
}
[1 ()]2
[1 + ()]2
1
1
1
=
[1 ()]2
1
[1 + ()]2 }
{

2 = 2 [1 ()]2 2 [1 + ()]2 2
2
2
2
2
= ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Page 157

Susan Larsen

2
2
2
1
2
1
2
( + )
( )
= (1 ())
= (1 + ())
= ( + )( ) ( ) ( )
= ( + )
= ( )
1
2
1
2
( + )
1
( )
1
=

1 ()
1
=

1 + ()
={
1
1
1 1 0 0
+
1 1 1 0 0
1
=
(
) ( ) =
( )
2 0 0 1
2 +
0 0 1
( )
2
1
2
())
+ (1 + ())
(1
2
((1 ()) (1 + ()))

= (1, 0, 0, 0)
= (0, 1, 0, 0)
1
1
(0, 0, (1 ()), (1 + ()))
(0, 0, (1 ()), (1 + ()))
=
=
2
2
= = = 1 0 = 0
= = = 1 1 = 1
= = 0
= = = 1 1 = 1
= = = 1 0 = 0
= = 0
= = 0
1
1
1
1
(1 ()) =
= = [1
2
()] 2
2 (1 ())
1
1
1
1
(1
+
())
=
= = [1
+ ()]2 2
2 (1 + ())
= (1, 0, 0, 0)
= (0, 1, 0, 0)
= (0, 1, 0,
= (1, 0, 0,
0)
0)
Page 158

Susan Larsen
1
2
1
2
(0,
0, (1 ()), (1 + ()))
(0,
0, (1 ()), (1 + ()))
(0, 0,
)
(1 + ())
1
,
=
(0, 0,
)
(1 ())
(1 + ())
2
2
1
(1 ())
1
The spin coefficients calculated from the orthonormal tetrad
1
= (
)
2
1
= (
)
2
(9.15)
1

= (

)
2
1
= (
)
2

=
=

= 0
=
=
=

= 0
=

=

=

=

= ( )

( )

( )

( )

=

+

=0
=
+
= 0
=
= = = + = 0
= = = + = 0
=
=
+

=
+
+
+
= ( )
+ ( )
+ ( )
+ ( )
= (
+
)
= (()[1 ()]
1
1
1
(
) (
)
2
(1 ())
(1 ())
1
1
1
+ ()[1 + ()] (
) (
))
2
(1 + ())
(1 + ())
()
1
1
()
(
) = 180
2 (1 ()) (1 + ())
(1 + ())(1 ())
=
=
180
2 () = ()
Page 159

Susan Larsen
=
=
()
1
1
+
(
)
2 (1 ()) (1 + ())
()
(1 + ())(1 ())
1
= (
)
2
1
= (
)
2
1
= (

)
2
1
= (( )
+ ( )
)
2
1
= (( (1 ()) )
+ ( ((1 + ())) )
)
2
1
()
= ((() () (

) (1 ()))
[1 ()]
2
+ ((() + ())
()
(1 + ()))
)
[1 + ()]
=0
1
= (
)
2
1
= (u
)
2
1
= (u

)
2
=0
1
= (

)
2
1
1
= (

) + (

)
2
2
1
= (

+

)
2
=0
1
= (
) = 0
2

=0 =0
=0 =0
()
=0 =
(1 + ())(1 ())
()
=0 =
(1 + ())(1 ())
=0
=0
=0
=0
Page 160

Susan Larsen
0 = ( + ) (3 ) + ( + + 3)
1 = ( + ) ( ) + ( + ) + ( )
2 = + ( ) + ( + ) + 2
3 = + ( + ) ( + ) + ( ) + ( )
4 = + ( + ) (3 ) + (3 + + )
Where
=
=
=

=
(13.22)
(13.23)
(13.24)
(13.25)
(13.26)
(9.13)
= ( + ) (3 ) + ( + + 3) = 2
()
()
()
= (
) 2(
)
(1 + ())(1 ())
(1 + ())(1 ()) (1 + ())(1 ())
()
()
= (
)2
2
(1 ())(1 + ())
(1 2 ())
()
()
= (
)2
2
2
1 ()
(1 2 ())
()(1 2 ()) ()(2() 2 ())

2
(1 2 ())
()
2
(1 2 ())
= ()
1 = 0
2 = + ( ) + ( + ) + 2 = = = = 0
3 = 0
4 = 0
181 0: This is a Petrov type N, which means there is a single principal null direction of multiplicity 4.
0
This corresponds to transverse gravity waves in region III.
182Two
12.6
interacting waves
The line element: 2
= 2 cos 2 2 cosh2 2

(10.36)
0 =
( )

where
= 2 cos 2 2 cosh2 2
= :
= 2 cos sin 2 2 cosh sinh 2
= 2

( ) = 2

181
182
http://www-staff.lboro.ac.uk/~majbg/jbg/book/chap3.pdf
Page 161

Susan Larsen
= :
= :
= :
0 = cos sin 2 + cosh sinh 2

( )

