Generator and Power Station Protection - 2012 PDF

Generator and
Power Station Protection
Synopsis
Disclaimer
GENERATOR and
POWER STATION
PROTECTION
Disclaimer
Seminar Synopsis
bmoor@powersystemprotection.com.au
bmoor9@yahoo.com.au
www.powersystemprotection.com.au
Barrie Moor, B Eng (Elec)
Slide 2
Disclaimer
z
z
The material presented in this module is for Educational purposes

only.
This module contains a summary of information for the protection of
various types of electrical equipment. Neither the author, nor
anyone acting on his behalf, makes any warranty or representation,
express or implied, as to the accuracy or completeness of the
information contained herein, nor assumes any responsibility or
liability for the use, or consequences of the use, of any of this
information.
The practical application of any of the material contained herein
must be in accordance with legislative requirements and must give
due regard to the individual circumstances.
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 3
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
Synopsis
Disclaimer
Seminar Synopsis
z
z
Over Current Protection

Differential Protection
z
z
High Impedance Differential Protection

Biased Differential Protection
Sequence Components
Motor Protection
Generator Protection
Generator Faults
Generator Events
Power System Events
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 4
(07) 3298 5260
Seminar costs will vary depending on attendee

numbers and your individual circumstances.
However, by organising your own in-house
seminar:
You can expect savings of between 40%

and 65%.
Plus you eliminate travel and
accommodation expenses for all of your
attendees.
We provide:
2 or 3 day seminar presentation

All seminar handout material, notes, folders,
CDs, etc
Laptop Computer and Data Projector
Note that we guarantee that all seminars will be presented personally by
our principal engineer and seminar author, Barrie Moor
Each attendee receives:
Two or three day seminar presentation

Hard copy manual with all presentations, plus supporting technical
papers
CD with all printed material, plus considerable extra material and tools,
including:
pdf of seminar colour slides 2 per page
additional technical papers
tools for sequence component analysis of single, double and three
phase faults
tools for grading of IDMT overcurrent relays
tools for distance relay calculations, apparent impedance calculations,
fault resistance, mho and offset mho characteristic load limits
Certificate of attendance
You provide:
Seminar conference room (preferably on-site, within your own facilities)

Whiteboard
Any catering for lunch and tea breaks
To discuss your requirements, or to obtain a firm price quotation,

please contact us at:
enquiries@powersystemprotection.com.au
Generator and

Fuses and Contactors
GENERATOR and
POWER STATION
PROTECTION

z
Over Load Protection
OVER CURRENT
PROTECTION
Operation to the thermal capability of plant

Primarily for clearance of faults
Some measure of over load protection may be provided
Overcurrent Relays
Fuses & Contactors
Directional Relays
Slide 1
Discrimination by Time
z
z
z
Slide 2
Discrimination by Time
Setting chosen to ensure CB nearest to the fault opens

first
Often referred to as
Independent Definite Time Delay Relay
Timing intervals selected to ensure upstream relays do
not operate before CBs trip at fault location
Disadvantage
Longest fault clearing time occurs in section closest to
the power source where fault level is the highest
RELAY A
RELAY B
TIME
RELAY C
RELAY A
0.4 secs
RELAY B
0.4 secs
RELAY C
CURRENT
Slide 3
Discrimination by Current
z
z
z
Apply where fault current varies with fault location due to

intermediate impedance
Set to operate at current values so that only relay
nearest to fault trips its CB
Difficulties
RELAY A
Same fault level at the end of one zone and the start of the
next
Fault levels vary with changing source impedance
(eg. As generators come on and go off line)
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 4
Relay A cannot distinguish

between a fault here, for
which it needs to operate
Slide 5
RELAY B
And a fault here for

which it should not
operate
Slide 6
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and

Discrimination by Time & Current
FDR OC
IAmax
IBmax
RELAY A
HV OC
Significant difference between

currents seen for Faults A & B
Set HV OC to 1.3 x maximum
through current for LV Fault
Instantaneous
element
TIME
RELAY B
RELAY C
ICmax
IBmax
IAmax
FDR OC
CURRENT
Slide 7
Slide 8
Discrimination with
Inverse Time Over Current Relays
Inverse Over Current Relays

Time of operation inversely proportional to fault current
Faster operating times at higher fault levels

