Some Observations on the Composition of the Book of Two Ways

Author(s): Leonard H. Lesko

Source: Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 91, No. 1 (Jan. - Mar., 1971), pp. 30-43
Published by: American Oriental Society
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SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE

BOOK OF TWO WAYS*
LEONARDH. LESKO
UNIVERSITY

OF CALIFORNIA,

BERKELEY

The Book of Two Ways is a part of the large body of Egyptian Coffin Texts. Even though
the work was known from numerous coffins, it appeared to have been a very unreliable

"Guide to the Beyond."

Now, by examining the layout of the work, four versions are found which can be shown
to have come from two distinct sources. By breaking the work down into its original component parts, the different sections can be shown to represent earlier separate traditions
about the afterlife. The reasons for including the individual traditions in one or the other
of the original sources become clear, and we show that the earlier work looked toward an
afterlife with Osiris while the later had accompanying Re in the solar bark as its chief goal
for the deceased.
The present study includes many notes to de Buck's edition of the work and also contains some findings bearing on the relationship of the Book of Two Ways to the Book of the
Dead.

are illustrated on plate I. The two registers on

the bottoms of most of these Middle Kingdom
coffins are further divided into numerous compartments which contain illustrations of composite
demons, flaming doors, barks, and ground plans
of buildings which resemble mazes. The two
zigzag paths found near the centers of the plans
are the outstanding feature of the work and give
it its modern name. The upper path is blue and is
apparently called a waterway;6 the lower is a
black land way. Briefly, the texts that accompany
the scenes are spells to enable the deceased to sail
in a bark usually with Re, to pass by the doors
* An earlier version of this paper was read at the 178th and their demon keepers, to proceed on one or
Annual Meeting of the American Oriental Society, both of the ways, and to reach a goal at the
Berkeley, March 21, 1968.This became part of a doctoral mansion of Osiris or the "Field of Offerings."
dissertation submitted to the Department of Near
Kees pointed out several difficulties with the
Eastern Languages and Civilizations at the University
of Chicago in March, 1969. My translation and com- material. He recognized that there are various
mentary on the Book of Two Ways will appear in the places depicted which have accompanying texts
near future.
designating them as goals, yet he took each
1 H. Schack-Schackenburg, Das Buch von den Zwei
version as a unit and tried to make the deceased
Wegen des seligen Toten (Leipzig, 1903).
proceed through all of the compartments shown
2 P. Lacau, Sarcophages anterieurs au Nouvel Empire,
in order to complete his voyage. He saw that texts
Vols. I-II (Catalogue g6n6ral des Antiquites 6gyptiennes
and plans both relate to the idea of a "Guide to
du
du Musee
Caire, 1904-1906).
3 A. de Buck, The Egyptian Coffin Texts, VII (Chicago,
the Beyond," but he thought that texts and plans
1961). The list of de Buck's sources is on pp. ix-x.
were not related to each other very well, especially
4 JNES 22 (1963) 133-137.
since a text which occurs after the plan of the two
6
ONE VERSION OF the Book of Two Ways was

published in 1903 by Schack-Schackenburg with

facsimiles and photos of a coffin in Berlin.' Soon
thereafter, Lacau published a large part of the
material from several coffins in Cairo having a
somewhat different plan and text.2 The de Buck
edition (ECT, VII) includes eighteen coffins from
el Barsha which have this book,3 but Allen's
review4 refers to four more and Heerma van Voss
has informed me that there is another in Leiden.
Two versions of the Book of Two Ways were
described in detail by Kees.5 The plans of these

H. Kees, Totenglauben und Jenseitsvorstellungen der

Alten Agypter (2nd. ed.; Berlin [originally Leipzig, 1926],
1956) pp. 287-302.

I.e., in spells 1035, 1078, and 1185.

30

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LESKO:

Book of Two Ways

31

FIG. 1. The position of the spells on the bottom of B3C: the type of plan on which the spells of versions A, A-B,
and B occur.

FIG. 2. The position of the spells on the bottom of B5C: the type of plan on which the spells of version C occur.

ways places the land way on top (1074 and its

parallel, 1184). From this he concluded that in
opposition to the map the land way must be in
the upper half and this is "ein recht unzuverlassiger Fiihrer."7 Kees thought that the final goal
of this journey must be the Field of Offerings,8
but this presented a problem since this "paradise"
seemed to occur half unnoticed along the upper
way in the middle of the book (1049/1160).9 He
7 Kees, Totenglauben,p. 293.
Ibid., p. 294.
9 Most coffins of the A-version include for spell 1049

thought that both ways, as alternative possibilities

of travel,'1 should end here, but they did not. He
guessed that the new gates and terrors beyond this
were waiting for a wanderer who had grown
restless."
only its empty enclosure, which in B is identified as the
"Field of Offerings" whose lord is Hetep. In place of
1049, the A-version of B4L seems to repeat its spell 1039
in this mound, but this is exactly as 1039 should have
occurred in the first instance where three of its six names
differed from those of the other eight coffins.
10Kees, Totenglauben,p. 293.
11Ibid., p. 294.

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32

Journal of the American Oriental Society, 91.1 (1971)

Grapow referred to the work as a "Textgruppe..., die kein Buch wie etwa das Amduat