0

( )

0
0

( )

0
0
0
0
0
0
=0
= 2
= 2
=
=0
= 2 cos 2
= 4 cos sin 2 cos2
= 2 cos sin cos2
= 2 tan
=0
= 2 cosh2
= 4 cosh sinh 2 cos2
= 2 cosh sinh cosh2
= + 2 tanh

=
= cos sin 2 + cosh sinh 2
= 2 tan
= + 2 tanh

= cos sin = cosh sinh
= tan
= tan
= tanh
= tanh
The Petrov type
The line element
The metric tensor:
= 2 cos 2 2 cosh2 2
1
1
={
}
cos2
cosh2
Page 162

Susan Larsen

1
1
and its inverse:
1
cos 2
1
cosh2 }
The basis one forms

2 = 2 cos2 2 cosh2 2
2
2
2
2
= ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
2

= cos
= cosh
= ( + )( ) ( ) ( )
= ( + )
= ( )
= cos
= cosh
2
1
2
( + )
( )
1
2
1
( + )
( )
2
1
=

cos
1
=

cosh
={
1
1
2
1 1 0 0
1
1
1
1 1 0 0
2
( ) =
(
) ( ) =
(
)=
0
0
1
2
2 +
2 cos + cosh
0 0 1
(cos cosh )

= (1, 0, 0, 0)
= (0, 1, 0, 0)
1
1
(0, 0, cos , cosh )
(0, 0, cos , cosh )
=
=
2
2
= = = 1 0 = 0
= = = 1 1 = 1
= = 0
= = = 1 1 = 1
= = = 1 0 = 0
= = 0
Page 163

Susan Larsen
= = 0
= =
1
1
1
1
cos =
2
cos 2
2 cos
1
1
1
1
= =
cosh =
2
cosh 2
2 cosh

= (1, 0, 0,
= (0, 1, 0,
1
(0, 0,
=
2
1
(0, 0,
=
0)
0)
cos ,
cosh )
cos ,
cosh )
= (0, 1,
= (1, 0,
1
=
(0,
2
1
=
(0,
2
0,
0,
0)
0)
1
,
cos
1
0,
,
cos
0,
1
)
cosh
1
)
cosh
1
= (
)
2
1
= (
)
2
(9.15)
1

= (

)
2
1
= (
)
2

=
=

= 0
=
=
=

= 0
=
=0
=
= 0
= = = + = 0
= = = + = 0
=

=
+
=
+
+
+
= ( )
+ ( )
+ ( )

+ ( )

= (
+
)
= ( cos sin (
=
1
2 cos
) + cosh sinh (
1
2 cosh
) (
1
2 cosh
))
(tan tanh )
2
Page 164

Susan Larsen
= = ( + ) = (tan + tanh )
2
1
= (
)
2
1
= (
)
2
1
= (

)
2
1
= (( )
+ ( )
)
2
1
1
1
= ((
cos )
+ (
cosh )
)
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
= ((
sin tan )
cos )
+ (
sinh tanh
cosh )
2
2
2
2
2
=0
1
= (
)
2
1
= (
)
2
1
= (

)
2
=0
1
= (

)
2
1
1
= (

) + (

)
2
2
=0
1
= (
) = 0
2

=0 =0
=0 =0
= 0 = (tan tanh )
2
= 0 = (tan + tanh )
2
=0
=0
=0
=0
0 = ( + ) (3 ) + ( + + 3)
1 = ( + ) ( ) + ( + ) + ( )
2 = + ( ) + ( + ) + 2
3 = + ( + ) ( + ) + ( ) + ( )
4 = + ( + ) (3 ) + (3 + + )
Where
=
=
=

=
(13.22)
(13.23)
(13.24)
(13.25)
(13.26)
(9.13)
Page 165

Susan Larsen
= ( + )
= 2
= 2
= 2
= ( (tan + tanh )) 2 ( (tan + tanh )) ( (tan tanh ))

2
2
2
2
2
= ( (1 + tan2 + 1 tanh2 )) ( (tan2 tanh2 ))

2
2
2
=
1 = 0
2 = = = = 0
3 = 0
4 = 0
0 0: This is a Petrov type N, which means there is a single principal null direction ( ) of multiplicity 4.
0
183The
12.7
The line element:
The metric tensor

and its inverse:
183
Nariai spacetime
1
= 2 2 + 2 2 ( 2 + 2 )
2
2
= 1 + ( + )
2
2 1
1
1
=
= { 1
2
{
2 }
1
2
2
2