Faster operating times for faults nearer to the source
IAmax
IBmax
RELAY A
Curves generally plotted in log - log or

log(current) linear(time) format
TIME
Time and current

coordination
RELAY A
FDR OC
ICmax
RELAY C
A
FDR OC
RELAY B
RELAY B
ICmax
RELAY C
Inverse time and

current coordination
RELAY A
RELAY B
Instantaneous
element
RELAY C
ICmax
IBmax
IAmax
CURRENT
Slide 10
Relay Curves to IEC 60255

(BS142)
TIME S tan dard _ Inverse =
z
z

(BS142)
0.14 TMS
I
P

TIME Very _ Inverse =
0.02
1
z
I = Actual relay current

Relay Settings
TMS = Time Multiplier Setting
P
= Plug (Current) pickup setting
Usual curve for transmission and distribution systems
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 11
Slide 12
13.5 TMS
I
P 1


Relay Settings
P
Systems where the fault level decreases significantly
between relaying points
Slide 13
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and


(BS142)
TIME Extremely _ Inverse =
z
z

(BS142)
80 TMS
TIME Long _ Time _ Inverse =
I
P 1

z

Relay Settings
P
Grading with fuses
Slide 14
120 TMS
I
P 1


Relay Settings
P
Long time thermal protection
Motor & Generator Protection
Slide 15
IDMT Relay Grading Curves
Standard Characteristics to IEC 60255
100
Relay Characteristic
Very Inverse (VI)
Extremely Inverse (EI)
Long Time (LTI)
0.14 TMS
0.02
10
Seconds
Standard Inverse (SI)
13.5 TMS
I1
80 TMS
I2 1
120 TMS
I1
0.1
100
1 .10
Fault Current
1 .10
Standard Inverse
Very Inverse
Etremely Inverse
Long Time Inverse
Slide 16
Electro Mechanical Relays
US Characteristics to IEC 60255

U1 Moderately Inverse
0.0104
TD 0.0226+ 0.02
M 1
U2 Inverse
5.95
TD 0.180 + 2
M 1
U3 Very Inverse
3.88
TD 0.0963 + 2
M 1
U4 Extremely Inverse *
5.64
TD 0.02434 + 2
M 1
U5 Short Time Inverse
0.00342
TD 0.00262 + 0.02
M 1
L FLUX PRODUCED BY SHADING LOOP
FLUX PRODUCED BY INPUT CURRENT
k I
(1-k) I
SHADING LOOP
TD
M
Barrie Moor : 2012
DISC
TAPPED
COIL
DISC
- L
FLUX PRODUCED BY INPUT
= Time dial (TMS)

= Multiple of pick-up current
Slide 18
Slide 19
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and


Construction

Inverse Definite Minimum Time
Time multiplier
(TMS) Settings
Trip Contacts
and
Flag
(continuous adjustable)
Current sensitivity selected by Plugs on the magnetic circuit
Magnetic circuit saturates at extreme over current
Shaded Pole
z
Moving Contact
Higher sensitivity selected via more turns

ie. Same Ampere Turns operating quantity
more turns = less current
Limits the minimum operating time
Typically around 20x plug setting
Hence IDMT performance : DM = definite minimum
Time coordination via Time Multiplier setting
Adjusted the starting point of the induction disk wrt the fixed trip contact
Often called Lever Setting
Current (Plug)
Settings
Trip Contacts
Slide 20
Standard Inverse Relay Grading Curves
Slide 21
Standard Inverse Relay Grading Curves
100
Adjust TMS to
achieve time
coordination
3.5
If we have
sufficient
margin here
10
Seconds
Seconds
2.5
Then with the same

characteristic, we tend to
have greater margin at
lower currents due to
divergence of the curves
1.5
0.1
100
And since we are usually interested in

operating times of 3 seconds or less,
we may get a better perception if we
use
a linear axis for time . 4
3
1 .10
1 10
0.5
1 .10
Fault Current
IDMT Curves
OC
OC
Electromechanical relays
4
Must not pick up at < 1.00 pu current