spells in parentheses are those that have been

misplaced for various reasons which will be given.
ist."12 In addition to serving as a map for the
Underlining indicates the end of each of the
awakened dead, it also appeared to him to be a registers. Bracketed spells are illegible now but
magic book for those still living.
presumably were on the plans originally. When
The impression that Bonacker received from the spell number is included in brackets, reference
reading Schack-Schackenburg, Kees, and Grapow was made to it in the de Buck edition. Braces
was that the Book of Two Ways was no well connect two or more spells to the corresponding
balanced compilation, but a mere collection of spell or spells in other versions. The numbers in
the left-hand column mark the minimal units of
inscriptions.l3
Zandee'4 also thought that the two ways were material (proper to the book) that can be handled
only part of the whole complex, and he believed in treating the sections, and their total is the
that the purpose of the journey was twofold: to maximum number of spells that should be inserve Osiris and "especially at the end" to ac- volved. Further combinations of spells could
company Re.
easily be argued to bring this number down, but
Dieter Miiller15stressed the cyclical nature of only those necessary for purposes of comparison
the Book of Two Ways since one coffin (B4L) have been proposed here.16
There are two basic plans known for the Book
repeats the central plan. He presented two more
the
Two Ways. BiBe, which Shack-Schackenburg
necropolis,
Memphitic
Rosetaw,
of
problems.
was mentioned in the early spells (1034-1035), published, is representative of the short version,
but did not occur in the plans until much later and the Cairo coffins published by Lacau are
(1072-1082). He also sought a fitting explanation representative of the long version. These two
for the relation of the doors near the end to the versions have in common sections III-V but differ
final places mentioned.
entirely in the rest. They did not come from a
All of the difficulties which have been raised single archetype which would have included all
require explanation. The purpose of this article is the material from both, since it will be seen that
to analyze the form of the Book of Two Ways in each version is a unit in itself with separate
the hope that through this analysis we will be able introductions and different orientations throughto see how such an unreliable guide came to be or out. At least two sources of the work existed, but
rather how the guide became unreliable.
The table (plates II and III) is presented as a
16
Despite the divisions on the waterway of the
descriptive inventory of the "bottom texts" of the C-version coffins, spells 1153, 1157, and 1165 should have
also written
published Barsha coffins. It gives the order of the been kept together to parallel 1053 which is of
on the waterway. The second half
spell 1064
directly
coffin
to
coffin
while
coffin
on
each
relating
spells
323 b-c) occurs outside the enclosA-version
in
the
(VII
and spell to spell. The four-figured numbers are
ing paths and is clearly divided in B4Bo. De Buck should
de Buck's spells. The vertical columns give the have added this to 1063 so that it would better parallel
spells of the individual coffins, plus the related 1174. If this had been done, 1064/1171 at least could have
table.
chapters of the Book of the Dead. The letters been removed from the conglomerate given on the
enclosure
the
outside
occurs
which
VII
515
If
d-e,
ECT,
indicate the versions which are discussed below
on all coffins and which de Buck included in spell 1176,
and the Roman numerals indicate the sections had been
joined instead to 1178 in his edition, confusion
which will be established and explained. The in
these spells to spells 1067 and 1069 in the
12 H.
Grapow, "Jenseitsfiihrer," in B. Spuler, Handbuch der Orientalistik (Leiden, 1952) I, part 2, p. 49.
13W. Bonacker, "The Egyptian 'Book of the Two
Ways'," Imago Mundi 7 (1951) 6.
14 J. Zandee, Death as an Enemy (Leiden, 1960).
15 BibO 20 (1963) 246-250.

relating
other versions would have been avoided. 1069 apparently
should have begun a new spell at VII 332 f, since this is
quite separate on the plans and in the parallel (1179). The
connection between 1149 and 1041 is only with one name
on B4L (VII 499 j), but, of course, this coffin is unique
in having both spells. 1041 then shares 1149's position
and 1152's names.

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33

LESKO: Book of Two Ways

A

A-B

B3C B4C B12C B13C B6C B4L BlBo B4%o B2Bo B9C B1C B1L B2L B3L B2P B5C BlEe
1 1029 1029 1029 1029 1029 1029
2 1030 1030 1030 1030 1030 1030
Qo3~

B1P B4L BD

1029 1029 1029 021029

1029 1029 1029
1030 1030 1030 1030 1030 1030 1030 1030

133a
136a

1032 1032
1032 1032 1032
1033 1033 1033 1033 1033 1033 1033

136b

3 1033 1033 1033 1033 1033 1033 1033 1033

11
(19

4 1034 1034 1034 1034 1034 1034 1034 1034

f034
5

1034 1034 1034 1034 1034 1034

1035 1035 1035 1035 1035 1035

136b
1131 1131 1131

6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

1132 1132
1133'1133
1134 1134
1135 1135
1136 1136
1137 1137
1138 1138
1139 1139
1140 1140

15

16
17
18
19
20
21 1036

0o36 1036 1036 1036 1036

1132
1133
1134
1135
1136
1137
1138
1139
1140

1141

1141

1142
1143
1144
1145
1146

1141

1142
1143
1144
1145
1146

1142
1143
1144
1145
1146

36 1036 1036 1036 1036 1036 1036 1036 1036 1147 1147 1147 1147
o0864
(0874
(1085
(513.
i577

22 1037 1037 1037 1037 1037 1037 1037 L03~ 1037 1037
1038
1038 1038 103H
23 1038 1038 1038 1038 [-1
24
1039
1039 1039 --]103%
25 1040 1040 1040 1040 --] 1040 1040 1040 1040 1040
26 1041

1041 1041 [--1

27 1042 1042 1042 1042 [-28

29 1043
1043 1043 [--3
1045 1045
30 1046 1046 1046 04i4 [--1
31 1047 1047 1047 1047 --]
32
33 1050 ["1051 [--

1050 1050 -1051 1051 [--1

1037 1037 1037 1148 1148 1

1148
1038 1038 1038
144
1039 1039 1039
1040 1150 1150 1150 1150 144c,
1040
118
1041 1041 1041 1041 1041 1041 1041 1041 1149 1149 1149 1149 144
1152 1152 1152

1041

1056)

1044 1044 1044

1043 1043 1043 1043
1045 1045 1045 1045
1046 1046 1046
[-[-1
1048 1048 1048
1049 --] 1049 1049 1049
1050 1050
1051 1051
-j 1053 1051 1051
o
(103i)
1052 [--3 1052 1052 1052
1043
1045
1046
1047

1043
1046
1047
L039
1050
o

54
1054
1056

--

1056

1055 [-]
38 1057
1058 --1
39 1059 1059
40 1060 1060

1055
1057
1058
1059
1060

1055
1057
1058
1059
1060

1055 --)
1057
-- 1058 (--)
1059
- 06 1060 1060

41 1061 [--1

1061

--1

o4
1056

1056

--

o061 --1

1061 1106

1044
1043
1045
1046
1047

1053

--1

1054
1056

[--3
105

6
1 1065
44~ 1066
--1
-1067

5
1065
106~
1066F6
1067 t-

1054 1054
56 1056

1055
1057
1058
1059
1060

1055 105
1057
1058 105
1059 [-1060 -

106

1061 106 1 [--1

1065 1065 1065 1065 1065

1166 1066
66 l1066 i 1 1 o 6
1067 1067 1067 1067 1067

1068 1068 [--

1068

68 1068 1068 1068

1154
1155
1156
1158
1157
1161
1160
1162
1164

1154
1155
1156
1158
1159
1161
1160
1162
1164

1154 144
1155
1156
1158
115? 144f
1161
1160
1462
1164

'1163 1163 1163 1163

18( C18C) 180Q
1153 53 1153
1153
10531153
-157i 1157 1157 1157
1165 1165 1165 1165

1055
1057
1058
1059
1060

1069 1069 1069

46 1068 [--7

[--

1054 1054 1054

1056 105610

10551051055
1055
1057 1057 1057 1057
1058 1058 1058 1058
1059 1059 1059 1059
1060
1060 6 1060
L0590
106
061 1061 1061

1065 1065
666
1067 1067 1067

i6666

1044 1044 1154

1043 5o04i1155
1045
-1156
1046
1158
157
1048
i161
1049 1160
[-1
(162
[--1 1051 (164

