SOLUTIONS MANUAL

Engineering Materials I
An Introduction to Properties, Applications
and Design, 3rd edn

Solutions to Examples
2.1.

rA
t
100
r
and for commodity B Qt = CB exp B t
100
where CA and CB are the current rates of consumption t = t0  and Pt and
Qt are the values at t = t . Equating and solving for t gives
 
100
CA
t=
ln

rB rA
CB

(a) For commodity A

Pt = CA exp

(b) The doubling time, tD , is calculated by setting Ct = t = 2C0 , giving

tD =

70
100
ln 2 
r
r

Substitution of the values given for r in the table into this equation gives the
doubling times as 35, 23 and 18 years respectively.
(c) Using the equation of Answer (a) we find that aluminium overtakes steel
in 201 years; polymers overtake steel in 55 years.
2.2.

Principal conservation measures (see Section 2.7):

Substitution
Examples: aluminium for copper as a conductor; reinforced concrete for wood,
stone or cast-iron in construction; plastics for glass or metals as containers. For
many applications, substitutes are easily found at small penalty of cost. But in
certain specific uses, most elements are not easily replaced. Examples: tungsten
in cutting tools and lighting (a fluorescent tube contains more tungsten, as
a starter filament, than an incandescent bulb!); lead in lead-acid batteries;
platinum as a catalyst in chemical processing; etc. A long development time
(up to 25 years) may be needed to find a replacement.
1

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

Recycling
The fraction of material recycled is obviously important. Products may be
re-designed to make recycling easier, and new recycling processes developed,
but development time is again important.
More Economic Design
Design to use proportionally smaller amounts of scarce materials, for example,
by building large plant (economy of scale); using high-strength materials; use
of surface coatings to prevent metal loss by corrosion (e.g. in motor cars).
2.3.

(a) If the current rate of consumption in tonnes per year is C then exponential
growth means that
r
dC
=
C
dt
100
where r is the fractional rate of growth in % per year. Integrating gives


rt t0 

C = C0 exp
100
where C0 was the consumption rate at time t = t0 .
(b) Set
Q  t1/2
=
C dt
2
0
where
C = C0 exp
Then

 rt 

100

 rt 
t1/2
100
Q
C0
exp

2
r
100 0

which gives the desired result.

2.4.

See Chapter 2 for discussion with examples.

3.1.

(a) Poissons ratio, , can be defined as the negative of the ratio of the lateral
strain to the tensile strain in a tensile test.
=

lateral strain

tensile strain

(Note that the lateral strain, here, is a negative quantity so that  is positive.)
The dilatation, , is the change of volume over the whole volume.

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

(b) Volume change per unit volume (small strains) is 1 + 2 + 3 . But in a

uniaxial extension 2 = 1 and 3 = 1 .
Hence  =

V
= 1 2
V

where  1  is the tensile strain. Clearly  is zero if  = 05.

(c) The dilatations are:
Most metals 04
Cork = 
Rubber = 0

3.2.

The solid rubber sole is very resistant to being compressed, because it is

restrained against lateral Poissons ratio expansion by being glued to the relatively stiff sole. However, the moulded surface has a much lower resistance to
being compressed, because the lateral Poissons ratio expansion of each separate
rubber cube can occur without constraint (provided the gaps between adjacent
cubes do not close-up completely). So your colleague is correct.

3.3.

The axial force applied to the cork to push it into the bottle results in a zero
lateral Poissons ratio expansion, so it does not become any harder to push the
cork into the neck of the bottle. However, the axial force applied to the rubber
bung results in a large lateral Poissons ratio expansion, which can make it
almost impossible to force the bung into the neck of the bottle.

4.1.

Refer to Fig. 4.11.

Force F between atoms =

dU

dr

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

At the equilibrium distance, ro , the energy U is a minimum (i.e. F is zero,
and U is the dissociation energy Uo ).
mA
nB
dU
= m+1 n+1 = 0
dr
r
r
m nm
or B = ro A
n
A
1 m
Uo = m + n ronm A
ro
ro n

A
m
= m 1

ro
n
Now, for ro = 03 nm Uo = 4 eV.
5
A = 4 032 = 045 eV nm2
4
= 72 1020 J nm2 
B = 15 038 045 = 059 105 eV nm10 = 94 1025 J nm10 . Max force
d2 U
is at
= 0. i.e. at value of r given by
dr 2

 1
mm + 1A nn + 1B
B n n + 1 nm
+

= 0 which is r =
r m+2
r n+2
A m m + 1
1
 nm

  18
n+1
11
=
ro =
03 = 0352 nm
m+1
3


mA
ronm
dU
= m+1 1 nm
and Force =
dr
r
r


2 045
038
=
1

= 149 eV nm1
03523
03528
=

149 1602 1019

J m1
109

= 239 109 N
4.2.

4.3.

The term A/r m is an attractive potential which depends on the type of

bonding. The B/r n term is a repulsive potential due to charge-cloud overlap
and diminished screening of the nuclei (see Section 4.2).
The values of A are shown below. The mean is 88. The calculated values of
the moduli are

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

Material

Calculated from 88 kTM /

Measured

Ice
Diamond

10 1010 N m2
90 1011 N m2

77 109 N m2
10 1012 N m2

The calculated values, for these extremes of elastic behaviour, are close to the
measured values. The important point is that the moduli are roughly proportional to absolute melting temperatures.
A values: Ni, 98; Cu, 78; Ag, 76; Al, 89; Pb, 51; Fe, 96; V, 61; Cr, 116; Nb,
48; Mo, 138; Ta, 72; W, 127.
5.1.

(a) Let the spheres have a diameter

of 1. Then (referring
to Fig. 5.3) the unit

cell has an edge length 2, and a volume 2 2. It contains 4 atoms, with

a total volume 4
/6. Hence the density, , is given by
=

= 0740
62 2

(b) Glassy nickel is less dense than crystalline nickel by the factor 0.636/0.740.
The density is therefore 8900636/0740 = 765 Mg m3 .
5.2. (a)

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

(b)

(c)

(d)

5.3.

(a) If the atom diameter is d , then the lattice constant for the f.c.c. structure is
2d
a1 = 1 = 03524 nm
2

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

(b) The weight of one atom is

5871
Atomic wt
=
= 9752 1026 kg
Avogadros number 6022 1026
There are 4 atoms per unit cell,
so density =

49752 1026 
= 891 Mg m3 
03524 109 3

(c) If the atom diameter is d2 , then the lattice constant for the b.c.c. structure is
2d
a2 = 2 = 02866 nm
3

(d) One atom weighs

5585
= 9274 1026 kg
6022 1026
There are 2 atoms per unit cell.
So density =

29274 1026 
= 788 Mg m3 
02866 109 3

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

5.4.