Must pick up at > 1.30 pu current
May not have well defined characteristics between
1.3 and 2.0 pu current
3.5
Electromechanical relays tend to a definite minimum

time at high currents, say > 20 x ISET
2.5
Microprocessor based relays will have a genuine definite

minimum time.
Seconds
OC
OC
1 .10
100
Fault Current
Due to saturation of their magnetic circuits
1.5
0.4 Seconds
Margin
0.5
100
Barrie Moor : 2012
1 .10
Fault Current
3
1 .10
0.4 Seconds
Margin
Slide 24
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and

Instantaneous Element
OC
OC
OC
Reduces tripping time at high fault levels

Allows a the discriminating curves behind the high set
element to be lowered
Minimises fault damage in both cases
Beware
Simple E/M instantaneous elements may have a substantial
transient overreach on fault currents that include DC offset
3.5
Grading of upstream relay now occurs at the instantaneous

setting and not at maximum fault level
2.5
Seconds
OC
Set Tx HV inst
element and now
grade here
1.5
0.5
1 .10
Fault Current
3
100
1 .10
Slide 26
GENERATOR and
POWER STATION
PROTECTION
Relay Coordination Procedure

Current Setting
z
Start with selection of relay characteristic
Choose current settings
OVER CURRENT
PROTECTION
Setting and
Coordination
Procedures
As far as possible, use relays of the same characteristic

Determine maximum load current limitations
Determine starting current requirements
As far as possible, select operating current of each
upstream relay greater than that of the successive
downstream relay
Slide 29
Relay Current Pick-up Setting

z
z
z
Allow for emergency loading conditions

Allow safety margin
Allow for relay reset ratio
z
z
z
Set below the current pickup level of the next upstream

relay
Allow for load pickup current
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 30
Load Pickup Current
Set above maximum load current
Motor starting current

Auxiliary heaters
Transformer magnetising inrush
Capacitor charging current
Lighting loads - 10s to 100s of msec
Slide 31
Filaments and electrodes heating

Arc lamps starting
Slide 32
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and

Relay Coordination Procedure

Time Multiplier Setting
Load Pickup Current

z
Hot load pickup
Load pickup, but now with loss of diversity between cyclic

loads
Voltage recovery pickup
Pickup currents not as severe as for complete loss of

supply and subsequent hot load pickup
But more motors may still be on-line as under voltage
releases may not have disconnected them
Slide 33
Determine, under various system configurations, the

values of short circuit current that will flow through each
protective device
Set relays to give minimum operating time at maximum
fault currents
Check performance (discrimination) at lower fault levels
Plot and coordinate relay curves on log/log or log/linear

format
Relay TMS Grading

z
Coordinate relays via time multipliers to achieve

appropriate grading margins
Cold load pickup
Short term loss of supply and subsequent load pickup

currents on return of supply
Plot to a common current base (across transformers)
Slide 34
Relay TMS Grading
Must provide for

CB tripping time (0.1 sec ??)
Relay timing errors
Relay overshoot
CT errors (10% ??)
Safety margin (10% ??)
A typical figure of 0.3 - 0.4 seconds is usually OK
0.3 for numerical relays
0.4 for electromechanical relays
Alternatively calculate a margin
Only necessary for slow tripping times (> 1.0 sec)
Slide 35
Relay TMS Grading
Slide 36
Grading of Parallel Elements
OC
OC
OC
OC
OC
Relay Technology
z
z
ElectoMechanical
Static
Digital
Numerical
Timing Error %
7.5
Overshoot Time (s)
0.05
0.03
0.02
0.02
Safety Margin (s)
0.1
0.05
0.03
0.03
Typical margin (s)
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.3
Worst case for grading is with only 1 transformer in service

But this will be an unusual operating condition
E/M & Electronic Relays
Only a single relay setting is available
Hence, effectively no option but to set for the worst case, namely
1 transformer case
And accept slower performance for system normal,
namely when both transformers are in service
Microprocessor based relays
These relays have multiple setting groups
So, maybe set Group 1 for system normal : 2 transformers
And change to group 2 when one transformer is OOS
z
z
Automatically ??
Via SCADA & operator intervention ??
Hence for an E/M relay tripping in 0.5 seconds

t = (7.5 + 7.5 + 10)% x 0.5 + 0.1 + 0.05 + 0.1
t = 0.375 seconds
CT Errors
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 38
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and

z
z
z
20MVA
Fdr_1 OC
800A FLC
33kV
3 Fault Levels
2 Tx IN : 10000A
1 Tx IN : 7500A
300A FLC
Fdr_2 OC
SI 400A
TMS 0.2
11kV
3 Fault Levels
2 Tx IN : 16000A
1 Tx IN : 12000A
HV OC
20MVA
Feeder 1
Relay_2 := SI Fdr2_Plug , Fdr2_TMS , I2
Feeder 2
n
n
0.14 TMS
I
P