1053 1053 103 53

1062 1062 1062 1062 1062 1062

42 -1-62 --3 1062 o06
62
06
63 0163
63 0163
1063 1063
1o63 -163
1063 1063 1063
1064 [--1 1064 1o6
1064 1064 1064 1064 1064 1064
1064
43 1
44 1066
45 1067

(1055)

35

1056

1037
1038
1039
1040

1042 1042 1042 1042 1042 1042 1042 1042 1042 1042 1151 1151 1151 1151 144d

34

36
37

1037
1038
1039
1040

1166
1167

1166
1167

1166
1167

1166
1167

144

1168 1168 1168 1168

1169 1169 1169 169

144

1172 144
1175
1062 -1170 144
1171
1063 L1064 1173
1174
1065 -130
066
--- 1177 1177 1177 1177
167 7-P176 1176 1176 1176 144,
o60iiiiiii136a
1069 1069 1178 1178 1178 1178
1179 1179 1179 1179
172
175
170
171
173
(174

1172
1175
1170
1171
1173
1174

1172
1175
1170
1171
1173
1174

i
u

FIG 3. Table giving the arrangement of the spells of the Book of Two Ways on all published
coffins; sections I-IV. The article contains an explanation of the analysis.

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34

Journal of the American Oriental Society, 91.1 (1971)

47
48

1C)71 1071 1071 1071 [--

49
50

1C)72 1072
1C)73 1073 1073 1073 [--1

1071

1071

I
1180 1180 1180
o051
(o052) (o054
052)
1070 1070 I 1070 1070 1070 1070
071 1071 1071 1071 1071 1071 1071) 1181 1181 1181

1072 1072 1072 1072 1072 1072 1072 1072 1182 1182 1182
1073 1073 1073 1073 1073 I 1073 1073 1073 1073 1183 1183 1183

1074 1074 1074

1075 1075 1075
1076
1077
1078 1078 1078

1078 1078 [--]

1074 1074
1075 1075
1076
1077
1078 1078

060
1074 [--3 107 1184 1184 1184
1075 -- 1075
1077 r--3 1077
[-1078 [--

1079 [--3 1079 10279 [54 1080 1080 1080

55 1081 1081 1081

1079 1079 1079 107

1080 1080 1080 [--_
1081 1081
[--

1079 1079
1080 1080
1081 1081
0o83)
I 084lt 08L

56 10382 [--]

1082 1082

Io084ro085o

1082

57
58
59
60
61

1090

64
65
66 1093 1093 1093
67 1094 10994 1094
68
1095
69
10 1-961096

109)
11093
1094
1095

70 1098 1098

1098

9
099 10
71 109

910999

147b

l090

[--J

1090

1090

--]

1091 1091 -1092 1092 "-1031093--1

3
(--) 10
1
1094 1094 ( --)
094 1094 '1
095 1095 --1
1095 10955
6
109
1096 !
10
1L95
1097 L09_Z 1097 --J
1098 1098 1098 --109 1098 1098 1098
09
099 1

1099 1099 1

10
1099
109999

147c,'

147c
117

&08'

08

1088 L-- I 1088

lO
08~-- o093)
1 089 1089 1089 1089 [--1 1089 1089 [--1
C094)

1089

1090

63

C--i

513 [ 1 513
577 _-1

513
577

101081088

1185 1185 1185

1079 [-1080
[-[--J [--]

[--]
1086 1086 1086 -- 1086 1086s1086b
1087
1087 1087 1087b
1087 -p0871
I
_ - 1085 1085b --] 1085 1085 1085 1085b

[--]
1085

62 1089 1089 1089

144,
147b

t13
289)

51 1074 1074 1074 1074 [--1

1075 1075 1075 1075 1-52 1076 1076
53 1078 [--1

513
577

147a,

119
147a
147a,
119,
147g

513 513b
577 577b
(5086 (578b)
(576)
165)
(66)
(.67)
68)

576)
C02)
(303)
(304)
(4771

1089
1090

1091
1092
93
1094
1
1098

1099 1099

I30b

(38^
11oo1100
72 1100
11oo
73 1101 1101 11l0
51)
(52)

o 1100
1101

1101

1100 100 1100

1101 1101 1101 1101

1100
1101 1101

(53)

74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82

1102
1103
1104
1105
1106
1107
1108
1109
1110

8? 1112

1102
1103
1104
1105
1106
1107
ilo0]
1109
1110
1112

(54)

--

84 1113 1113
85 1114l 114
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101

1115 1115
11.6 1116
1117 1117
1118 1118
1119 1119
1120 1120
1121 1121
1122
1123 1123
1124 1124
1125 1125
1126 1126
1127 1127
1128
1129 1129
113io 130

1102
1103
1104

1102
1103
1104
1105
1106
117
--]

1102
1103
104
10
1105
1106
1107
1108 1108
1109
1110
1112

11.12

1113
4 11 11
-1115
---'
-1120
1121
--1123
----1126
---1
13

1102
1103
1104
1105
1106

11301130
-08)

14

1102 1102
1103 1103
14 104 1 104
1105 1105
1106 1106
117 1107
1108 1108
1109 1109
1110 1110
1111
1112

1112

1102
1103
4
1105
1106
1107
1108
1109
1110
1111

1102
1103
1104
1105
1106
1107
1l0o8N
[109l
1110

14?c

1112

1112

135

1113 1113 1113

4 1
1114

1113 1113
1114

1115 1115
1116 1116 1116
1171
1117 117
1118 118 l118
1119
9 11l9119
1120 i120
1121 1121
1122
1122

1115 1115
1116 ll16
1118
r119
1120
1121
1122

2
1124
1124 1124 1124
1125 1125 1125
1126
1127 [--i
112
1128 1128 1128
1129
1129 [--1 1129
130 1130 1130
130
(94)
(95)
(06)
(576)
.. ....
.
._(29) -.

FIG. 4. Table giving the arrangement of the spells of the Book of Two Ways on all published
coffins; sections V-IX. The article contains an explanation of the analysis.