1
= ( + ) (4.15)
2
1

= ( ) =
2
1

= ( ) =
2

= ( ) = 3
2
= ( ) = 3
2

= ( ) = 3
2
= ( ) = 3
2
= ( ) = 3
2
(4.16)
= 2 3
=
=
=
=
=
Page 166

Susan Larsen
= =
= ( ) = 3
2

= =
= 2 3
= = =
= = =
The basis one forms

1
2
2
2
2
2 = 2 2 + 2 2 ( 2 + 2 ) = ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1
1
2
2
2
[ + 2] 2 2 2 2 = ( + )( ) ( ) ( )
+ =
= 2 + 2
1
=
1
= ( 2 + 1) +
2
1
= ( 2 + 1)
2
1
=
1
=
1
1
={
}
1
1
= +
1
1
= (1 + 2 ) (1 2 )
2
2
=
=
+ 2
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 0
1
1
1
1
(9.10)
=
( ) =
(
) ( ) =
(
)
2 0 0 1
2 +
2
1
1
0 0 1
)
(
Page 167

Susan Larsen
1
2
1
(1, 0,
0, 0)
1
1
, )
2
= = = 1 0 = 0
(0,
0,
1
2
1
2
( 2 , 2, 0,
(0,
0,
1
,
0)
1
)
1
1
= = + = 1 ( ) + 2 0 =
2
2
= = 0
2
= = = 1 ( ) = 2
2
1
2
1
= = + = 1 ( ( 2 )) + 2 ( ) =
2
2
2
2
= = 0
= = 0
1 1
= = = (2 )
=
2
2
1 1
2
= = = ( )
=
2
2

1
(1, 0, 0, 0)
=
2
1
( 2 , 2, 0, 0)
=
2
1
1
1
(0, 0,
=
, )
2
1
1
1
(0, 0,
, )
=
=
=
=
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
(0, 1,
0, 0)
(2, 2 , 0, 0)
(0, 0,
, )
(0, 0,
, )
1
= (
)
2
1
= (
)
2
(9.15)
1
= (

)
2
1
= (
)
2

=

=

=

Page 168

Susan Larsen
= ( c )
( c )

=0
=
=
=

= 0

=

=0
=
= 0

= = = + = 0
= = = + = 0
=

=
+
=
+
+
+
= ( )
+ ( )
+ ( )
+ ( )
=0
= = 0
1
= (
)
2
1
= (
)
2
1
= (

)
2
=0
1
= (
)
2
1
= (
)
2
1
= (

)
2
1
= ( )
2
1
=
2
1
1 2 2
=
( )
2 2 2
1
=
2
1
= (

)
2
1
1
= (

) + (

)
2
2
1
= (

+

+

+

)
2
1
= ([ ]

+ [ ]

+ [ ]

2
+ [ ]

)
Page 169

Susan Larsen
1
1
1
= ([ (
) ]

+ [ (
) ]

2
2
2
+ [ (
) ]

+ [ (
) ]

)
2
1
1
= ([(
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
)]

2
2
2
2
2
1
+ [(
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
)]

2
2
2
1
+ [(
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
)]

22
2
1
+ [(
) ( )(
) ( ) (
)]

)
2
2
2
2
1
1
= ([ ( ) (
)]

+ [ ( ) (
)]

+ [ ( ) (
)]

2
2
2
1
+ [ ( ) (
)]

)
2
1
= ((
) ( ) + (
) ( ) ( ) + (
) ( ) ( )
2
22
2
22
2
2
22
2
2
+ (
22
) (
) )
= ((
)+(
) (
)+(
))
2
22
22
22
222
( + )
=
22
1
= (
)
2
1
1
= (( ) (
)
+ ( ) (
)
+ ( ) (
)
( ) (
)
)
2
2
2
2
2
1
= (( ) (
) ( ) + ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) + ( ) (
) ( ) ( )
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
2
( )(
) ( ) ( ))
2 2
2
1
= (
)
2
22 22 22 22
( + )
=
22

=0 =0 =0
=0
=0
1
2
Page 170

Susan Larsen
=0
=0
=0
=0
( )
22
( + )
=
22
=
Newman-Penrose identities
(13.58)
= ( + ) + ( + ) ( + ) + + 2 NP + 11
(13.59)
= + + 2 + ( ) + ( ) 2 + NP + 11
(13.60)
= + ( ) + ( + ) + 2 2 NP
Where
(9.13)
=
=
=

=
Reduces to
= 2 NP + 11
= + 2 2 + NP + 11
0 = 2 2 NP
These we can solve
1
1
1
1
1
) = (
) =
(
) =
2 NP + 11 = = (
2
2
2
2
2
2 NP 11 = + 2 +
( )) (
( + )) + (
( + )) (
( ))
= (
22
22
22
22
( )) (
( + ))
2 (
22
22
( )) +
( + ))
(
22
22
2
2
2
( ))
= ( 2 + 2 ) + ( 2 + 2 ) + 2 ( 2 + 2 ) (
8
8
8
22
(
( )) +
( + ))
(
22
22
( + ))
+
(
22
2
= ( 2 + 2 ) +
(
)+
(
) + ( ) (
)
2
22
2
2 22
2 22
+ ( ) (
)
22
2
2