(a) Copper

1
1
Have 4 atoms per unit cell 8 from cube corners = 1 + 6 from
8
2
cube faces = 3
Atoms touch along cube-face diagonal:
This gives atom radius r =

2
a.
4

4
r 3 100
16

2 2a 3 100
3
Required percentage =
=

3a 3
16 4
a3

2
100 = 74%
=
6
Answer is same for magnesium both are close-packed structures.
(b) Copper
4m
Density =
where m is atomic mass.
a3
Atomic weight for Cu = 6354.
m=

6354 kg
= 1055 1026 kg
6023 1026
4 1055 1026
896 Mg m3 =
kg
a3
a 3 = 471 1029 m3 
a = 361 1010 m or 0361 nm

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

Magnesium

1
1
from corners = 2 + 2
Have 6 atoms per unit cell 12
from
6
2
end faces = 1 + 3 inside
 
3
Volume of unit cell = 3 a 2
c 
2
4m
2 6m
Density = 2 = 2 
3a c
3 3a c
2431 kg
= 404 1026 kg
m=
6023 1025
4 404 1026 kg
174 Mg m3 =

2
3a c
a 2 c = 536 1029 m3 
In face-centred structure, plane spacing

2a
3a
 where r =

3
4

3 4r
Spacing =

3 2

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Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

3 4r
c
=
In close-packed-hexagonal structure, plane spacing =
=
2
3 2

3 4 a

3 22

c
= 1633
a
c = 1633a

Using value for a 2 c of 536 1029 m3 we obtain:

a = 320 1010 m or 0320 nm
c = 523 1010 m or 0523 nm

5.5.

See Section 5.10.

5.6.

Let V be the volume fraction of the polyethylene which is crystalline. Then,

(a) 1014V + 0841 V  = 092, giving V = 046, or 46%.
(b) 1014V + 0841 V  = 097, giving V = 075, or 75%.

6.1.

The two sets of values for the moduli are calculated from the formulae
Ecomposite = Vf Ef + 1 Vf Em (upper values);
Ecomposite =

1
Vf
Ef

f
+ 1V
E

(lower values);

where Vf is the volume fraction of glass, Em the modulus of epoxy, and Ef that
of glass.
Values are given in the table and plotted in the figure. The data lie near the
lower level. This is because the approximation from which the lower values are
derived (that the stress is equal in glass and epoxy) is nearer reality than the
approximation from which the upper values are derived (that the strains are
equal in the two components).
Note that the sets of values are widely separated near Vf = 05. Fibreglass
tested parallel to the fibres, or wood tested parallel to the grain, lie near the
maximum composite modulus. Both materials, tested at right angles to the
fibres or grain lie near the lower modulus. They are, therefore, very anisotropic:
the ratio of the two moduli can be as much as a factor of 4.5 for fibreglass (see
the figure, at Vf = 05); it can be more for woods.

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

6.2.

Volume fraction
of glass, Vf

Ecomposite
GN m2 

Ecomposite
(upper values)
GN m2 

Ecomposite
(lower values)
GN m2 

0
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30

5.0
5.5
6.4
7.8
9.5
11.5
14.0

5.0
8.8
12.5
16.3
20.0
23.8
27.5

5.0
5.2
5.5
5.8
6.2
6.5
7.0

Ec = Ef Vf + 1 Vf Em .
c = f Vf + 1 Vf m .
(a) c = 05 190 Mg m3 + 05 115 Mg m3 = 153 Mg m3 .
(b) c = 05 255 Mg m3 + 05 115 Mg m3 = 185 Mg m3 .
(c) c = 002 790 Mg m3 + 098 240 Mg m3 = 251 Mg m3 .
(a) Ec = 05 390 GN m2 + 05 3 GN m2 = 197 GN m2 .
(b) Ec = 05 72 GN m2 + 05 3 GN m2 = 375 GN m2 .
(c) Ec = 002 200 GN m2 + 098 45 GN m2 = 481 GN m2 .

11

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Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

6.3.


E =

V1 1 V1 
+
E1
E2

1
 see Section 6.4

E = V1 E1 + 1 V1 E2  see Section 6.4



E
V
1 V1 
= V1 E1 + 1 V1 E2  1 +
E
E1
E2


E
E
= 1 2V1 + 2V12 + 1 V1 V1 1 + 2 
E2 E1
 


E
d
E
E
= 1 2V1  1 + 2 2 
dV1 E
E2 E1
For E1 = E2 
 
E
d
= 0 when V1 = 05 (the only turning point).
dV E
6.4.

Refer to Chapters 4, 5, 6 and the appropriate References.

7.1.

Following eqn (7.6), mass of beam M = wdc . Substituting d using the

equation given in the example gives

  6 2 1/3


c
F w
M=
= K c /Ec1/3
1/3
4
Ec
where K is a constant. Values of c /Ec1/3 taken from the answers to Example 6.2
are as follows.
(a) Carbon fibre-epoxy resin = 026.
(b) Glass fibre-polyester resin = 055.
(c) Steel-concrete = 069.
The lightest beam is (a) carbon fibre-epoxy resin.

7.2.

(a) Define the bending stiffness of the tube as F/ . Then

3
Er 3 t
F
=


l3
The mass, M , is given by
M = 2
rtl
Substituting for t in (1) gives
2l
M= 2
3r

   
F




E

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

13

The lightest bicycle (for a given stiffness) is that made of the material
for which /E  is least. The table shows data for six possible (and quite
sensible) materials.

Material

E GN m2 )

 Mg m3 )

p $ tonne1 

 E 

p  E 

Mildsteel
Hardwood
Aluminium alloy
GFRP
Titanium alloy
CFRP

196
15
69
40
120
200

7.8
0.8
2.7
1.8
4.5
1.5

100
250
400
1000
10,000
20,000

398 103
533 103
391 103
450 103
375 103
75 103

3.98
13.33
15.64
45.0
375
150

There is not much to choose between steel, hardwood, aluminium alloy,

GFRP and titanium alloys. But CFRP is much stiffer, for a given weight,
and would permit an immense weight saving by a factor of at least
5.0 over other materials.
(b) The frame of minimum material cost is that for which the relative price
M p (where p is relative the price per tonne) is a minimum i.e. that
for which p /E is least. The table shows that steel is by far the most
attractive material: a CFRP frame will cost 38 times more. This is nothing
if it permits you to win the Tour de France so bicycles can be made of
CFRP.
7.3.

pb = 03 E

 t 2


r
Mb = 4
r 2 t
 t 2
pb

=
r
03 E

1/2
pb
t
=

r
03 E

1/2
pb
t =
r
03 E
1/2

  
pb
3
Mb = 4
r 
= 229r 3 pb 1/2

03 E
E 1/2
 1/2 
E
Merit index is



14

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

8.1.

