PERFORATION OF OIL AND GAS FORMATIONS

The object of perforating is to achieve communication between wellbore and producing formation.
This will help in:
(1) Evaluation of producing interv.als
(2) Optimizing injection
(3) Isolation of certain zones by cement squeeze
Since perforating is an irreversible process an advance planning is required which is based on :
(1) The environment in which perforation is to take place.
(2) The resources available for specific completion or workover.
(3) The constraints and advantages of available perforating systems.
Perforations must penetrate the casing beyond cement, into the hydrocarbon bearing formation.
The perforations should be clean and of uniform size and depth. The perforating operation should not
damage casing or the cement bond.
Perforating methods are:
(1) Casing gun perforation
(2) Thru tubing perforation
(3) Tubing conveyed perforation (TCP)
Typical shape charge is a simple device consisting of four elements
(1) A conical metallic liner
(2) Primer
(3) Main high explosive charge
(4) Container
In the jet perforating process a chain reaction starts with detonation, that is: Detonater-Primacord
Booster-main explosive. The metal in the charge liner starts to flow under the high pressure from
explosion. This flow of liner material becomes needle charge cone at a velocity of 6100 m/sec.
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Pressure at jet tip is around 3.5 lakhs kg/cm . The outside of the jet charge liner collapses and forms
another metal stream, which moves at a slower speed ( 500 to 1000 m/sec) .The outer liner forms a
residue (carrot) which can plug the created perforation. Any fault in the perforating system can cause
the following:
(1) Irregular holes
(2) Inadequate hole size
(3) Poor penetration
(4) No penetration (no hole at all)
To ensure good performance, procedures for loading, running and firing the gun must be carefully
followed.
Gun clearance (from casing inner wall) has an important effect on quality of perforations. In deviated
holes eccentric guns create differential penetration. Irregular shaped holes won't allow ball sealers to
function when acidizing/ fracturing. Gun positioning is done to overcome severe clearance problem in
through-tubing guns. Magnetic tools are deployed to position the perforating device.
Perforating operation can be carried out:
(1) Over balanced (with reference to formation pressure)
(2) Under balanced Through-tubing guns/ Tubing conveyed guns
In over balanced perforation, well is perforated keeping a weighted fluid (clean, non damaging) with
safety fittings like blowout preventers, perforation gate valves etc. Perforating gun is lowered on
wireline and after doing the operation, it is pulled out and then the completion string is lowered. This
involves lot of time and during this period, there are chances of filtrate/ solid invasion into formation,
well getting active before completion string and surface facilities like Christmas tree etc. are properly
fitted. In under balanced perforating, drawdown is provided beforehand to the formation, thereby
enabling it to flow into the wellbore as soon as the well is perforated. The main advantages are
minimum formation damage and better cleaning of perforation, which results in higher productivity.

WELL ACTIVATION
If the well is perforated under balanced, thru tubing or tubing conveyed perforating, the well may become active,
depending upon the drawdown and the formation potential. Thus in such cases, 'activation' step is eliminated.
In wells which are perforated over balanced, the next step is always activation, to bring the well in.
Activation methods are:
(1) Displacement
(2) compressor application
(3) application of nitrogen
(4) aerisation
(5) swabbing
(6) Use of artificial lifts