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

LESKO: Book of Two Ways

these utilized some of the same material. De

Buck distinguished these two groups by separate
treatment (1029-1130 for the long and 1131-1185
for the short group),'7 but, since there are clear
variants in his first group, it might have been
better to distinguish the versions from one
another without repeating more than the two
separate beginnings. Dechain'8 recognized a third
group within the long version, but all four groups
which I have proposed can be established merely
by examining the table. Version C is de Buck's
separate, shorter group. The distinctions made
among the coffins of de Buck's first group are
based primarily on the frequent differences within
the text of each spell, but also are easily seen on
the table in alternate spells being used for the
separate versions, e.g., 1047 on version A coffins
and 1048 on B,19or additional spells for one or the
other, e.g., 1035 for B or 1050 for A.20Version B
is given central position since its form is the same
as that of A but its texts are often closer to those
of C when parallels occur (sections III-V), e.g.,
CT 1042/1151 (ECT, VII 294 b and VII 501 d).
This is also clearly seen in their sharing spells
1085-1087. The coffins with A-B often show
affinities to one or the other version within the
text of a spell, but even in their choice of spells it
is possible to demonstratel the existence of this
group, e.g., B9C sharing 1068 with A and 1077
with B, and B1C sharing 1076 with A and 1069
with B. B2Bo apparently shares spells 1044, 1049,
1052, and 1053 with B, but its texts are much
closer to those of version A elsewhere.
All of the coffins are from el Barsha, and seem
to date fairly close together in the Middle Kingdom.21Some workmen who produced these seem
17 The de
Buck edition includes a half-page discussion
of the "Composition of the Coffin Bottom Texts, Spells
1029-1185" (ECT, VII, xvi), in which the two groups are
indicated and their coffin sources are given.
18 Cd'E 37
(1962) 299.
19Spells 1047 and 1048 should be the same
spell, but,
since versions A and B differ significantly here, they were
presented as separate spells in the de Buck edition.
20
Spell 1050 occurs only in A and properly belongs
with the A-version of 1051 since these together include
the ideas found in the B-version of 1051 and also version
C in 1162 and 1164.
21 W. Schenkel in
Frahmitteldgyptische Studien (Bonn,

35

to have had copies of both plans, certainly on

papyri. B4L begins with the plan of the water and
land ways according to the C-version and concludes with the same plan according to A,22while
the inner coffin of the same man (B3L) has the
whole B-version. Also the inner coffin of Sepi,
B2P, had its bottom done according to B while
his outer coffin, B1P, was according to C.
All the cursive hieroglyphic writing faces right
and most coffins with the various versions read
from right to left, but on a few, the columns of
writing are retrograde (B5C and B1P), or return
retrograde in the lower register (B12C and B4L).
With the different versions represented both ways,
no conclusions can be drawn on this basis. B3L
even had its registers reversed.
Three coffins are not in the form of a plan
(B6C, BiBo, and B4Bo) and another (B2Bo) is
largely columnar. B6C cannot be taken into
account here because it lacks almost all of sections
III-V. BIBo and B4Bo were used by de Buck to
order the spells in his edition, but both can be
shown to have depended on plans originally. BiBo
in its arrangement of spells 1040, 1055, 1042, 1058
and supposedly B2Bo in its arrangement of 1088,
1093, 1089, 1094,1090, 1095 seem to show a similar
type of error in reading vertically through compartments within a register instead of taking the
spells of the upper compartment first and then
those of the lower.23B4Bo was used to number
1962) p. 123 concluded that the oldest copies of Coffin
Texts can be dated to the early Middle Kingdom, but,
even if all of the extant coffins were this late, they were
still based largely on older material as will be seen.
22 Because it has both versions A and C, B4L
appears
twice on the table.
23 Since he lacked too much in BIBo or B4Bo to use
either of them to order these spells in section VI, de Buck
probably should have followed B2Bo here. This shows
the order in which the scribe of B2Bo read these spells
from his source and it is a somewhat more reasonable
arrangement since the section would have a proper head"This is the way of Thoth toward the
ing this way-i.e.,
house of Maat" (ECT, VII 371 j). This order seems to be
supported by an elaborate plan such as that of B12C on
which 1093 protrudes forward considerably. The further
differences between de Buck's order and that of B2Bo
are due to the fact that two compartments were usually
drawn here and de Buck took the spells of one and then
the other while the scribe of B2Bo ignored or did not

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36

Journal of the American Oriental Society, 91.1 (1971)

1055 and 1056, yet these are clearly reversed,

since the name of a demon would have preceded
the spell for passing the demon, just as it was
copied by de Buck in the 1167 parallel. On B4Bo
part of spell 1037 (ECT, VII 286 b-c) is found
within the text of 1036, while the name of the
demon usually depicted in the lower half of the
compartment drawn here (VII 286 d) actually
occurs before spell 1055. This difference can also
be explained on the basis of this text's having
been copied from a MS. in the form of a plan.
Unlike the copyist who ignored the horizontal
division between the two ways in BIBo, the
copyist of B4Bo has extended this division back
to the beginning of the section, thereby splitting
1037 between the water and land ways.
Because of the number of copies, it is easy to
see which spells have been added or omitted on
the various coffins and likewise which coffins best
reproduce the source of each version. Spells 513
and 577 are probably proper to both the B and C
versions of the book,24 and B5C could be considered ideal in having each and every spell
proper to C fitted perfectly into its plan which is
also suitably illustrated. B1C is the best illustrated
of all the coffins, and its texts conform well
generally to what is expected in versions B and
A-B, but there was space left on the bottom of the
coffin after the book ended25 so other material
was added. B3C conforms best in the A-version
with almost every spell proper to the group, but
its final spell was completed in vacant space near
its beginning.26 The heading, "THAT WHICH
IS AT THE END OF THE BOOK (md3t)"
have the separation, and so took the spells one above
the other.
24Significant is the fact of the colophon's occurrence
after spell 577 on BiBe (ECT, VI 193 o). De Buck (ECT,
VII, xvii) apparently did not regard spells 513 and 577
as typical "bottom spells" so these were included in his
ECT, VI. Version C, however, certainly concluded the
Book of Two Ways with these spells and they also occur
on all the B-version coffins.
25Five spells were added after what must have been
BIC's colophon in 1130. The B-version B1L has its colophon at ECT, VII 471 g.
26These last lines of spell 1130 from this one coffin
were designated as a separate spell (1031) in the edition.