= ( 2 + 2 )
2
4
4
4
4
2 2
= ( + 2 )
2
2 2
= ( + 2 ) (1 + ( 2 + 2 ))
2
2
=
Page 171

Susan Larsen
1
= 2 NP + 11
2
= 2 NP 11
0 = 2 2 NP
1
2 =
2
1
NP =
4
1
11 =
4
11
(13.65)
(13.64)
(13.65)
Checking 11 and =
1
(9.22)
= ( +
)
4
1
=
= ( +
)
4
1
= ( +
)
4
1
= ( + + +
+
)
4
1
= ( +
+
)
4
1
1
= ( 2 (
+
))
4
2
1
1 2
1
1
1
1
= (
2 ((
) + (
)
))
4
2 2
2
2
2
1
= (1 1)
4
=0
And we can conclude that
Instead we will look at a generalized Nariai spacetime
The line element: 2
= 2 2 +
= + ( 2 + 2 )
( 2 + 2 )
2
2
2
2
2
2 = 2 2 + 2 ( 2 + 2 ) = ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
[ 2 + ] 2 2 2 2 = ( + )( ) ( ) ( )
+ =
= 2 +
Page 172

Susan Larsen

The basis one-forms

1
1
= ( 2 + 1) +
2
2
1
1
= (A 2 + 1)
2
2
1
1
}
= {
1
1
= +
1
1
(1 + 2 ) (1 2 )
(5.9)
1
1
= ( ( 2 + 1) + )
2
2
=
1
1
= ( (1 + 2 ) (1 2 ) ) ( + )
2
=

1
1
= ( (A 2 + 1) )
2
2
=
1
1
= ( (1 + 2 ) (1 2 ) ) ( + )
2
2
= ( ) = (
) =
=

2
2
2
+ ( + )
2
2
= ( ) = (
) =
=

2
2
2
)
+ ( +
Page 173

Susan Larsen
2
( + )
2
( + )
0
0
{
( )
( )
0
= +
=
2
(5.27), (5.28)
First we see that = 0 for all combinations

=
2
= ( ( + ))
2
= ( )
2
=

2
1
1
=
( (1 + 2 ) (1 2 ) ) ( + )
= 2
= = = 2
=
2
= (
( ))
2
( ))
= (
2 42 2 2
2 42 2 2
=(
+
+
)
)
(
2
2 42 2 2
2 42 2 2
=(
) + (
+
)
4 42 2 2
( + 2 ))
=(
4
=
( ( 2 + 2 ))
4
=
( + ( 2 + 2 ) ( 2 + 2 ))
Page 174

Susan Larsen
= =
4
0
2
4

0
2
0
4

4
4
R =
R = 2
4
4
R =
R = 2
The Ricci tensor:
= = + + +
= = + + +
=0
=0
= = + + +
=0
=0
= = + + +
= = + + +
= = + + +
(4.46)
= 0
= =
= 0
2
4
= =
Page 175

Susan Larsen
4
0
4
0 0 0
0 0 0
={
} =
0 0 0
0 0 0
0
0
{ 0
}
Compared with184 = we can see the that we can choose the coefficients are = 1; =
1
2; = 1, = 1 and = , which corresponds to a Nariai line element consistent with =
4
1
2
2
2
= + 2 2 ( 2 + 2 )
2
2
= 1 + ( + )
4
So lets copy the Christoffel, spin coefficient and Newman-Penrose identity calculations with this new
= 1 + 4 ( 2 + 2 ). The null tetrad is unchanged.
1
(4.16)
= ( + ) (4.15) =
2
1
= ( ) =
= =
2
1
= ( ) =
= = 2 3
2
= =
1
= ( ) =
= =
3
2
2
2
1
= ( ) =
= =
3
2
2
2
1
= ( ) =
= =
2
23
2
1
= ( ) =
= =
3
2
2
2
1
= ( ) =
= =
2
23
2
1
= ( ) =
= =
2
23
2
= =
= 2 3
= = =
2
= = =
2
184
Page 138
Page 176

Susan Larsen
1
= (
)
2
1
= (
)
2
(9.15)
1

= (

)
2
1
= (
)
2

=

=

=

= ( c )
( c )

=0
=
=

= 0
=
=0
=
= 0
= = = + = 0
= = = + = 0
=

=
+
=
+
+
+
= ( )
+ ( )
+ ( )