Nominal stress = Hardness/3 1 + n  where n is the nominal strain as given

in the question plus 0.08.
Data for nominal stressnominal strain curve
Nominal stress MN m2 
Nominal strain

8.2.

129
0.09

171
0.18

197
0.28

210
0.38

216
0.48

217
0.58

214
0.68

209
0.78

(a) From graph, tensile strength is 217 MN m2 (the stress maximum of the
curve).
(b) The strain at the stress maximum is 0.6 approximately.
(c) From eqn. (8.4), Ao lo = Al , and llo = AA .
o

l lo /lo = 06 A/Ao = 1/16

A
= 038 Ao A/Ao = 038
1
Ao
Thus percentage reduction in area = 38%.
(d) 109 MJ from graph.

188
1.08

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

8.3.

15

During a tensile test, unstable necks develop when the maximum in the nominal
stressnominal strain curve is reached. Neck growth then leads rapidly to failure.
Physically, necks become unstable when the material in the elongating neck
work hardens insufficiently to make up for the decrease in load-bearing capacity
at the neck. In rolling, the material is deforming mainly in compression, and
the load-bearing area is always on the increase. Tensile instabilities cannot
therefore form, and failure occurs at the much larger strains required to cause
failure by cracking.

8.4.

(a)

Tensile strength
Working stress

= 1015 kN/160 mm2

= 634 MN m2 .
= 160 MN m2 .

16

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

(b)

8.5.

Load corresponding to 0.1%

Proof strain
0.1% Proof stress
Working stress

= 35 kN.
= 219 MN m2 .
= 131 MN m2 .

The indentation hardness is defined by

H=

F


a 2

where a is the radius of the circle of indentation. Simple geometry (see figure)
gives
r h2 + a 2 = r 2 
or
2rh h 2 = a 2 
or
h=
Thus H =

a2
if h  r
2r

F
.
2
rh

The indenter penetrates a distance h which is proportional to the load.

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

8.6.

17

(a) Conservation of energy gives mgh = U el , so m = U el /gh. Thus

mmax =

1000 N 15 m + 05 1500 N 15 m

= 892 kg
981 30

(b) Taking the maximum extension, in one cycle of loading/unloading,

500 N 15 m = 7500 J is dissipated by hysteresis in the rope, compared to
a U el of 26250 J. Thus 29% of the energy input is lost. This results in the
jumper rebounding to a position which is well below the bridge deck (this
is obviously essential for a safe jump).
9.1.

See Section 9.2.

9.2.

The fractional volume change is

V
= 89323 89321/89323 = 224 105 
V
(a) Define the dislocation density as m/m3 or m2 . Then
1
V
= b 2 
V
4
from which
 = 14 1015 m2 
(b) The energy is:
V 3
1
U = Gb 2  = 2
E = 21 MJ m3 
2
V 8

9.3.

See Section 9.3.

10.1.

(a) See Section 10.5.

(b) See Section 10.3.
(c) See Section 10.4.

10.2.

(a) Balance line tension against force on dislocation (Section 10.4 and
Fig. 10.2(c)):
y bL = 2T
So y =

Gb
2T


bL
L

18

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

10.3.

(a) For the alloy:

L = 5 108 m
b = 286 1010 m
G = 26 109 N m2 
Gb
So y =
= 15 108 N m2 
L
But y = 3y for polycrystals. Hence
y 450 MN m2 
(b) New L = 15 108 m.
Repeating the calculation y = 149 MN m2 
Drop in yield strength y 300 MN m2 

10.4.

d = 4 106 m d 1/2 = 103 /2 = 500 m1/2  120 20 MN m2 =

500 m1/2   = 100 MN m2 /500 m1/2 = 02 MN m3/2 .

11.1.

Suppose first that the shaft yields. The stress in the shaft is F/
102 . If this is
equal to the tensile yield stress y , we have
F = 100
y = 200
k since y = 2k
where k is the shear-yield strength.
Now consider shearing-off of the head, as shown. At yield
F = 2
rtk
= 180
k

Thus the head will shear off.

11.2.

(a) Lubricated Anvils

Work balance gives, from upper-bound theorem,
wL
u
2k
2 = 2wLku
4
2
F 2wLk

Fu 8

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

19

(b) Welded Interfaces

wL
u
k
2
2
= 2wLku + wLku = 3wLku

Fu 2wLku + 4
F 3wLk

w
= 2,
d


F
1
2k 1 +
= 3k
wL
2
F 3wLk verification demonstrated

General formula gives, for

11.3.


w
.
4000 MN m2 = 350 MN m2  1 +
4d
w
= 1043
4d
w
= 417
d
Take

w
w
= 42 to produce an integral value of
in a safe direction.
d
2d
d =

w
20 m
=
= 048 m
42
42

(This gives a volume fraction of cobalt of 7.2% a typical value for a

rock-drilling grade of WC-Co cement.)

20

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

11.4.

(a) See Section 8.4.

(b) See Section 11.4.
d
= 
d

11.5.

 = 35004 MN m2 .
d
= .
At onset of necking
d
350 0406 = 35004 
 = 04

or
 = 350 04 MN m
04

Nominal stress n =

= 2426 MN m2 


 where n is the nominal strain
1 + n 

 = ln1 + n 
2426
MN m2
antiln04
2426
=
MN m2
1492
= 163 MN m2 

Tensile strength TS =

Work =
=

d per unit volume



0
04
0

35004 d MN m2

14
= 350
14

04
MN m2
0

0414
= 350
MN m2
14
= 693 MJ per 1m3 

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

11.6.

d
(a) Given  = An . From eqn (11.4),
=  at onset of necking. Thus
d
d
= Ann1 = An  so  = n and  = Ann . From eqn (8.13), TS =
d
Ann

=
.
1 + n  1 + n 
From eqn (8.15),  = ln1 + n  = n.
Ann
Thus 1 + n  = e n . Finally, TS = n .
e
8000202
2
=
(b) Inserting A = 800 MN m and n = 02 gives TS =
e 02
2
475 MN m .
 = TS 1 + n  = TS e n = 580 MN m2 

11.7.

21

We have that y at 8% plastic strain is H/3 or 200 MN m2 . Thus

A=

200
= 334 MN m2 
ln 10802

Using the result of Example 11.6(a),

TS =

Ann
= 198 MN m2 
n
e

12.1.

pf = 2f

r
2
Mf = 4
r t
t 
p
= f 
r
2f
pr
t = f 
2f

4
r 3 pf 
Mf =
= 2
r 3 pf
2f

Merit index is

f






f




22

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

12.2.