Maximum through fault level occurs when both transformers

are in service
But the maximum individual transformer current flows when
the 2nd transformer is OOS
Need to consider both conditions when grading relays
HV OC
SI( P , TMS , I) :=
Grading of Parallel Elements
SI( Fdr2_Plug , Fdr2_TMS , Imax) = 0.421
Imax:= 10000
Grade Fdr_1 OC over Fdr_2 OC at the maximum through fault level of 10kA
Set Fdr_1 OC above maximum feeder load of 800A
and check against maximum fault level of 10kA
Fdr2_Plug := 400
Imax
Fdr2_TMS := 0.2
Fdr2_Plug
Tripping time at maximum fault level
Fdr2_Tmin := SI( Fdr2_Plug , Fdr2_TMS , Imax)
Fdr2_Tmin = 0.421
So select settings for Feeder 1
Fdr1_Plug := 1000
Given data for Feeder 2
Imax
Fdr1_Plug
Required tripping time
Fdr1_Tmin := Fdr2_Tmin + 0.4
Assume TMS = 1.0
Fdr1_TMS_1 := SI( Fdr1_Plug , 1.0, Imax)
This would result in a tripping time of
Fdr1_TMS_1 = 2.971
= 25
= 10
Fdr1_Tmin = 0.821
Fdr1_TMS := 1
Hence we can calculate the required TMS to achieve the required tripping time
Fdr1_Tmin
Fdr1_TMS_1
Fdr1_TMS = 0.276
Fdr1_TMS := round ( Fdr1_TMS + .003, 2)
Round Up
0.02
Fdr1_TMS = 0.28
_T = 0.411
Tx OC Grading (11kV Base Currents)
Grade Transformer HV OC under the maximum current condition, namely with one transformer OOS
3
2.8
Imax:= 12000
2.6
FLC_33kV:=
20000000
2.4
3 33000
FLC_33kV= 350
130 % FLC_33kV= 455
Set
Allow for 33/11kV ratio
2.2
Tx_HV_Plug := 500
Tx_HV_Plug := 3 Tx_HV_Plug
Tx_HV_Plug = 1500
2
1.8
Fdr Tripping time at maximum fault level
Fdr1_Tmin := SI( Fdr1_Plug , Fdr1_TMS , Imax)
Fdr1_Tmin = 0.769
1.6
Transformer HV OC
Tx_HV_Tmin:= Fdr1_Tmin + 0.4
Tx_HV_Tmin = 1.169
1.4
Assume TMS = 1.0
Tx_HV_TMS_1 := SI( Tx_HV_Plug, 1.0, Imax)
1.2
This would result in a tripping time of
Tx_HV_TMS_1 = 3.297
Hence we can calculate the required TMS to achieve the required tripping time
Tx_HV_TMS := 1
0.8
Tx_HV_Tmin
Tx_HV_TMS_1
Tx_HV_TMS = 0.355
0.6
Tx_HV_TMS := round ( Tx_HV_TMS + .003, 2)
Round up
0.4
Tx_HV_TMS = 0.36
0.2
0
100
1 .10
1 .10
1 .10
Fdr 2 OC
Fdr 1 OC
Feeder 1
Tx HV
Relay_3 := SI Tx_HV_Plug, Tx_HV_TMS, I3
n
n
SI( Tx_HV_Plug, Tx_HV_TMS, Imax) = 1.187
_T = 0.418
Tx OC Grading (11kV Base Currents)
Sequential Operation of Over Current

Relays
3
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
As CBs trip, fault current magnitudes and flows will change

We need to integrate how far each relay progresses towards
tripping in each stage
1.8
1.6
To determine total tripping times

To ensure relays that should not trip, remain stable
Relay 1 operating time must have a suitable margin above the

total of Relay 2 and the subsequent Relay 3 operations
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
Relay 1
0.6
Relay 2
0.4
Relay 3
0.2
0
100
1 .10
Fdr 2 OC
Fdr 1 OC
Tx HV OC
Barrie Moor : 2012
1 .10
1 .10
Slide 45
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and