(ECT, VII 262 a), and colophon (VII 262 j) of

this misplaced conclusion present very good
arguments for the unity of the work as well as
indications of the extent of the material encompassed by it. The work deserves then its designation as a "book." Many coffins use spells obviously
foreign to the book or repeat proper spells to fill
out a coffin's bottom (e.g., B1C, BIBe, and B1P)
or the end of one register (B2L and B1P) or
some enclosure (B3C and B2L). Even so these
could still be better "guides" than those which
stop short on an incomplete note (B12C, B13C,
B2Bo, B4L, B2L, and B2P) or skip a great deal
(BlBo and B4Bo).
It is not very difficult to establish the nine
sections shown on the table since most divisions
are clear from the plans and are further supported
by the related Book of the Dead chapters. The
early division of the Book of Two Ways into
chapters by Schack-Schackenburg27is discarded
here because, based on only BIBe of the C-version,
it cannot be adapted easily to versions A and B.
An extension of this system proposed by Bonacker28 for A is useless since it disregards the
sections that correspond on the two plans.
The most obvious part of the work and the
easiest part to isolate is the plan of the two ways
which occurs in all versions and provides the
modern name of the book. If this were the essential
element of the work, then all else would serve as
introduction and conclusion, and the whole would
be a unified guide to the regions through which
the deceased would pass to his goal (with a possible
choice between the two ways themselves).29 But
since we know that more than half the spells
within the plan could be omitted (B1Bo), we
may question whether what remains is still
significant and, further, whether the book is
27 For the
corresponding chapters and spells cf.
Derchain's review in Cd'E 37 (1962) 300.
28
Imago Mundi, 7 (1951) 8.
29Kees, Totenglauben, pp. 287-301, Grapow, "Jenseitsfihrer," p. 49, Bonacker, Imago Mundi, 7 (1951) 5-17,
and Zandee, Death, p. 26, all considered the work in this
way even though Kees recognized that "eine abgeschlossene Komposition ist auch das Zweiwegebuch nicht"
(p. 287).

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LESKO:Book of Two Ways

rightly named for the two ways. Conversely, since
the bottom of B4L repeats this same plan from
two versions (A and C), omitting most introductory spells in C (i.e., sections I and II), all concluding spells in C, and all but one spell in the
last five sections (V-IX) of the A-version, we
can question whether the book in this or its other
forms need describe a single continuous route.
The first section includes the two very different
introductions to the book in its long and short
versions. The introduction to the long version,
though apparently consisting of twelve spells,
should really have only four.30 It is concerned
primarily with the deceased joining Re on his
solar voyage.31 However, in spell 1035, Osiris is
introduced as god of Rosetaw.32 Both ways are
said to be his (VII 282 b). Thoth also takes on
special significance since "anyone who knows this
spell for going down by them (the ways) is a holy
god in the suite of Thoth" (VII 282 d). This
introduction occurs more or less intact in the
Book of the Dead, but without this last spell.
Version C begins with its own brief introduction
(spell 1131) in which the deceased says, "I have
come that I may see Osiris and live beside him
and rot beside him" (VII 473 f-h).
Section II in version C begins with spell 1132
and consists of the spells found in a number of
compartments which lead to the ground plan of a
30
Adhering rigorously to his principles for editing the
Coffin Texts (ECT, I, xii-xiii) de Buck included the misplaced conclusion of spell 1130 (1031), the occasional
B-version heading of 1033 (1032), and B's elaboration of
the rubric of 1034 (1035) as separate spells. The table
also includes five spells not proper to the Book of Two
Ways which were probably placed in vacant space resulting from drawing too large an enclosure on B2L.
31 In this whole work as in most guides to the beyond,
Re and Osiris both have their place, Osiris as a more or
less stationary lord and Re as the sun-god who traverses
the heavens in his bark from the eastern to the western
horizon and returns through the netherworld from west
to east. While trying to avoid the absolute dichotomy
implied in discussing Solar and Osirian traditions, distinctions will still be made partly on the basis of emphasis on one or the other god in the various sections.
32 Rosetaw was originally the necropolis of Giza (cf.
Hornung, Amduat, II, pp. 90-91) whose god was Sokar.
Osiris replaces Sokar throughout the Book of Two Ways.

37

building called a mansion (4wt) in 1146 (VII

496 a). The mansion has a demon gatekeeper but
is the "place of a spirit" who is "a man of countless
(cubits) in his length. He is in the midst of
darkness and cannot be seen. The river is far
from him. As for his entourage, it cannot be
seen" (VII 496 h-l). This then is the goal of the
deceased and the end of the preceding journey. It
renders this section complete in itself as a guide
to the beyond.
Spells 1036-1082 in versions A and B are
paralleled more or less by the shorter C-version
spells, 1147-1185. Spell 1036/1147 marks the
beginning of the map,33 though the division
horizontally into two compartments (each having
a zigzag path) does not ordinarily occur until
1038. Since the deceased is supposed to know both
ways (1035),34it is likely that he would be expected
either to be able to travel on each as circumstances
demand or to make a circuit of the two ways.
Kees35believed that the "Field of Offerings" had
to be the goal of the journey and that the two
ways should meet here and therefore represent
possibilities of travel. Miiller argued that the
lower way is an alternative to be avoided.36 The
two ways apparently meet and do touch on one
coffin (B3C) at the far end of the two compartments, but, since this is not at the "Field of
Offerings" or any other significant place, this can
also be used as evidence for a combination of the
ways. In 1035 both ways are called the "ways of
33CT 1147 marks the beginning of the second register
on B5C. B1P however includes 1147 in its upper register,
which is filled out with six spells, which properly end the
C-version of the book and are therefore repeated on this
coffin. B1P then begins its second register with 1148 as
if this were the beginning of the new section but actually
the artist and/or scribe wanted to keep the whole map
together in one register rather than break it up as in
BiBe or B4L. Significantly B4L, having omitted the
Introduction and section II in its C-version, begins its
bottom texts with 1147.
34 "But as for him who
does not know how to pass on
those ways, (he shall be taken) by a rstrokel of death
which is ordained, being a nonentity who has no Maat
forever" (ECT, VII 283 b-c).
35 Kees, Totenglauben,
pp. 293-294.
36 BibO 20
(1963) 249.

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38

Journal of the American Oriental Society, 91.1 (1971)