Mb = 229r 3 pb 1/2

  

E 1/2

Mb

4
r 2 
 

Mf = 2
r 3 pf

f
Mf
tf =

4
r 2 
tb =

Set r = 1 m and pb = pf = 200 MPa. Values for  E and f are to be taken

from the table of data.
Material

Mb (tonne)

tb (mm)

Mf (tonne)

tf (mm)

Mechanism

Al2 O3
Glass
Alloy steel
Ti alloy
Al alloy

2.02
3.18
5.51
4.39
3.30

41
97
56
74
97

0.98
1.63
4.90
4.92
6.79

20
50
50
83
200

Buckling
Buckling
Buckling
Yielding
Yielding

Optimum material is Al2 O3 with a mass of 2.02 tonne. The wall thickness is
41 mm and the limiting failure mechanism is external-pressure buckling.
12.3.

When the bolts yield, the connection can be approximated as a mechanism

which hinges at X. The cross-sectional area of one bolt is
125/22 in2 =
123 in2 . The yield load of one bolt is 123 in2 11 tsi = 135 tons. The moment
at yield is given by
M 2 135 25 + 2 135 19 + 2 135 9 + 2 135 3
= 1512 ton in = 126 ton ft
The hinge must react the total load from the bolts, which is 108 tons. This
means that in practice the hinge will extend over a finite area of contact. X will
lie in from the outer edge of the flange by about 1 in to 2 in but the effect on
the bending moment will be small.

12.4.

The yield load of each link plate in tension is given approximately by the minimum cross-sectional area multiplied by the yield strength. The total breaking
load of the two links in parallel is double this figure and is given by
T = 21500 N mm2 1 mm 45 mm
= 135 104 N

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

23

From eqn (11.2), the shear yield strength k = y /2. k for the pin is therefore
1500/2 = 750 MN m2 .
The yield load of the pin in double shear is obtained by multiplying k by
twice the cross-sectional area of the pin to give


 2
35
T = 2 750 N mm2

mm2 = 144 104 N

2
This load is 7% greater than the load needed to yield the links and the strength
of the chain is therefore given by the lower figure of 135 104 N.
To estimate the tension produced in the chain during use we take moments
about the centre of the chain wheel to give
190 mm

2
T 161 kgf 158 103 N

90 kgf 170 mm T

The factor of safety is then given by

135 104 N
= 85
158 103 N

Comments
(a) The factor of safety is calculated assuming static loading conditions. The
maximum loadings experienced in service might be twice as much due to
dynamic effects.
(b) The chain must also be designed against fatigue and this is probably why
the factor of safety is apparently so large.
12.5.

The cross-sectional area of the pin is

A =
22 122  mm2 = 80 mm2 
The force needed to shear this area is
fs = kA = 750 N mm2 80 mm2 = 6000 N
Finally, the failure torque is
 = 2 fs 10 mm = 2 6000 N 10 mm = 12 105 N mm
= 120 N m 12 kgf m

24

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

13.1.

The maximum tensile stress at the surface of a beam loaded in three-point

bending (see eqn (12.3)) is
3Fl
=
2bt 2
at the mid-span of the beam. Fracture occurs when


a = Kc 
i.e. when

3Fl

a = Kc 
2bt 2
Hence, the maximum load which can be sustained by the adhesive joint is
F=

2bt 2 Kc

3l
a

For the joint shown

2 013 05

32
0001
= 297 kN

F =

13.2.

Calculate the stress for failure by (a) general yield and (b) fast fracture.
(a)  = 500 MN m2 for general yield.
K
40
(b)  = c =
= 319 MN m2 

0005

for fast fracture, assuming that a crack on the limit of detection is present. The
plate will fail by fast fracture before it fails by general yield.

7000 1
pr
13.3.  =
= 006
= 70 MN m2  Kc = Y
a Y = 1.
t
2
3
 2

2
1 Kc
1 100
a=
=
= 065 m

70
14.1.

Kc = Y
a
Y = 1

Kc = 
a
2
 2

1 Kc
1 30 MPa m
a=
=
= 0080 m = 80 mm

60 MPa
2a = 160 mm

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

14.2.

25

3 10 + 4 = 70 MN m2  K = 
a = 70
0010 =
124 MN m3/2 .
This is only 5% less than the value of Kc obtained from tests. Experimental
scatter in the test data, dynamic loads and errors in the stress analysis are more
than enough to account for this small discrepancy.

14.3.

(a) See Sections 14.2 and 14.3. (b) See Section 14.4.

14.4.

Classic features of tensile failure by microvoid coalescence. See Fig. 14.2.

See Fig. 14.3 and Section 14.3, paragraph 2. Atomically flat cleavage planes
can be seen. Many fracture facets have river markings, produced by fracture
on multiple parallel cleavage planes.

15.1. From Section 13.3 (A note on the stress intensity, K ), K = Y

a.

(a) From Fig. 15.3, a/W = 5/10 = 05 Y = 3 K = 3 100

0005 =
376 MN m3/2 .
(b) From Section 13.3 (A note on the stress intensity, K ), Y = 1.

K = 1 100
0020 = 251 MN m3/2 
14.5.

15.2.

See Section 15.3 (Failure analysis and Conclusions). PMMA is a poor

choice of material because it has a very low fracture toughness. Under a tensile
hoop stress, the connector is liable to suffer catastrophic fast fracture from a
small defect.

15.3.

Reinforce the foam with polymer fibres. These will bridge any incipient cracks,
and prevent crack propagation. Layers of fibre mesh can be incorporated into
the foam as it is sprayed on.

15.4.

Fix each end of the top rail directly to the brick wall, using a steel bracket
bolted to both the top rail and the brick wall.

15.5.

The low fracture toughness of wood along the grain allows wood to be split very
easily along the grain. This permits easy splitting of logs into kindling and wood
for fires, production of wood shingles for roofing material, finishing/sizing by
planing, shaping by routing, turning and chiselling, and even pencil sharpening.

16.1.

See Section 16.1 Cracks propagate in an unstable way in tension, but in a

stable way in compression.
(a) From eqn (16.1)
K
3 MPa m1/2
= 309 MPa
TS = c =

30 106 m
(b) From eqn (16.3)
C 15TS = 4635 MPa

26

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

16.2.

From eqn (16.2)

6 Mr
1
F l
= 6 2
2
bd
2 2 bd
330 N 50 mm
1

= 6
3
2
2
5 mm3
N
= 198
= 198 MPa
mm2

r =

16.3.

11/22 mm2 50 mm
=
= 97.
Vo

5/22 mm2 25 mm
For the test specimens, eqn (16.7) gives
 m 

Vo 

05 = exp
Vo 0
For the components, eqn (16.7) gives

 m 
V 

099 = exp

Vo 0
Thus


 m  

ln05
V

V  0 m
= o
o

ln099
Vo 0
V 

1   m
690 =

97 

1

m =
m 
669

= 0272 120 MPa = 326 MPa

16.4.

See Answer to this Example.