GENERATOR and
POWER STATION
PROTECTION
Directional Over Current Relays

z
OVER CURRENT
PROTECTION
z
z
z
Directional Relays
Extra discrimination may be achieved by making the

response of the relay directional when current can flow in
both directions
Achieved via voltage (polarising) connections to the relay
Digital and numeric relay achieve phase displacements
via software
EM & Static relays require suitable connection of input
quantities to the relay
Slide 46
Directional Over Current Relays

Application to Parallel Feeders
Ring Mains Systems
Fdr 2
OC
OC
Apply directional relays at the feeder receiving ends
Typically set to 50% of FLC, TMS = 0.1

Grade below non-directional relays at the source end
Ensure DOC relay thermal rating is OK
Slide 48
GENERATOR and
POWER STATION
PROTECTION
0.1
0.1
11..3
3
1.3
0.9
0.9
Slide 54
Earth Fault Protection
OVER CURRENT
PROTECTION
Implement more sensitive protection responding only to

residual current of the system
Low settings are permissible and beneficial
Earth Fault Relays
z
z
Slide 55
Earth faults are the most frequent

Earth faults may be limited by earth fault resistance
Earth faults may be limited by neutral earth impedance
Typical settings 20 - 40% x FLC

Time grade in the same manner as for phase OC relays
Beware of the burden that electromechanical relays may
place on CTs at low current settings
Barrie Moor : 2012
2.1
2.1
1.7
Open the ring at the

supply point
And then grade
clockwise
And then anticlockwise
Source substation relays
do not HAVE to be
directional
Intermediate substation
slower relays do not
HAVE to be directional
0.5
OC
Fdr 1
Slide 47
1.7
OC
0.5
Although burden does decrease at very high currents with

saturation of the relays magnetic circuits
Slide 56
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and

Directional Earth Fault Protection
Not suitable for

2:1:1 Current
applications
(Transformer HV
current in the case of
Star/Delta or Delta/Star
through phase/phase
faults)
z
z
Voltage Quantity required to polarise relay

Use the system residual voltage
EF Prot
z
OC
OC
This voltage will be zero for balanced system voltages
EF Prot
OC
OC
This is the vector sum of all three phase voltages

This is thus three times the zero sequence voltage
Normal Load conditions

Three phase events
2 phase events not involving earth
EF Prot
OC
Slide 57
GENERATOR and
POWER STATION
PROTECTION
Directional Earth Fault Protection
5 limb core type

3 x 1 phase units
Va
Vb
3.Vo
Slide 59
minimum
pre-arcing
I2t
250
maximum
total I2t
160
Discrimination between fuse

links is achieved when the
total I2t of the minor fuse link
does not exceed the prearcing I2t of the major fuse
link
But note that this applies only
for high speed operation
where there is no heat
dissipation
ie. I2t adiabatic performance
As a starting point, a current
rating ratio between fuses of
1.6 - 2 is probably OK
(but this depends on the
specific fuse design)
200
Performance effectively
follows I2t law
z Pre Arcing time
z Arc time
Fuse Fuse grading
requires that the total I2t of
the smaller fuse be less
than the pre-arcing I2t of the
larger fuse
80
Slide 61
Fuse
Bullrush Curves
Fuses
z
125
100
Vc
Fuses
and
Fuse Contactors
50
63
OVER CURRENT
PROTECTION
40
32
3 . V0 is obtained from a VT with the secondary

connected in a broken delta
Primary star point of VT must be earthed
And to provide the path for zero sequence flux
VT must be
35
Slide 58
Fuse Rating
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 62
Slide 63
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and