+ ( )
=0
= = 0
1
= (
)
2
1
= (
)
2
1
= (

)
2
=0
1
= (
)
2
1
= (
)
2
1
= (

)
2
1
= ( )
2
1
=
2
Page 177

Susan Larsen
1
1 2 2
=
( )
2 2 2
1
=
2
1
= (

)
2
1
1
= (

) + (

)
2
2
1
= (

+

+

+

)
2
1
= (( )

+ ( )

+ ( )

2
+ ( )

)
1
1
1
= (( (
) )

+ ( (
) )

2
2
2
+ ( (
) )

+ ( (
) )

)
2
1
1
= ([(
)+ ( )(
) ( ) (
)]

2
2
2 2
2
22
2
1
+ [(
) + ( )(
) ( ) (
)]

2
2 2
2
22
2
1
+ [(
) + ( )(
) + ( ) (
)]

2
2
2
22
2
2
1
+ [(
) ( )(
) + ( ) (
)]

)
2
2
2
22
2
2
1
1

= ([( ) (
)]

+ [( ) (
)]

+ [( ) (
)]

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1

+ [ ( ) (
)]

)
2 2
1
= ((
) ( ) + (
) ( ) ( ) + (
) ( ) ( )
2
2
2
2
22
22
22
2
2
2
2
2
2
(
) ( ) )
222
2
= ( (
)+(
) (
)+(
))
2
42
42
42
422
( )
=
42
1
= (
)
2
1
1
= ([( ) (
)]
+ [( ) (
)]
+ [( ) (
)]

2
2
2
2 2
2
2
1
+ [ ( ) (
)]
)
2 2
Page 178

Susan Larsen
= (( ) (
) ( ) + ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) + ( ) (
) ( ) ( )
2
2 2
2 2
2 2 2
2
2
2
2
( )(
) ( ) ( ))
2 2 2
2
1
= (
)
2
42 42 42 42
( + )
=
42

=0 =0 =0
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
1
2
( )
42
( + )
=
42
Newman-Penrose identities
(13.58)
= ( + ) + ( + ) ( + ) + + 2 NP + 11
(13.59)
= + + 2 + ( ) + ( ) 2 + NP + 11
(13.60)
= + ( ) + ( + ) + 2 2 NP
Where
(9.13)
=
=
=

=
Reduces to
= 2 NP + 11
= + 2 2 + NP + 11
0 = 2 2 NP
These we can solve
1
1
1
1
1
2 NP + 11 = = (
) = (
) =
(
) =
2
2
2
2
2
2 NP 11 = + 2 +
( )) (
( + )) + (
( + )) (
( ))
= (
42
42
42
42
( )) (
( + )) (
( )) +
( + ))
2 (
(
42
42
42
42
=
2 2
2
2
( + 2 ) + ( 2 + 2 ) + 2 ( 2 + 2 ) (
( ))
32
32
32
42
( )) +
( + )) +
( + ))
(
(
42
42
42
Page 179

Susan Larsen
2 2
= ( + 2 ) +
(
)+
(
) + ( ) (
) + ( ) (
)
8
42
42
2
2 42
2 42
2
2

= ( 2 + 2 )
8
8
8
8
8
2
2
2
= ( + )
8
2
2 2
= ( + 2 ) (1 + ( 2 + 2 ))
8
4
2
1
=
2
1
= 2 NP + 11
2
1
= 2 NP 11
2
0 = 2 2 NP
1
(13.65)
2 =
3
1
(13.64)
NP =
6
(13.65)
11 = 0
Which is consistent with the former calculation of 11 = 0, nd we can conclude that if = so
should rightfully be = 1 + ( 2 + 2 )
4
12.8
185Collision
of a gravitational wave with an electromagnetic wave The nonzero spin coefficients
The line element in region 0: 2

The metric tensor:
and its inverse:
= 2 cos2 ( 2 + 2 )
1
1
={
}
cos 2
cos2
1
1
1
=
cos 2
1
{
cos2 }
The Christoffel symbols: To find the Christoffel symbols we calculate the geodesic from the Euler-Lagrange
equation

(10.36)
0 =
( )

where
= 2 cos 2 ( 2 + 2 )
= :
=0
185
(McMahon, 2006, p. 322), quiz 13-1. The answer to quiz 13-1 is (a)
Page 180

Susan Larsen
= :
= :
= 2

( ) = 2

0 = 2

( )

0
= 2 cos sin ( 2 + 2 )
= 2
= 2
= cos sin ( 2 + 2 )
= :

( )

0
0

( )

0
0
=0
= 2 cos 2
= 4 cos sin 2 cos2
= 2 cos sin cos2
= 2 tan
=0
= 2 cos 2
= 4 cos sin 2 cos2
= 2 cos sin cos2
= 2 tan

0 =
0 = cos sin ( 2 + 2 )
0 = 2 tan
0 = 2 tan
= cos sin = cos sin
= tan
= tan
= tan
= tan
The basis one forms:
2 = 2 cos2 ( 2 + 2 )
2
= ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
= ( + )( ) ( ) ( )
Page 181