16.5.

Specimen measuring 100 mm 10 mm 10 mm will have median TS of

300 MPa/1.73.
Specimen volume V = 104 mm3 . Eqn (16.7) then gives


104 mm3
10

05 = exp

Vo o 10 TS
Taking natural logs gives
069 =

104 mm3
 10 
Vo o 10 TS

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

27

Component volume = 125 103 mm3  Pf = 106 gives Ps = 1 106 . Thus



125 103 mm3 10
6
1 10 = exp


Vo o 10
Taking logs, and assuming that ln1 x = x for small x, gives
106 =

125 103 mm3 10

 
Vo o 10

Thus
069
104 mm3
1
Vo o10
10
=


TS
10
6
3
3
10
V o o
125 10 mm  10
  10
104
TS
=

125 103 
104
106
 10 =
 10 

125 103 069 TS

300 MPa
 = 321 101 TS = 321 101
173
= 557 MPa
16.6.

(a) Weight of material below section at x is

g

x2 x
3

Cross-sectional area =
x2 . Stress = force/area = 13 gx.
(b) Integrate over the volume, using disc of thickness dx with volume dV =

x2 dx. Eqn (16.8) then gives

 m
 L  gx m
x2 dx

dV

Ps L = exp
= exp


0
V0
30
V0
V

Integrating gives
m

 

2 Lm+3
g
Ps L = exp

30
m + 3V0
The probability of survival falls with increasing  because, although the
stresses are the same, the amount of material which is stressed increases
with , and hence the chances of meeting a critical flaw increase.

28

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

16.7.

(a) For the specimen in uniform tension, eqn (16.7) gives

 m 


r 2  t

Pst = 05 = exp
V0
0
Setting Ps L = Pst gives
m


 m 
 

2 Lm+3

r 2  t
g
= exp

exp
30
m + 3V0
V0
0
1
m  m+3

 2
r m + 3 3t
.
Thus L =
2
g
(b) Flaws induced during sample preparation, maintaining the correct environmental conditions, gripping without causing failure in the grips.

17.1.

Catastrophic failure will occur when


a = 54 MN m3/2 
or when
a = 0029 m
Now

4
MN
da
13
= 4 10
m1 K 4
dN
m2

4
MN
13
= 4 10
m1 4
2 a 2
m2
= 414 103 a 2 m1 
Integrating from
a = 104 m at N = 0
to
a = 29 102 m at N = Nf
gives

103
1
1
Nf =

414 104 29 102

= 24 106 cycles to failure

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

17.2.

29

Nf a = C .
280105 a = 200107 a 
 7 a
10
280
= 14 =
= 102 a 
200
105
log 14 = a2 = 0146


1
a = 0073 or

137
C = 280105 0073 MN m2 

C = 649 MN m2 
137

C 1/a
649
2
=
= 52 108 cycles.
At 150 MN m  Nf =
 1/a
150
17.3. The total strain range is:
 = T
= 24 103 
The plastic strain range is:
pl =  el = 20 103 
The cycles to failure are:


02
Nf =
2 103
17.4.

(a)

2
= 104 

51 75
pr
=
MN m2 = 478 MN m2 .
t
004 2

Kc = working
a at fracture

2
1 200 MN m3/2
a=
= 56 102 m

478 MN m2

working =

This critical depth for fast fracture is greater than the wall thickness of
40 mm. The vessel will fail by leaking before the crack length becomes
critical and it fails by fast fracture.
(In practice we should allow for the complicated geometry of the crack,
by looking up the geometry calibration factor Y in a stress intensity factor
handbook. This will be particularly important as the crack approaches the
outside of the wall).

30

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

(b) Rearranging the crack growth equation

4
da
14 MN
= 244 10
m1 K 4
dN
m2

4
14 MN
= 244 10
m1 4
2 a 2 
m2
We can then integrate this, from the initial condition after the proof test
(assuming that a crack of length a0 is present), to the required end point
where after 3000 cycles the crack has grown out to the wall, where failure
would occur by leakage.

4

4  N
 40102 m da
f
14 MN
1
4 MN
2
244 10
m
478

dN
=
m2
m2
a2
a0
0

40102 m
1
2
1
1257 10 m Nf =
a a0
a0 = 0016 m
This is the initial flaw size that will penetrate the wall after 3000 loading
cycles.
The proof stress Pproof must be sufficient to cause flaws of this size to
propagate by fast fracture.

K = proof
a0 Kc
Where proof =
Hence Pproof
17.5.

Pproof r

t
tK
004 200 106
c =
= 95 MN m2 

r
a0 75/2
0016

Each time the iron was moved backwards and forwards the flex would have experienced a cycle of bending where it emerged from the polymer sheath. The sheath
is intended to be fairly flexible to avoid concentrating the bending in one place.
Possibly the sheath was not sufficiently flexible and the flex suffered a significant
bending stress at the location of failure. The number of cycles of bending is well
into the range for high-cycle fatigue and fatigue is the likely cause. The scenario
is that the individual strands in the live conductor broke one by one until the
current became too much for the remaining strands to carry. At this stage the last
strands would have acted as a fuse and melted, causing the fire. If 23 strands are
rated to carry 13 A, then a single strand should carry about 0.57 A safely. The iron
draws 4.8 A, which is 8.4 times the safe capacity of one strand. It is therefore not
surprising that, when only a few wires were left intact, the flex was no longer able
to take the current without overheating. Failures of this sort have also occurred
with appliances such as vacuum cleaners. However, these tend to have a smaller
current rating and failure does not always result in a fire.

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

31

17.6.

(a) LHS = 0730 hrs position. RHS = 0600 hrs position.

(b) LHS = 1300 hrs position. RHS = 1200 hrs position.

17.7.

The 50 m marker at the top of the photograph measures 33 mm in length.

The most distinct striations are located approximately 70 mm up from the
bottom of the photograph and 50 mm in from the left-hand side of then
photograph. 5 spacings = 10 mm in this region, giving a striation spacing of
2 mm on the photograph. The spacing is thus 2/33 50 = 3 m on the
fracture surface itself.
N
4 108
For 4 108 cycles,
=
= 077.
Nf
52 108

18.1.

N
N1
+ 1 = 1.
Nf Nf

Miners rule gives:

N1
= 1 077 = 023
Nf1
N1
4 108
=
= 174 108 cycles
023
023
C
649 MN m2
 = 1 0073 =
174 108 0073
Nf
Nf1 =

For this

Decrease = 13 MN m

= 137 MN m2 

18.2.

(a) A good surface finish will increase the fatigue life by increasing the time
required for fatigue-crack initiation.
(b) A rivet hole will cause a local stress concentration which will increase 
and reduce the fatigue life.
(c) A mean tensile stress will decrease Nf as in Goodmans rule (see eqn (17.3)).
(d) Corrosion may reduce the fatigue life by corrosion fatigue, or by creating
pits in the surface from which fatigue cracks can initiate more easily (see
Section 26.5).