Expulsion Fuses
Fuses & TRV Performance

Current
interrupted at
natural
current zero
z
z
z
z
z
Used where expulsion gases cause no problem such as in overhead

circuits and equipment
Special materials (fiber, melamine, boric acid, liquids such as oil or
carbon tetrachloride ) located in close proximity to fuse element and
arc rapidly create gases
These produce a high pressure turbulent medium surrounding the
arc
Expulsion process deionises gases them as well as removing them
from arc area
In inductive circuits, transient recovery voltage (TRV) will be
maximum at current zero.
Current lags
Voltage by 90
deg
1.5
System
Voltage
0.5
0.5
Fuse Voltage
1
1.5
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
0.012
0.014
0.016
0.018
0.02
0.022
0.024
TRV across
blown fuse
element
Circuit Voltage
Fuse Voltage
Current
Slide 64
Slide 65
Tin for M Effect low

overload fuse performance
See later
Current Limiting Fuses (HRC Fuses)

z
Current Limiting Fuses
Fuse is designed to insert a large resistance

Hence, prospective level of fault current is reduced
And zero crossing of the current and voltage will be reasonably
in phase TRV significantly reduced
Fuse element is completely surrounded with filler material, typically
silica sand
Arc energy melts the sand, thus inserting the required high
resistance
But this design may have difficulty interrupting low level overloads.
Overcome by
M Effect designs
Spring assisted designs
Slide 66

M Effect for low level overloads
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 67
Slide 68
M Effect : A.W. Metcalf - 1939
Slide 69
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and

Grading Relays with Fuses

z
Slide 70
Grading Relays with Fuses

z
z
Slide 71
The next relay to a VI characteristic

And subsequent further upstream relays to SI characteristics
High fault level applications
Option 1 : Also select EI characteristics

Option 2 : Check also for the possibility of setting
z
Or T ' 0.4 t + 0.15
Fuse Contactors
First relay upstream of the fuse should be set to EI

characteristic
Now to coordinate further upstream relays
Extremely Inverse curve

80 TMS
TIMEExtremely _ Inverse =
follows a similar I2t
2
I
characteristic
P 1

Relay current setting should
be approximately 3 times the
fuse rating
Grading margin of not less
than 0.4 seconds
recommended
Slide 72
eg
40kA fault level

Contactor rated to only 10kA
Fuse operates for all faults above say 7 kA
Contactor and associated protection relay operate for
lower fault levels
Warning the fuse may also have a minimum breaking
capacity and the contactor must be set to operate above
this point
Slide 73
Fuse Contactors
100
Fuse operation
below 2kA is not
permissible
10
10kA Contactor
operates for faults
below 7kA
0.1
Fuse operates for

faults above 7kA
0.01
100
1 .10
Fuse
Relay / Contactor
Fuse
Barrie Moor : 2012
1 .10
1 .10
Slide 74
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
GENERATOR and
POWER STATION
PROTECTION
Synopsis
z
HIGH IMPEDANCE
DIFFERENTIAL
PROTECTION
z
z
z
Busbar Protection and

Galvanically Connected
Plant
z
z
HZ Differential Protection Principles

Determination of setting voltage
CT requirements
Current operated schemes and stabilising resistors
Limiting secondary system voltages to safe levels
Primary operating current and application of shunt
resistors
CT supervision requirements
Application of high impedance differential protection
schemes to other galvanically connected plant
Slide 1
z
z
Dependability
Must trip for all in-zone faults
Discrimination
Must not trip for any out-of-zone faults
Security
Against all sources of mal-tripping
Dependability
M
I
S
Speed of operation
As quickly as possible
Barrie Moor : 2012
E
L
&
Slide 2
CT Connections & Polarity
Bus Zone Protection Requirements

z
!!!
P1
I1
P1
I1
S1
S1
I2
I2
Security
S2
S2
P2
Slide 3
P2
Slide 4
Internal Fault
External Fault
RELAY
RELAY
Slide 5
Slide 7
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
3 Phase CT Connections
Current Mismatch
z
CT MARSHALLING
z
z
CT Manufacturing Variations
Inequality of CT Burdens
CT Saturation
Highest Fault Current on CT exposed to through fault

Worst possible mismatch is
z
z
Total saturation of the CT on the faulted plant

All other CTs transform perfectly
DIFFERENTIAL
RELAY
Slide 8
Slide 9
External Fault
External Fault & CT Saturation

CT Saturates :
Magnetising branch
impedance becomes zero
External Fault
Rlead
Rct
High
Impedance
RELAY
Relay
RELAY
Rlead
15000A
5000A
5000A
5000A
VRELAY = IFAULT (R CT + R LEADS )