Susan Larsen
2
2

= ( + )
= ( )
= cos
= cos
1
= cos
= cos
2
1
2
( + )
( )
1
2
1
( + )
( )
2
1
=

cos
1
=

cos
={
1
1
The orthonormal null tetrad:

2
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 0
1
1
2
(9.10)
( ) =
(
) ( ) =
(
)=
0
0
1
2
2 +
2 cos + cos
0 0 1
(cos cos )

= (1, 0, 0, 0)
= (0, 1, 0, 0)
1
1
(0, 0, cos , cos )
(0, 0, cos , cos )
=
=
2
2
= = = 1 0 = 0
= = = 1 1 = 1
= = 0
= = = 1 1 = 1
= = = 1 0 = 0
= = 0
= = 0
1
1
1
1
cos =
= =
2
cos 2
2 cos
1
1
1
1
cos =
= =
2
cos 2
2 cos
Collecting the results:
= (1, 0, 0, 0)
= (0, 1, 0, 0)
1
(0, 0, cos ,
=
2
1
(0, 0, cos ,
=
cos )
cos )
= (0, 1,
= (1, 0,
1
=
(0,
2
1
=
(0,
2
0,
0,
0)
0)
1
,
cos
1
0,
,
cos
0,
1
)
cos
1
)
cos
The spin coefficients calculated from the orthonormal tetrad:
Page 182

Susan Larsen
1
= (
)
2
1
= (
)
2
(9.15)
1
= (

)
2
1
= (
)
2

=
=

= 0
=
=
=

= 0
=
=0
=
= 0
= = = + = 0
= = = + = 0
=

=
+
=
+
+
+
= ( )
+ ( )
+ ( )
+ ( )

= (
+
)
= ( cos sin (
1
2 cos
) cos sin (
1
2 cos
) (
1
2 cos
))
= tan
=
= ( + )
2
2
1
1
= ( cos sin (
) cos sin (
) )
2 cos
2 cos
=0
1
= (
)
2
1
= (
)
2
1
= (

)
2
1
= (( )
+ ( )
)
2
1
1
1
= ((
cos )
+ (
cosh )
)
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
= ((
sin ( tan )
cos )
+ (
sin + tan
cos )
)
2
2
2
2
2
Page 183

Susan Larsen
=0
1
= (
)
2
1
= (
)
2
1
= (

)
2
=0
1
= (

)
2
1
1
= (

) + (

)
2
2
=0
1
= (
) = 0
2

=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
= tan
=0
=0
=0
=0
This means that () 0 and there is expansion (or pure focusing=divergence).
12.9
186The
Aichelburg-Sexl Solution The passing of a black hole
The line element

2 = 4 log( 2 + 2 ) 2 + 2 dx 2 2
Comparing with the Brinkmann metric
2 = (, , )2 + 2 2 2
We see that we can copy the results from the Brinkmann calculations p.195 if (, , ) =
4 log( 2 + 2 )
The only non-zero spin-coefficient is:
1
(
+
)
=
22
(9.30)
(4 log( 2 + 2 ))
(4 log(2 + 2 ))
=
(
+
)
22
4
2
2
=
( 2
+
)
2 + 2
22 + 2
= 22 ( 2
+ 2
)
2
+
+ 2
1
186
(McMahon, 2006, p. 322), quiz 13-2. The answer to quiz 13-2 is (b)
Page 184

Susan Larsen
12.10 Observations: The Future Gravitational Wave detectors187.