18.3.

The maximum pressure in the cylinder occurs at the point of admission. The
maximum force acting on the piston is therefore given by
07 N mm2
45 mm2 = 4453 N
The stress in the connecting rod next to the joint is
4453 N/28 mm 11 mm = 145 N mm2 
Since the locomotive is double-acting the stress range is twice this value, or
29 N mm2 .
The number of revolutions that the driving wheel is likely to make in
20 years is 20 6000 1000 m/
0235 m = 16 108 .

32

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

Data for the fatigue strengths of welded joints are given in Fig. 18.4. The
type of weld specified is a Class C. The design curve shows that this should be
safe up to a stress range of 33 N mm2 , which is slightly more than the figure
calculated above. Of course, our calculations have ignored dynamic effects due
to the reciprocating masses of the piston and connecting rod and these should
be investigated as well before taking the design modification any further.
18.4.

Data for the fatigue strengths of welds are given in Fig. 18.4. The weld is a
surface detail on the stressed plate and the weld classification is Class F2. We
extrapolate the curve following the dashed line for Class F2 until we hit the
stress range of 8 N mm2 .
The mean-line fatigue curve gives the data for a 50% chance of cracking.
For the stress range of 8 N mm2 the cycles to failure are 3 109 . The time
to failure is 3 109 /20 60 60 12 6 52 = 11 years.
The design curve gives the data for a 2.3% chance of cracking. The number
of cycles to failure is 109 and the time to failure is therefore 4 years.

19.1.

(a) Because the end of the crack was subjected to a large tensile stress every time
the cyclist pushed the pedal down. There were clearly enough cycles of stress
of sufficient amplitude to make fatigue cracks initiate and grow to final failure.
(b) There are two fatigue cracks, one on either side of the hole. They are
smooth and dark in appearance, and are located in the lower half of each
fracture surface. The dark appearance is caused by a compact layer of iron
oxide produced by slow long-term corrosion, indicating that the cracks had
been present for a long time. In addition, the smooth appearance of the
crack surfaces is consistent with high-cycle fatigue.
(c) The final fracture surfaces are grainy and bright in appearance, and are
located in the upper half of each fracture surface. They consist of fresh,
un-corroded metal, indicating that the final fracture was not exposed to a
corrosive environment after failure. In addition, the grainy appearance of
the crack surfaces is consistent with a single overload failure.
(d) The RHS crack probably formed first, because it is larger than the LHS
crack. It probably initiated at the surface of the hole, because the local stress
would have been larger than the average stress over the whole cross-section.
The LHS crack appears to have initiated at the 0630 hrs position, since the
crack appears to radiate from this position.
(e) Moderate, since the fatigue cracks had spread across 50% of the crosssection on average before they reached the critical size for fast fracture.

19.2.

(a) In the reduced section of the pivot pin, at the lower end of the reduced section.
(b) The horizontal force from the top of the door pulls the bottom of the pivot
pin to the right. As a result, the pin is made to rotate around the point
at which it touches the bottom of the frame housing. This rotation pushes
the top of the pin to the left, against the left-hand wall of the hole in the
frame housing. The reaction to this force at the top of the pin generates
a bending stress in the reduced section of the pin. The maximum value

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

33

of this bending stress occurs at the lower end of the reduced section. In
addition, the sharp change of section at this location introduces a large
SCFeff (see Sections 18.3 and 18.4).
(c) The bending stress at the failure location cycled from tension to compression
every time the door swung from one extreme position to the other (e.g.
from fully open inwards to fully open outwards).
(d) When the fracture took place at the lower end of the reduced section, the
length of pivot pin below the fracture fell down into the hole in the door
housing, and came clear of the bottom of the frame housing.
19.3.

Do away with the lifting eye altogether, and extend the top of the pulley
block to provide a horizontal hole to take the pin of the shackle. Because the
rotational degree of freedom provided by the lifting eye assembly has now
been lost, it will be necessary to insert an in-line swivel-link (a standard item)
between the shackle and the crane boom.

19.4.

See Fig. 17.7, Fig. 17.9 and Section 17.4, paragraph 1.

20.1.
Temperature  C

T K

1/T K 1 

 s1 

ln 

618
640
660
683
707

891
913
933
956
980

0.00112
0.00110
0.00107
0.00105
0.00102

10 107
17 107
43 107
77 107
20 106

1612
1559
1466
1408
1312

510

783

0.00128

83 1010
From graph

2090

34

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

The hoop stress in the tube is
=

6 MN m2 20 mm
pr
=
t
2 mm
= 60 MN m2 
 = 83 1010 s1 at  = 200 MN m2
5

60
 = 83 1010
s1 .
200

at 510 C,
Under 60 MN m2 ,

= 20 1012 s1 .
= 20 1012 60 60 24 365 9

Strain in 9 years

= 57 104 or 000057

Design safe
20.2.

At 25 MN m2 and 620 C  = 31 1012 s1 .


At 30 MN m

and 620 C  =

30
25

5
31 1012 s1

= 771 1012 s1 
 = A 5 eQ/RT 


Q 1
1
ln  1 ln  2 =


R T1 T2


Q 1
1
ln  2 =
+ ln  1 

R T1 T2


160 103
1
1
=

8313
893 923
+ ln771 1012 s1 
= 0700 2558 = 2488
 2 = 155 1012 s1 at 30 MN m2
and 650 C
 = 31 1012 s1
30
100
s1 

1012 s1
= 682 1012

70
+ 155
100

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

35

20.3.

From Table 20.1, the softening temperature of soda glass is in the range
700900 K. The operating temperature of window glass is rarely more than
293 K, so T/TS is at most 0.42. Ceramics only begin to creep when T/TM > 04
(see Section 20.1), and then only under a large stress (far greater than the selfweight stress). Thus the flow marks cannot possibly be due to creep. In fact,
the flow marks come from the rather crude high-temperature processes used
to manufacture panes of glass in the past.

20.4.

See Section 20.3.

20.5.

See Section 20.4 and Fig. 20.9.

A major fire would increase the temperature of the steelwork to the point at
which it would creep under the applied loads, and the subsequent deformation
could trigger the collapse of the building. This is why the World Trade Center
towers collapsed on 9/11.
M
21.1. Measure the rate by the mass injected per second,
. Then, if this rate follows
t
an Arhennius Law, we have


M
Q

= A exp
t
RT
20.6.