Slide 10
Slide 11
CTs will saturate under internal fault conditions, but

relay operation is assured provided absolutely all CTs
meet the requirement
Setting Voltage and Margins
Internal Fault
z
Fault current comprises
AC Component
DC Component
Hence, employ a DC Stabilised Relay
And considering 0% / 100% CT saturation case
No additional margin on the setting is required

High
Impedance
RELAY
Relay
This in an unrealistically extreme case

100% safety margin is automatically built in
So, no additional safety margin on setting is required
VKNEE 2 VRELAY
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 12
Slide 13
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
CT Selection
z
z
All CTs to be the same ratio

All CTs to have Vk 2.Vsetting
This is an absolute MUST

Preferably Vk 5.Vsetting
CT
CTinternal
internal
resistance
resistance
0.1 PX 500 R3
200 ohms
Barrie Moor : 2012
Assuming the CT has been

selected to match plant
rating
IRMS = 0.52 I
Slide 16
VRELAY =
VKNEE
2
Slide 15
In the case of a heavy internal fault, secondary system voltages may

become excessive
Implications include damage to equipment and safety of personnel
Empirical Formula
VK = CT RMS knee point voltage

VF = Maximum RMS voltage that would occur if the CT did not
saturate
Install metrosils if this voltage become excessive
(eg. >2.8kV peak)
Slide 17
Metrosil Parameters
METROSIL NON-LINEAR RESISTORS
V = C . IB
4
1 10
Do not simply set
VPEAK = 2 2 VK (VF VK )
Relay
0.2A
10 ohms
V = C I
Beware of short cut methods
V = I.R
= 0.2 x (200 + 10)
= 42 volts
20% setting is usually OK
Where V & I are PEAK

values
C = Metrosil constant
B = Metrosil constant
(0.2 0.25)
And, because of the
non-linearity
Preferably
Preferably55times
timestotooptimise
optimise
relay
relayperformance,
performance,but
but22isisthe
the
absolute
absoluteminimum
minimumtotoensure
ensure
reliable
reliablerelay
relayoperation
operation
Metrosil Parameters
Ensure Operation for genuine in-zone faults
Metrosils
Slide 14
Voltage operated
Current operated, incl stabilising
resistor
Typical current settings
as low as possible, but
> 20% of plant rating
< 30% of fault current
VRELAY = IFAULT (RCT + RLEADS)
Not absolutely critical

But highly recommended to specify class PX CTs
Current Operated Schemes

z
Ensure Stability under through faults
VKNEE 2 VRELAY
Knee Point voltage

CT Resistance
Class Requirements
Summary
CT
CTknee
knee
point
pointvoltage
voltage
Need to know
Magnetising
Magnetising
current
currentat
atknee
knee
point
pointvoltage
voltage
Based on the previous equations, the RMS current at the

relay setting voltage Vs(rms) is:-
VSetting RMS =
1000
C
2
I
RMS
0 . 52
100
10
0.001
C = 450
C = 600
C = 900
0.01
B = 0.25
B = 0.25
B = 0.25
0.1
10
IRMS
100
Metrosil Current - Amps
Slide 18
= 0 . 52
2 VSetting RMS
Slide 19
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
Primary Operating Current
Shunt Resistors
z
z
Desensitise scheme
Prevent tripping on open CTs
I mag
I metrosil
RELAY
I relay
I shunt
R shunt
I mag
Primary operating current > maximum plant loading

Effectively becomes a medium impedance scheme
IP = CT (IRELAY+ IMETROSIL+ N IMAG)

N = Number of CTs in parallel
Slide 20
Primary Operating Current
CT Supervision
z
I mag
I metrosil
I relay
I shunt
R shunt
I mag
RELAY
Slide 21
IP = CT (IRELAY+ IMETROSIL+ ISHUNT+ N IMAG)
Effect of CT problems when Shunt Resistors are installed