Osiris which are on the edge of the sky" (VII

282 b-c), and 1036/1147 (VII 498 a-b) is a spell
for accompanying Re in the sky of Osiris, so it
seems necessary to place Osiris and the "Field of
Offerings" in the sky along the daytime route of
the sun. Miiller37says, "in beiden Rezensionen ist
der obere Weg, der jedenfalls noch zur Tagesfahrt
des Sonnenschiffes geh6rt, blau gezeichnet." But
if the upper way is really for the day voyage of
Re, why is the deceased accompanying Thoth
when he crosses the sky in 1042 (VII 295 a) and
why is he "excellent at night" in spell 1053/1157
(VII 305 h and VII 504 b)? It seems that the
"waterway" actually represents the sky in a
cosmological plan, and it is not surprizing that
all three gods can be in the sky, with Re and
Osiris (1147) or Thoth and Osiris (1047, 1162,
1164) together at times. The order in which the
spells of section IV are to be read should probably
be reversed (1069/1179-1055/1167) so that the
land way would be a continuation of the waterway,
leading the deceased who accompanies Re (1069)
back to his starting point.
Two parts of BD 130 are found in the Book of
Two Ways. They do not occur in version C, and
in A and B they are at some distance from one
another (i.e., CT 1065 and 1099). They involve
the voyage of the sun bark and so have a place
in this guide, but neither relates to its surroundings. CT 1065 parallels BD 130a while the
surrounding spells parallel BD 144. It describes
both the daytime and night journeys of the solar
barks while most other spells along the land way
would better be restricted to the night voyage
alone. There is only one other important spell
(1068)38 in the map section of A-version coffins
which is not paralleled in version C, and that has
an alternative (1069) in B. CT 1099 (BD 130b)
is the longest spell in the book, and occurs between two distinct traditions in the additional
material which makes up the second half of the
book on coffins with versions A and B. If these
ever were together on the coffin bottoms or elsewhere, the situation could have been one in which
38

37

CT 1068, like 1065, is significant

Ibid., p. 248.

for giving domi-

1065 in the lower half of the upper register was

directly above 1099 in the lower register. An
extant coffin on which this proximity is possible
is B2P. Once these can be placed in proximity it
would be fairly easy to assume that one part
overstepped its bounds. If either part of BD 130
is misplaced in the Book of Two Ways, it should
be the shorter 1065.
Spells 1068 (A) and 1069/1179 (B and C) are
each last in section IV for their respective versions.39 Section V is introduced by 1180 in the
C-version with its B-version parallel in part of
1052.40Toward the end of section V spells are
usually found in the plan of a building. Walls
and doors are often depicted here which are
similar to those of section II. Spell 1084 is labeled
"Travelling in peace toward the palace (stp-s') of
Osiris. Passing by the gates" (VII 356 b-c). The
deceased there says, "Make way for me in front
of the temple (hwt-ntr)" (VII 355 g). There seems
to be enough similarity in the layout and description of sections II and V that the two can be
considered as somewhat different versions of the
same tradition. As in section II, the emphasis in
V is on Osiris (Sokar), and the deceased is about
to reach his goal, i.e., the palace of Osiris in
1084-1085.
The relationship between sections III-IV and
V is seen in the Book of the Dead's similar development in its chapters 144 and 147. These BD
chapters are apparently two separate traditions
concerning seven gatekeepers. The end of CT
1071/1181 is paralleled by chapter 147 of the
Book of the Dead as many other spells in this
section are. However, before this in the same CT
spell (VII 335 a-b), we find the guardian of the
nence to Re not only on the land way but on the whole
map. In 1068 the deceased says, "Hail to you, O Re.
May you propitiate Osiris for me that those who are in
the netherworld may worship you, that those who are in
the underworld may glorify you, and that they may give
adoration to you when you come in peace."
39 B4L even concludes its C-version with spell 1179
and then continues with 1029 of the A-version.
40 The B-version
heading of spell 1052, "Mysterious
serpents, keepers of the gates" (VII 304 e), parallels 1180
in the C-version and must have crossed over into the map
section on some B-version archetype.

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LESKO:

Book of Two Ways

seventh gate of BD 144b together with that part

of the chapter which properly pertained to him
there (BD 144 h). As section V in the B-version
actually had its beginning attached to the end of
section III, so a text of section IV seems to have
carried over into section V. Spell 1073/118341
probably continues 1071, as in the case of the
Book of the Dead, where the two are consecutive
parts of a spell to be recited at the second gate of
chapter 147. It is difficult to explain the intrusion
of 1072/1182 here unless artist and scribe failed
to coordinate their efforts. This interruption and
the crossover of part of section IV into section V
in 1071/1181 make it likely that the Book of Two
Ways was not the source of this part of the
Book of the Dead. These differences occur on all
the extant coffins, so, we must assume that the
Book of the Dead more accurately reflects its
source here than does the Book of Two Ways.
Corruptions of the source probably occurred
already in an early version of the book (or this
part of it) in the form of a plan.
Spell 1072/1182 is intended as an explanation
of the ways of Rosetaw, but it is susceptible of
various interpretations. It occurs within a narrow
vertical compartment with the two ways apparently shown overlapping. From text and
appearance it might show that the two ways are
connected or entwined on one site or that all or
part of the preceding is related to all or part of
the following or even that what follows is a
continuation of the ways.
Spell for the ways of this Rosetaw which are on water
and land. These ways are here in the opposite direction,
each one thereof opposing its companion in the opposite
direction. It is those who know them who can find their
ways (VII 339 e-341 b).

The spell has no Book of the Dead parallel but it

does clearly interrupt such a parallel. Section V
has the land way (1074/1184) above and before
the waterway (1078/1185) so that mention of the
waterway before the land way in spell 1072
41 Since the artist
(or scribe) of B2L had insufficient
space for the next compartment, the rest of the register
was filled with other spells.

39

might have some significance.42The spell should

probably be taken as an explanation of the
preceding map (sections III-IV), in which case,
the ways leading in opposite directions would
reinforce the "combination" interpretation of the
ways.
Since the end of section V is the end of the
whole C-version and since it is clear even from
the table that all the versions are very different
at the end of this section, it is worth considering
in detail what has happened here.
Spell 1084, which occurs only in version B,
really consists of the central portion of spell 577
in the C-version, plus the two headings of 1085 in
C (i.e., ECT, VI 193 d-i and VII 356 d-e). Spell
577 in version B stops short after its beginning
(VI 192 a-e). It seems then that on a prototype
of B, which probably ended with 577 as C does,
there was not enough space to complete the spell,
so the spell was taken up again in available space
earlier, i.e., in the compartment drawn on the
bottoms to contain spells 1080 and 1081.43
The next three spells, 1085-1087, occur in the
C-version with 1085 last rather than first. Spell
1082 is the A-version spell for existing in Rosetaw.
Versions B and C are considerably longer in 1085.
It is 1085b on B1L and B2L and also the spell
preserved on B2P and probably B9C that correspond in position (between 1087 and 513) and
relate better textually to this spell on the C-version
coffins. The first occurrence of 1085 (1085" on
the table) on B1L, B2L, and B3L occupies the
position comparable to 1082 in version A and
likewise shares its heading.
The list of correlations (ECT, VII, xiv-xv)
makes reference to the parallel of 1078-1079 to
1185. From the editor's notes we learn that spell
1079, besides paralleling 1185, also parallels 1086
42 This reversal of the water and land ways was the
main reason for Kees' accusation concerning the reliability of the guide. However, as long as they occur in
different sections representing separate traditions, the
apparent contradiction is not so important.
43On B1L the part brought back was further repeated
in the available space (compare the plan of B2L to that
of B1L).