GWs are faint deformations of the space-time geometry,
propagating at the speed of light and generated by catastrophic events in the Universe, in which strong gravitational fields and sudden acceleration of asymmetric distribution of large masses are involved. GWs have a quadrupolar nature and have two polarizations, + and , where
is the so called space-time strain =
|0 |
0
,
0
the rela-
tive dimensional8distortion of an extended mass distribution. The effect of these two polarizations on a circular mass
distribution is shown in the figure. GWs are created by accelerating masses, but because gravity is the weakest of the
four fundamental forces, GWs are extremely small. For this reason, only extremely massive and compact
objects having intense and asymmetric gravitational fields, like neutron star and black hole binary systems,
are expected to be able to generate detectable GW emission. The direct detection of GWs is still missing
and it is quite easy to understand why. For example, the expected amplitude on Earth of the GW emitted
by a coalescing binary system of neutron star located in the Virgo cluster is of the order of ~1022. This
means that a detector having a dimension of a meter experiences an oscillating deformation of 1022 ,
an astonishingly small quantity. In the 1960s, the first GW detectors were based on a (multi)-ton resonant
bar, that should resonate when excited by the passage of a GW. These detectors evolved, operating at
cryogenic temperature to minimize the disturbance of the thermal Brownian vibration and being read by
very low noise transducers. These detectors reached a sensitivity of the order of a few 1021 around
the main resonant mode frequency, which is of the order of one kHz. Although two of these detectors are
still operating, it is worth stating that their era has ended due to the realization of a new kind of GW detector: giant interferometers, operating since the first years of the 2000 decade. These instruments profit
from two key elements of the GW; (i) the tidal nature of a GW: the expected metric deformation of a
body traversed by a GW is proportional to its size ~ 0 . Hence, if the expected space-time deformation is of the order of 1022 , the effect on a multi-km detector will be a deformation ~1019
1018 . (ii) the quadrupolar nature of the GW. A Michelson interferometer is sensitive to the difference
in optical path length between its two arms, and it can match the metric deformation imposed by the GW.
The first operative GW interferometric detector has been the Japanese TAMA, a 300m Michelson interferometer that opened the path to this new family of instruments, but had a sensitivity limited by its reduced
length and by its location, in the center of Tokyo, affected by too high environmental disturbance. In Europe two interferometric GW detectors have been realized; GEO600, a 600 m Michelson interferometer,
built close to Hannover and Virgo, a Michelson interferometer having Fabry-Perot resonating cavities inserted in the 3 km long arms, built close to Pisa. The longest interferometric GW detectors in the World
are the two Laser Interferometer Gravitational wave Observatory (LIGO) detectors, having 4 km long
arms, realized in Louisiana and Washington State (USA) with a topology similar to Virgo. Thanks to the long
Fabry-Perot cavities in the arms of the Virgo and LIGO detectors, the photons are forced to bounce backand forth between the suspended mirrors, thus squeezing a hundreds km long optical path in the few km
long detector infrastructure, increasing the sensitivity to the space-time deformation. The length limitation, dictated by technical constrains and affecting the terrestrial GW detector infrastructures, will obviously disappear in the space-based observatories, like the eLISA/NGO detector. This project of a multimillion km GW interferometer is to be launched at the end of the 2020 decade, in a heliocentric orbit, and
is devoted to the observation of ultra-low-frequency sources (105 103 ), like hypermassive black
187
This is an extract of the article: Opening a New Window on the Universe The Future Gravitational Wave detectors
http://www.europhysicsnews.org/articles/epn/abs/2013/02/epn2013442p16/epn2013442p16.html (Michele Punturo
- 2013).
Page 185

Susan Larsen
holes. Virgo, GEO600 and LIGO detectors operated in a network during the second half of the 2000 decade,
listeningto the sky in the 10-10000 Hz frequency range. Even though, no detection of GW signal has been
obtained so far but, relevant scientific targets have been reached, putting constraints on potential GW
emission by some astrophysical source. For example, thanks to the joint LIGO and Virgo data, an upper
limit has been set to the possible GW emission of the Vela and Crab pulsars. These pulsars, remnants of
supernovae explosions, are compact neutron stars rotating about 11 and 30 times per second, respectively. The pulsars are expected to emit GWs at a frequency double their rotation rate, and at an amplitude
depending on many (unknown) parameters characterizing these stars. Through the radio signal, it is well
known that these pulsars are slowing down because of emission of energy, due to several possible mechanisms. LIGO and Virgo have been able to set an upper limit to the fraction of that energy emission due to
GWs, stating that no more than few per cent of the energy loss can be due to GW radiation. The Virgo and
LIGO detectors are currently offline, being upgraded toward the 2nd generation. In the period 2011-2015
several parts of the detectors will be replaced to improve the sensitivity by a factor of ten. An improvement
by a factor of ten in sensitivity corresponds to an increase by a factor of a thousand in detection rate: in
one year of operation of the advanced detectors at the nominal sensitivity, about 40 coalescences of neutron star binary systems are expected to be detected. The advanced detectors capability to detect a coalescence of a binary neutron star system at a distance of about 140 Mpc, and a coalescence of a binary
systems of black holes at a distance of about 1 Gpc, will open up a gravitational-wave astrophysics era. It
will be possible, for example, to compare the signal detected from the coalescence of a binary system of
neutron stars with the general relativity prediction. Or it will be possible to investigate the nature of an
isolated neutron star by looking at its GW emission. Few years later the completion of the Advanced Virgo
detector in Europe and of the Advanced LIGO detectors in USA, new nodes will enter the network of GW
observatories: a very innovative 3km interferometer (KAGRA), underground and cryogenic, is under construction in Japan. Furthermore, a 3rd Advanced LIGO site is under evaluation in India. European scientists
are attempting to drive the evolution of this research field and the conceptual design of a 3rd generation
GW observatory has been realized, able to compete and collaborate with the most sensitive optical telescopes: the Einstein GW Telescope (ET). This new infrastructure, aimed to be operative in the 2020 decade,
will test the cosmological model of the universe using GW signals, thanks to its capability to see many
sources at large red-shift; ET will be a wonderful proofing tool of the general relativity predictions in all
radiative processes involving intense gravitational fields, like in the presence of intermediate-mass black
holes (~10 1000 ). It will allow detailed investigations of the nature of isolated neutron stars
looking both to the continuous emission of the pulsars and to the explosion of supernovae.
Bibliografi
A.S.Eddington. (1924). The Mathematical Theory of Relativity. Cambridge: At the University Press.
C.W.Misner, K. a. (1973). Gravitation. New York: W.H.Freeman and Company.
d'Inverno, R. (1992). Introducing Einstein's Relativity. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Greene, B. (2004). The Fabric of the Cosmos. Penguin books.
Hartle, J. B. (2003). Gravity - An introduction to Einstein's General Relativity. Addison Wesley.
McMahon, D. (2006). Relativity Demystified. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Spiegel, M. R. (1990). SCHAUM'S OUTLINE SERIES: Mathematical Handbook of FORMULAS and TABLES.
McGraw-Hill Publishing Company.
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Calculations in General Relativity