Displacement :
(1) In this process, the kill fluid in the well, mud or brine, is displaced with lighter fluid if the kill fluid
has high specific gravity (say 1.5 to 1.8 or more), it should not be changed over directly to lighter fluid
like water or oil, but should be displaced by a lighter fluid (sp. gravity 0.2 to 0.3 less than that of kill
fluid) in the first cycle of displacement. In subsequent displacement cycles, specific gravity of the
displacing fluid is to be gradually reduced to around 1.2 to 1.3. Thereafter displacing fluid can be
water and if needed, water can be displaced with oil.
(2) Objective of this process is to reduce the hydrostatic head so as to create drawdown at the
formation, there by inducing it to flow.
(3) Normally, the pay zones having sufficient formation pressure, sufficient clean flow paths in the
wellbore, start producing formation fluid after displacement itself.
(4) In many cases, this does not happen and other activation methods are undertaken.
Compressor application
(1) When the compressed air is injected into the annular space, the water in the annular space is 'U'
tubed in the tubing, from where an equivalent quantity of water is displaced at the surface.
(2) As a result of this displacement, liquid level in the well falls after the compressed air is released.
The air from the annulus should be released under controlled conditions (thru a bean). If the
decreased pressure at the bottom hole is less than the formation pressure, then the formation fluid will
enter the bottom hole.
(3) Sometimes, a well which has become active may stop flowing after sometime. This may be due to
less drawdown or by plugging of pore channels by foreign materials or solid particles. At this stage,
repetitive compressor applications (i.e. repeatedly providing adequate drawdown to the formation)
may induce the formation fluid to flow into the wellbore overcoming the resistance to flow in the pores.
(4) If the well shows no signs of activity then corrective operations are carried out to stimulate the
formation.
(5) In case of unconsolidated formation, movement of sand may take place due to sudden high
drawdown. In such cases it is preferred to increase the drawdown progressively by first applying
compressor at lower pressure and then at higher pressures in stages.
(6) One serious shortcoming in compressor application method is the possibility of formation of
explosive mixtures between hydrocarbon (well fluids) and air. However, it is still in practice largely due
to its cheapness and ease of operation, in comparison to other methods.
Application of nitrogen
(1) This method is now extensively used for activation of wells.
(2) The main advantage of this method is that the testing time is drastically reduced in view of the
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availability of gaseous Nitrogen at 350 kglcm pressure, it is possible to empty the well fluid upto 3500
m, drawdown can be controlled at any required value.
(3) In this technique liquid Nitrogen, which has a boiling point of 1960C is first pumped by a cryogenic
pump to a vaporizer where gaseous Nitrogen is released through a manifold into the well.
(4) In case a well is having production packer, coiled tubing unit (CTU) along with Nitrogen is used for
activation purpose.
Aerisation
The essence of this process lies in the gradual reduction of sp. gr. of the liquid in the annulus and
tubing by the introduction of compressed air into the well, in form of bubbles and subsequent
reduction of liquid level after release of compressed air.

(1) Compressed air supplied by an air compressor is mixed with water in a special device called
aeriser or mixing tee.
(2) For the successful execution of aerisation, the ratio between the rate of supply of air and water is
selected in such a way that the bubbles of air move down to the tubing shoe without separating out
and forming air cushions. Formation of air cushion will cause a breakdown in the process of
aerisation. As the process progresses, the water volume is reduced gradually. At the end only air is
injected to create maximum drawdown.
In deeper wells, pin hole sockets are used at intermediate depth to accelerate the process of
aerisation.
For aerisation to be effective, the main conditions are to maintain the uniform supply of air and adjust
the supply of water. These are not easily achieved.
Now-a-days this method of activation is rarely used.
Swabbing
(1) In this process, the swabbing tool comprising of rubber swab cups and a valve opening upwards is
lowered on a sand line through tubing into the well. While lowering, the tool goes in freely. The water
below swab tool enters into the swab tool through the valve and comes above it. While pulling out, the
valve in the swab tool closes and the liquid in the tubing above the swab tool is brought out to the
surface.
(2) Running in and pulling out of the swab tool is done continuously, thereby gradually reducing the
level of liquid in the well. This in turn results in a corresponding decrease in the back pressure acting
upon the formation. When this back pressure falls below the pressure of the formation, the formation
fluids start flowing into the well.
(3) Swabbing should be done through a lubricator fitted over the Christmas tree.
(4) This method of activation is quite hazardous. It is not a popular method of activation nowadays
and is only resorted to when other activation methods are not available.