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40

Journal of the American Oriental Society, 91.1 (1971)

to some extent.44 De Buck did not include any

parallels for 1087 on his list of correlations or in
his textual notes, but "which is in the midst of
darkness" (VII 364 b), and "Flame is around it
containing this effluvium of Osiris" (VII 364 e-f),
make its connection with 1080 (VII 352 a-b)
reasonably certain. Also the similarity between
VII 354 a-b and VII 365 g-366 d suggests some
connection between 1081 and 1087. Thus all of
the last spells in version A (1078, 1079, 1080, 1081,
and 1082) partially parallel and correspond
exactly to the order of the last spells in version C
(1185, 1086, 1087, and 1085). The B-version
has all these spells from versions A and C, and
so clearly it repeats the end of this section from
both.
Spell 1088 consists of the names of various
demons from three coffins with version A and
the label "flame" on a door of three coffins with
B. The names of the A-version occur in a separate
narrow compartment between 1082/1085 and
1089. These names could belong either to the
preceding spells or to the following, but with the
picture of an ape on B1C and the designation
"baboon" (VII 366 i) on B9C they seem to belong
to section VI since the baboon is an animal sacred
to Thoth who is addressed in this section. The
label of the B-version of 1088 is on a door in the
compartment of the group which follows, so it
clearly belongs to section VI although it does not
label the section. Section VI continues through
1098 where it is said that the deceased "will live
forever among the followers of Thoth" (VII 384
b).
Section VII consists of the long spell 1099. It
has another description of the course of the sun
through the heavens. It is also a description of
the afterlife which is complete45 in itself and
originally was probably separate from any of the
44 This is seen most
clearly in the phrase identifying
the deceased as the one "who made his way in the valley
of the Great-one" (VII 363 d-e and 350 a-b), and also in
the apparent corruption of mw (VII 350 a) and ntt (VII
363 b) in "who caused to come to be (water/that which

exists)."
46

1065.

Though it should perhaps include the misplaced

other traditions collected and put together in the

book. The spell cannot be joined to either the
preceding or following sections.
Section VIII is another tradition of the beyond
in versions A and B. The section involves seven
gatekeepers who occur here in two groups. At
least two names (those of the third and fourth
keepers) are paralleled in their same position in
the lists of BD 147. The keeper of the second gate
in spell 1101 (VII 420 a) is apparently misnamed
on B3C since the name of the keeper of the seventh
gate (VII 439 a) was duplicated here. The name
in the A-version of 1101 should probably be the
same as that in the B-version (B1L and B9C),
but de Buck indicated46 that the name is completely lost on B4C, B1C, B3L, and B2P while
the compartments where the names should have
occurred on B6C and B12C were empty. BlBo
and B2Bo were taken from a source on which the
names were either omitted or lost and therefore
also lack them. CT 1114 ends section VIII. It is
apparently the "elder Horus" with whom the
deceased who knows this spell (and the whole
section) will exist (VII 445 c-d).
Spell 1115 labels and describes the scene which
accompanies 1116. CT 1116 is the "place of a
truly perfect spirit who can never die" (VII 448
a).47The spell indicates that the deceased will be
a god (VII 448 c) even though he is one "who
does not know how to go forth to this sky of
Re-Horus, the elder" (VII 447 c). This apparently
contradicts 1109 since the keeper there was said
to live "on the one who does not know how to go
to this sky of the elder Horus" (VII 437 g-438
a). CT 1116 identifies the place of a deceased
person who would know some of the preceding
spells, i.e., for entering flame and opening darkness (VII 447 b), but not necessarily all (certainly
not 1109). It seems, then, that this is the goal of
only part of the Book of Two Ways or one of the
traditions from which it was composed. From the
symbolic sky with enclosed disk, similar to what
ECT, VII, 420, note 1.
47The line numbers on the photos of the coffins should
have been followed in spell 1116 since ECT, VII 448 a,
is the principle heading here.
46

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LESKO:Book of Two Ways

is found with spell 1098,48and from references to
"entering into flame" and "opening darkness"
(VII 447 b), which can be related to 1092 "I open
the darkness" (VII 371 i), and 1097 with the
picture of a man entering a "flaming" door on
BIC,49 this should be the goal of the section which
emphasized Thoth. The deceased can live here
forever probably as a star in the sky since in 1093
it is said that "he will be in the suite of Thoth at
night" (VII 372 a), but he cannot join the sun-god
since he does not know how to go further, presumably because he would not know the spells to
enable him to do so. If 1116 in section IX is a
conclusion of section VI (1088-1098), it remains
for us to explain the gap between these as well as
the almost verbatim but contradictory statements
about going forth to Horus (in 1109 and 1116).
Both can be explained by taking the whole last
section as an attempt to tie together the various
traditions about the afterlife which were collected
in the book. This spell clearly utilizes the material
which was gathered from various traditions and
puts it together for its own purposes.
Spell 1117 introduces a group (1117-1124) concerned with Osiris. It is a spell by which the
deceased will be more glorious than Osiris (VII
448 d-e). This part of the section apparently
48Spell 1098 has two compartments enclosed by three
blue sky symbols. B1C seems to show a two-headed
serpent-type bark above, and on both its barks there is
a beetle holding a disk, in the upper compartment below
the sky, and in the lower buried within it, so that the
whole could represent the solar day and lunar night
voyages or the two journeys of the lunar bark. It can
also be noted that 1053, which clearly involves Thoth in
the map section, is actually written upon the blue waterway. The entourage of Thoth is designated here as
"common folk (r6yt)" (VII 383 a) in A and "celebrated
ones (rhhywt)" in B.
49A human figure appears near the end of the first
register on B1C. The texts are unpreserved at this point,
but Kees (Totenglauben, 297) thought that this was a
representation of the deceased in the palatial building
at the end of the Rosetaw-group. A comparison of the
plans of B1C and B1L, however, will show that this man,
probably the deceased, does not occur in this Osirian
section but in the next (Thoth) section, specifically at
1097. There the label "possessor of joy" occurs on the
plan of BIL in the place which corresponds exactly to the
place on B1C where a man is standing at the doors.