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Lots of Calculations in General Relativity

Saturday, August 16, 2014

How to calculate: Example ......................................................................................................... 7

The four velocity and the four force: = ............................................................................. 7

Metric and Vector Transformations. ......................................................................................................... 7

Flat Minkowski space: ....................................................................................................................... 7

Other realizations of the flat space: .................................................................................................. 8

Spherical polar coordinates ....................................................................................................... 8

Flat space with a singularity ...................................................................................................... 9

Coordinate transformations ...................................................................................................... 9

Flat space in two dimensions .................................................................................................. 10

The Penrose Diagram for Flat Space........................................................................................ 11

The line-element and metric of an ellipsoid:................................................................................... 11

The signature of a metric................................................................................................................. 12

Three-dimensional flat space in spherical coordinates and vector transformation ....................... 12

Static Weak Field Metric ................................................................................................................. 13

NEW - Local inertial frames ............................................................................................................. 14

Rates of Emission and Reception............................................................................................. 13

The metric of a Sphere at the North Pole................................................................................ 14

Area and Volume Elements of a Sphere .................................................................................. 16

Distance, Area, Volume and four-volume of a metric ............................................................. 18

The dimensions of a peanut .................................................................................................... 19

The dimensions of an egg ........................................................................................................ 20

Length and volume of the Schwarzschild geometry ............................................................... 20

Volume in the Wormhole geometry........................................................................................ 21

Tensor Calculus ........................................................................................................................................ 22

Christoffel symbols. ......................................................................................................................... 22

and in a diagonal metric ..................................................................................... 22

Lots of Calculations in General Relativity

Saturday, August 16, 2014

Find the Christoffel symbols of the 2-sphere with radius .................................................... 22

Alternative solution: Show that = .................................................................................. 23

One-forms: why = .......................................................................................................... 23

The exterior derivative of a one-form. .................................................................................... 24

The geodesic equation. ................................................................................................................... 24

Find the geodesic equations for cylindrical coordinates ........................................................ 24

New - Geodesics Equations of the plane in polar coordinates................................................ 26

New Equations for geodesics in a Wormhole Geometry ..................................................... 27

New - Solving the geodesic equation .............................................................................................. 28

New - The travel time through a wormhole ............................................................................ 28

NEW - Geodesics in the Plane Using Polar Coordinates. ......................................................... 29

Killing Vectors .................................................................................................................................. 30

Prove that = ............................................................................................... 31

Constructing a Conserved Current with Killing Vectors Alternative version: ....................... 31

Given a Killing vector the Ricci scalar satisfies = : ................................................ 31

The Riemann tensor ........................................................................................................................ 31

Independent elements in the Riemann, Ricci and Weyl tensor .............................................. 33

The three dimensional flat space in spherical polar coordinates.................................................... 39

The Ricci scalar of the Penrose Kahn metric ................................................................................... 41

A metric example 1: = + .............................................................. 42

The Christoffel symbols of a metric example .......................................................................... 42

Lots of Calculations in General Relativity

Saturday, August 16, 2014

The Ricci scalar of a metric example ....................................................................................... 42

4.13 Calculate the Christoffel symbols for a metric example 2: = + +

A metric example 3: = + + + + ...................................... 44

Calculate the Christoffel symbols for a metric example.......................................................... 44

Calculate the Riemann tensor of metric example ................................................................... 45

Calculate the Riemann tensor of metric example Alternative version ................................ 46

Cartans Structure Equations ................................................................................................................... 46

The curvature two forms and the Riemann tensor ......................................................................... 49

The three dimensional flat space in spherical polar coordinates.................................................... 50

Ricci rotation coefficients of the Rindler metric.............................................................................. 52

The Einstein tensor for the Tolman-Bondi- de Sitter metric ........................................................... 52