Or, combining the constants M and A:



1
Q

= B exp
t
RT
Then, converting temperatures to kelvin:


1
Q
s1 
= B exp
30
R450


1
Q
s1 
= B exp
815
R430
Solving for Q and B, using R = 831 J mol1 K 1 , we have
Q = 804 104 J mol1 
B = 725 107 s1 
We may now calculate the time required to inject the mass M of polymer at
227 C (500 K):


804 104
1
7
= 725 10 exp
s1 
t
8313 500
giving t = 35 seconds.

36

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

21.2.

See Sections 21.2 and 21.4 (Fast diffusion paths: grain boundary and dislocation core diffusion).

21.3.

See Section 21.4. More specifically,

(a) Carbon forms an interstitial solid solution in iron at room temperature
containing up to 0.007% by weight carbon. Even at this maximum concentration there is a large proportion of alternative interstitial sites remaining
unfilled by carbon. The probability of a carbon atom being next to an
alternative interstitial site is therefore high, and hence the probability of the
carbon atom moving into a different position is also high, i.e. it will diffuse
relatively rapidly. Chromium forms a random substitutional solid solution
in iron at room temperature (that it should not form an interstitial solution
is evident from its large atomic radius, comparable to that of iron). The
probability of a vacancy appearing next to a chromium atom is therefore
small, and the diffusion of chromium is correspondingly slow.
(b) Diffusion in grain boundaries is generally more rapid than in the grains
themselves because of the geometrically more open structure of grain boundaries. A small grain size produces a larger contribution from grain boundary
diffusion than does a large grain size, and thus increases the overall diffusion
coefficient of the polycrystal.

21.4.

See Section 21.4 (A useful approximation).

x = Dt , so t = x 2 /D.


D = Do e
=
t =
=
=
=

Q/RT

= 95 mm s
2

159 103 J mol1

exp
8313 J K 1 mol1 1023 K

95 mm2 s1
= 720 108 mm2 s1 
132 108
x2
102 mm2
=
D
72 108 mm2 s1
108
104 mm2

s
72
mm2
104
s = 01389 104 s
72
1389 s or 23 min

22.1.

See Fig. 22.2.

22.2.

See Fig. 22.3.

22.3.

See eqn (22.1).

22.4.

See Fig. 22.4 and eqn (22.2).

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

37

22.5.

The rate of bulk vacancy diffusion decreases rapidly with decreasing temperature because the activation energy Q is large for bulk diffusion (see Table 21.1).
At a sufficiently low temperature, short-circuit diffusion (in this case along dislocation cores, see Fig. 21.9) takes over from bulk vacancy diffusion. Because
the activation energy Q is small for short-circuit diffusion, the rate of shortcircuit diffusion decreases only slowly with decreasing temperature, so creep
continues to occur at temperatures well below the transition from bulk to
short-circuit diffusion.

22.6.

For reasons analogous to those in Example 22.5. However, in the present case,
the short-circuit diffusion takes place along grain boundaries (see Fig. 21.8).

22.7.

See Section 22.2 (Designing metals and ceramics to resist power-law creep
and Designing metals and ceramics to resist diffusional flow).

22.8.

See Section 22.3.

23.1.

See Section 23.1.

23.2.

See Section 23.3, paragraph 4, and Figs 23.4 and 23.5.

23.3.

See Section 23.6.

23.4.

See Section 23.4.

24.1.

dc
.
dx
m = AJ t where A = constant.


c c 
dc
m = A D
t = AD 1 2 t .
dx
b
Ficks first law J = D

38

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

b m = ADc1 c2  t .
b = Bm where B = constant.
Bm m = ADc1 c2  t .
B
m2 = ADc1 c2 t ,
2
i.e., m2 = CDt , where C = constant.
At constant temperature m2 = kP t .
24.2.

Ohms Law V = IR.

m = PI t where P = constant
PV t
m = PI t =

R
R m = PV t
R = Qb where Q = constant
= Sm where S = constant
Sm m = PV t
S
m2 = PVt ie m2 = kP t
2

24.3.

138 103 J mol1

AT 500 C kP = 37 exp
8313 J K 1 mol1 773 K



kg 2 m4 s1

= 174 108 kg 2 m4 s1 
m2 = kP t
= 174 108 kg 2 m4 s1 3600 24 365 s
= 050 kg 2 m4 
m = 074 kg m2 
i.e., each square metre of metal surface absorbs 0.74 kg of oxygen from the
atmosphere in the form of FeO. Number of oxygen atoms absorbed =
074 kg m2
, where NA is Avogadros number.
16/NA
074 kg m2
Number of iron atoms removed from metal as FeO =
.
16/NA

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

39

074 kg m2
Weight of iron removed from metal =
559/NA =
16/NA
2
259 kg m .
259 kg m2 m3
7870 kg
= 033 mm

Thickness of metal lost =

at 600 C kP = 204 107 kg 2 m

s1 
4

m2 = 204 107 3600 24 365 kg 2 m 

4

= 643 kg 2 m 
m = 254 kg m2 
giving

loss = 113 mm

24.4.

As shown in Table 24.1, gold is the only metal which requires energy to
make it react with oxygen 80 kJ mol1 of O2 in fact). It therefore remains as
un-reacted metal.

24.5.

If there is any contact resistance across a pair of silver contacts, the surfaces
of the contacts will be heated up by the current passing through the contact
resistance. If the temperature goes above 230 C, any oxide will decompose to
leave pure metal-to-metal contact. Gold contacts would not form an oxide film
at any temperature, but silver is used because it is much cheaper than gold.

24.6.

See Section 24.3, paragraphs 1 to 3.

24.7.

See Section 24.3, paragraph 4, and Fig. 24.2.

25.1.

See Section 25.3, next-to-last paragraph, and Fig. 25.2.

25.2.

See Section 25.2, paragraphs 1 and 2. The protective oxide film is Cr2 O3 ,
produced by the chromium content of the stainless steel.

25.3.

See Sections 25.2 and 25.3. Examples are Cr in stainless steel (Cr2 O3 film),
Cr in nickel alloys (Cr2 O3 film), Al in aluminium bronzes (Al2 O3 film).

25.4.

See Table 24.2. The refractory metals oxidize very rapidly in air at high
temperature. Lamp filaments are surrounded by a glass bulb, which is either
evacuated or filled with an inert gas to remove any oxygen which would attack
the filament.

25.5.

The oxide layer prevents the molten solder or brazing alloy from wetting the
surfaces to be joined. When the copper connection tabs are soldered to pretinned copper wire, the pre-tinning solder melts and this protects the copper
surfaces from oxidation.

40

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

25.6.

The chromium and nickel form a protective oxide layer on the wire, which
resists oxidation of the alloy at the high running temperature. Mild steel would
oxidize far too rapidly at the running temperature, and would burn out in a
matter of days (see Table 24.2).

25.7.

Many are oxides already, e.g. MgO, SiO2  Al2 O3 (see Table 24.1). Others, e.g.
SiC and Si3 N4 form protective oxide layers of SiO2 when exposed to oxygen
at high temperature.