41

resumes section V. Osiris is central in both. Thoth

occurs in 1071 (VII 338 d-339 a) and 1117 (VII
449 a-b), while Seth is mentioned in 1079 (VII
351 c) and 1119 (VII 451 e). The "sealed place
(htmt)" (VII 352 a) in 1080 may be related to
"rwhat is sealed' (ssd't)" (VII 448 d) in 1117;
and the "Osiris-mansion (4wt)" (VII 451 a) in
1118 to the "palace of Osiris (stp-s3)" (VII 356 b)
in 1084. Both 1087 (VII 365 a) and 1117 (VII
450 b-c) are useful for living as well as dead.
Spell 1117 also follows closely on the previous
spell since it states that "He has passed every
tribunal in which Thoth was, but Thoth will be
in the tribunal of Osiris" (VII 449 a-b). It follows
closely enough that this last section not only
resumes the earlier sections but also connects
them. Of interest here also is the reference to a
"great man" (VII 449 c), significant perhaps with
relation to the previous and subsequent goals.
Spell 1098 in section VI referred to the entourage
of Thoth as his "common folk."
Spell 1125 introduces the end in the solar
tradition. In it the deceased hails the portals
which can rescue him on the way to the All-Lord,
Re (VII 455 d and 456 a-b). In versions A and
A-B, spell 1126 names and on BIC accompanies
the pictures of Apopis and his opponents, principally the sons of Horus. The end of the spell
(VII 457 i) labels the sun people and crew of Re
who tow the solar bark of spell 1128. CT 1127
probably should have come before this, since it
briefly describes the attack and success of the
opponents of Apopis. 1128 names the "Entourage
of Flame" and probably completes the resumption
of the solar tradition (section VIII) since 1130
seems to do much more.
Even out of context spell 1130 has been recognized as one of the most important religious texts
that has survived from ancient Egypt,50 but
since it is not known from any other source, it
must first of all be described and explained as the
concluding spell of versions A and B of the Book
of Two Ways. The deceased enters into the spell
60 Cf. J. A.
Wilson, The Burden of Egypt, pp. 117-118,
S. Morenz, Agyptische Religion, pp. 58-59, and H. Kees
in OLZ Nr. 11/12 (1962) col. 591.

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42

Journal of the American Oriental Society, 91.1 (1971)

at VII 465 b accompanying the solar bark every

day.5' The deceased does not become Re by this
spell, and, to make any sense at all, Re and the
deceased must be kept separate. Re says that he
made night for Osiris (VII 465 c) and that the
scepter was not taken from him (Re) (VII 467 d).
Therefore he remains supreme. After the deceased
has spent millions of years between Re and
Osiris, they will all sit together in one place
(VII 467 e-f). The book ends with the statement
that the deceased who knows this spell is able to
"be like Re in the sky," but it is added that this
"is counted (as being) like Osiris in the midst of
the underworld" (VII 262 f-g/471 c-d). This last
statement is probably a label added to show how
this spell fits into the whole book. This spell had
epithets throughout in place of the proper names
(All-Lord= Re, Weary-of-heart = Osiris), but here
at the end the real names occur. Again most of
the spell probably existed before the book was put
together, and it was used here because it expressed
what the compiler wanted to show, i.e., that it
would not matter which tradition or guide of the
afterlife is followed or which goal is sought, Osiris
is as good as Re, but all will be together eventually
with Re supreme. Perhaps the famous statement
in this spell about men's equality and their
freedom to act against the creator's will underlies
the actual change in the Egyptian social order
which characterizes the wisdom literature of the
First Intermediate Period. If so, it is significant
that it is incorporated at the end of a composition,
the purpose of which (in A and B) seems to be to
break down class distinctions in the afterlife by
making even the highest goal available to anyone
interested and able to pay for it.52

Finally the question of the chronology of the

coffins and versions can be brought in briefly.
Although the fourteen owners (twelve original
61 Since most coffins continued in the first person with
no distinction between Re and the deceased, and B6C
had almost all of its first person pronouns "corrected"
to the third person, it is only from B3C that we can see
that Re may be speaking throughout in the A-version.
62 J. H. Breasted (A History of Egypt, New York, 1912,
pp. 175-176) thought that the book "was probably composed for no other purpose than for gain."

and in the case of B6C, two usurpers) of the

eighteen published coffins are identified, only one
is definitely known from a decorated tomb at el
Barsha (Djehutynakht, BlBo). Several others
have names which are the same as those of other
nobles known from Barsha tombs and
Hatnub graffiti (Sathedjhetep, Ahanakht, Sepi,
Djehutyhetep, Imenemhat, Kay and another
Djehutynakht), but the titles and family relationships are not complete enough to prove identity.
The coffins can neither be dated exactly nor
definitely ordered. Even if they could, the sources
of the texts of their coffins would not necessarily
correspond. Except for several instances of two
coffins belonging to one individual, the probable
order of three coffins with version C,53 and the
possible order of some B-version coffins,54it is very
difficult to propose stemmata based on corruptions
since these are many and often contradictory. All
the coffins are themselves copies from one of at
least two distinct sources which were available to
one or more scribes, and these sources were composed from various earlier materials and could
have been copied any number of times with errors
or corrections possible at any stage. Looking at
the end of section V, it is clear that there are two
possible ways to interpret the completeness of B.
Either it presents the source of both A and C or
it is dependent on both. What is significant in the
spells at the end of the section is the fact that B
is apparently repeating the similar endings of
both A and C. The A-B group would likewise
depend on its two sources. The C-version was
oriented toward Osiris throughout. Following an
introduction which presented the goal of the
deceased as living and rotting beside Osiris, we
63 B5C ) B1P ) BlBe based on a fairly clear sequence
of increasing corruption at ECT, VII 495 h.
64 The colophon was added to 1117 on B1C and B1L
without any apparent reason unless some source ended
here, perhaps one which either influenced or was influenced by B2P. De Buck omitted the spell in the text and
on the plan of B2P, but Allen (JNES 22 (1963) 133, n. 2)
thought that key number [88] should have been added
to the plan though the text is illegible now. From this
we might infer the priority of B2P or at least of its source
over these other important B-version coffins.

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LESKO: Book of Two Ways

have two separate traditions (sections II and V)

of the journey through various gates and past their
keepers to the mansion of Osiris. Version A includes an Osiris section (V), a Thoth section (VI),
and two different Solar sections (VII and VIII).
The map (sections III and IV) was apparently
used in all versions as a cosmological plan into
which all the separate traditions could be placed.
Since the land way (section IV) in the C-version
is solar oriented, but does not have the two spells

43

(1065 and 1068) of A and B that make Re all

important, it seems that these spells were probably
added as part of the revision in favor of Re and
therefore that the C-version was earlier.55
65 Since the owner of B5C, Djhutyhetep, was a "scribe
of the royal records" ss ' n nsw and "scribe of the
coffin" ss hn (cf. Ahmed Bey Kamal, "Fouilles A Deir
el-Barche," ASAE 7 (1902) 276-282) it may be significant
that his coffin best represents the earlier source of the
Book of Two Ways.

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