26.1.

da
a at constant 4 MN m2 .
dt
da
 2 at constant a025 mm
dt
da

= A
 2 a = AK 2  n = 2
dt
 
1
03 mm year1
da
=

A =
dt  2 a 16MN m2 2 025 mm
0075
2
=
 A = 00239 m4 MN year1 
2 2
MN m  year

26.2

Since water and air were in contact with the surface of the pipe, the cathodic
oxygen-reduction reaction would have taken place easily. The temperature of
the pipe would have varied from approximately 20 C (summer time, heating
off) to 70 C (winter time, heating on). As shown in Fig. 26.7, the corrosion
rate at 70 C will be approximately twice that at 20 C. Thus putting the heating
on will double the rate of external corrosion. The pipe did not rust from the
inside because there is little or no oxygen inside the heating water circuit.

26.3.

Pitting attack. See Section 26.5 (Pitting) and Fig. 26.12.

26.4.

Stress corrosion cracking can lead to complete fracture even though the surface of the component appears free from corrosion. See Section 26.5 (Stress
corrosion cracking) and Fig. 26.9. Even if the stress corrosion cracks do not
travel right across the component, they can still propagate to failure by fatigue
or fast fracture.

26.5.

Typical applications are as follows.

(a) Plastic water pipes in plumbing and drainage systems.
(b) Plastic gas pipes for underground use.
(c) Rubber hoses in automobile cooling systems, flexible brake hoses, windscreen washer hoses.
(d) Plastic containers for storing water, acids, alkalis, etc.
(e) Plastics for exterior architectural use, e.g. window frames, roofing sheets,
rainwater gutters and downpipes.

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

41

(f) Plastics for marine use, e.g. boat hulls (matrix of GFRP composite), mooring
buoys, small fittings.
(g) Plastics and rubbers in domestic appliances, e.g. water pumps, washing
machine drums, flexible hoses, seals.
26.6.

Stress corrosion cracking. See Section 26.5 (Stress corrosion cracking) and
Fig. 26.9. Austenitic stainless steels are prone to SCC in hot chloride solutions.
The solution in the present case was very hot and contained chloride ions from
the zinc chloride corrosion inhibitor. There was also a large tensile stress to
drive the initiation and growth of SCC cracks.

27.1.

See Section 26.2 and Fig. 26.2. Because there was no oxygen in the system, the
oxygen-reduction reaction could not take place. Therefore the anodic reaction
could not take place and the steel was protected from corrosion.

27.2.

See Section 27.2 (Sacrificial protection, paragraph 2) and Fig. 27.2.

27.3.

See Section 27.2 (Sacrificial protection, paragraphs 1 and 2) and Fig. 27.1.

27.4.

Corrosion of zinc:
Zn Zn++ + 2e
Number of electrons to give a current of 6 103 A m2 for 5 years
=
=
Mass zinc =
Thickness =
=

27.5.

6 103 5 315 107

= 589 1024 electrons
16 1019
589
1024 atoms Zn
2
589 1024 654
= 0320 kg m2 
2 602 1026
0320
m = 45 105 m
7130
0045 mm

Following 44, if steel were lost uniformly over a square metre at 2103 A m2 ,
thickness lost by reaction:
Fe Fe++ + 2e
would be 0.0116 mm on each side of the plate.
If this loss is concentrated over 0.5% of the surface, the loss there will be
00116

100 995

mm = 231 mm
05
100

The sheet will thus rust through.

42

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

27.6.

See Section 27.3, last paragraph, and Fig. 27.6.

27.7.

See Section 27.4, last two paragraphs, and Fig. 27.7.

28.1.

See Section 28.2.

28.2.

If P is the radial pressure that the olive exerts on the outside of the pipe then
we can write
y =

Pr
t

provided we neglect the strengthening effect of the sections of pipe that lie
outside the olive. If we assume that the end of the pipe far away from the
fitting has an end cap (or a bend that functions as an end cap) then the force
trying to push the pipe out of the fitting is pw
r 2 . This force is balanced by
the frictional force between the olive and the pipe so we can write
pw
r 2 = P2
rl
Combining the two equations to eliminate P gives
t l 

pw = 2y
r
r
Using the data given we get


065
pw = 2 015 120 MPa
75



75
75


= 31 MPa

The hydrostatic head of water in a seven-floor building is about 2 bar, so the

joint could actually cope with pumping water to the top of a seventy-floor
skyscraper and still have a factor of safety of 1.5. However, the pressure in
water systems frequently exceeds the static head, often substantially, because
of water hammer. This is the dynamic overpressure that arises when taps are
suddenly shut off.
28.3.

(a) Typical examples are as follows. Car tyres/road surfaces, brake pads/brake
discs, clutches, shoe soles/walking surfaces, climbing shoes/rock faces,
knots in ropes, V-belt drives, interference fits, compression joints (see
Example 28.2).
(b) Typical examples are as follows. Bearings and sliding surfaces in machinery, sledges and skis on snow, actuating mechanisms (e.g. car window
mechanisms), door latches, ceramic discs in water taps, clock and watch
mechanisms.

28.4.

(a) Typical examples are as follows. Metal finishing by linishing, grinding and
polishing. Wood finishing by sanding. Removal of surface scale by grit
blasting. Bedding-in of brake pads, clutch linings and plain bearings.

Solutions Manual: Engineering Materials I

43

(b) Typical examples are as follows. Bearings and sliding surfaces in machinery, car tyres, brake pads and discs, clutch linings, shoe soles, tools for
metalworking and woodworking, grinding wheels and abrasive belts/discs.
29.1.

See Sections 28.4 and 29.2, paragraph 1.

29.2.

From the slope of the roof, the coefficient of static friction is:
s = tan 24 = 045
If the slope of the roof is greater than 24 the static frictional force is exceeded
and the snow will slide off. On a 2 slope, with a ski already moving, it is the
sliding friction which counts:
k = tan 2 = 0035

29.3.

The work done = 2100 gk  = 68 J.

The melts a volume of water
V =

69
= 21 107 m3 
330 106

If spread uniformly over the undersurface of two skis this would give a film of
thickness
21 107
m = 05 m
2 2 01
29.4.

See Section 29.4.

29.5.

Secondary roads are often covered in ice, because it is uneconomical to treat

them with rock salt. As shown in Example 29.3, as soon as the tyre starts to slide
on the ice, it will melt the surface of the ice, reducing the friction coefficient
to zero. The hard studs bite into the ice, so the (non-zero) friction coefficient
is determined by the resistance of the ice to ploughing (see Fig. 28.8).

29.6.

See Section 29.2, paragraphs 1 and 2.

29.7.

See Section 29.2, paragraphs 2, 5 and 6.