Scheme is part way to a trip condition
Effect of CT problems when BZ Check scheme is installed
Half of the scheme is already tripped
CT Supervision Setting Principles
Set to 50% of minimum load
Operation : initially (eg. < 3 secs)
Nil : allow for correct operation of BZ protection
Operation : short time (eg. > 3 secs)
Alarm
CT Shorting
N = Number of CTs in parallel
Slide 23
GENERATOR and
POWER STATION
PROTECTION
Slide 24
HZ Protn Application to Plant

z
z
HIGH IMPEDANCE
DIFFERENTIAL
PROTECTION
Requires Galvanic Connection

All CT ratios the same
Can Apply To
Application to other
Plant
Busbars
Transformers
Generators & Motors
Capacitors
Reactors
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 25
Slide 26
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
Generators & Motors
Auto Transformers
All CT ratios to
be the same
This CT will carry
maximum current
and hence
dictates ALL CT
ratios
Stabilising
Resistors
But this CT is internal

and may have a single
fixed ratio.
Thus, must be specified
correctly at time of
purchase !!
DIFF
Relays
Slide 27
Restricted Earth Fault Protection
Slide 28
Reactors Earthed Neutral
CT terminals
near to
protected object
are connected
DIFF
Slide 29
Reactors Floating Neutral
DIFF
Slide 30
Capacitors Earthed Neutral
DIFF
DIFF
CT terminals
away from
protected object
are connected
REF
DIFF
DIFF
DIFF
DIFF
DIFF
Floating neutral
bus is also protected
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 31
Slide 32
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
Capacitors Floating Neutral
DIFF
DIFF
DIFF
Floating neutral
bus is also protected
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 33
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
Sequence Components
GENERATOR and
POWER STATION
PROTECTION
Sequence Components
z
SEQUENCE
COMPONENTS
A Quick Review
Positive Sequence
ABC
Equal in magnitude
120 degrees apart
Negative Sequence
AC B
Equal in magnitude
120 degrees apart
Zero Sequence
ABC
Equal in magnitude
In phase
V1
I1
V2
I2
V0
I0
Slide 1
Sequence Networks
V1 = 1 / 0
I0
IA
Source
I phase
IB
Z1s
Relay
Location
Z1f
I1
Fault
Location
V2 = 0
V0 = 0
Source
Negative Sequence Network
I2
Positive Sequence Network
I1
Slide 2
Z2s
Relay
Location
Source
Zero Sequence Network
Sequence Components
Z0s
Relay
Location
Z2f
I2
Fault
Location
Z0f
I0
Fault
Location
IC
Slide 4
Sequence Components
Three phase conditions
z
Slide 5
3 Phase Balanced Current
Positive sequence only
Three phase load

Three phase fault
No neutral (earth fault) current
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 6
Balanced currents sum to zero

Positive sequence currents
Negative sequence currents
But zero sequence current will sum to 3.Io
In =In3.Io
=0
Slide 7
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
Sequence Components
Sequence Networks
3 Phase Fault
Sequence Components
Phase Phase fault
Positive and Negative sequence components only
And consider the special case where
A phase equal in magnitude but opposite in phase
I3 _ Phase _ Fault = I1 =
V
Z POS
Source
Z POS = Z1s + Z1f
Z1s
Relay
Location
Z1f
I1
B to C
Phase to Phase fault
Fault
Location
Slide 8
Sequence Networks (A phase)

Phase Phase fault
Slide 9
Sequence Networks (A phase)

Phase Phase fault
I1 = I2
Z1f
I1
Fault
Location
Z2s
z
Relay
Location
Z2f
I2
Fault
Location
A phase
IA1 & IA2 antiphase
Sum to zero
B phase
IB1 & IB2 at 60o
C phase
IC1 & IC2 at 60o
IB = - IC
Z1s
Relay
Location
Z1f
I1
Slide 10
Sequence Components
Phase Phase fault
z
Source
Fault
Location
V
Z pos + Z neg
Source
Relay
Location
Z1s
Source
z
Source
I1 = I2 =
Z2s
Relay
Location
Z2f
I2
Fault
Location
Since Z1 ~ Z2
|I1| = |I2| = 50%
of 3 phase fault
level
Slide 11
Sequence Components
Earth Fault
|I1| = |I2| = 50% of 3 phase fault level

Thus |IB| = |IC| = 86.6% of 3 phase fault level
(because of 60o angles)
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 12
A phase
positive sequence
negative sequence
zero sequence
Equal in magnitude
and phase
Slide 14
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
Sequence Components
Sequence Networks
A Phase Earth Fault
Relay
Location
Z1f
I1
Slide 15
Sequence Networks
A Phase Earth Fault
V2 = 0
Relay
Location
Z1f = 0.15
I1
Fault
Location
V1 = 0.75
Z2s = 0.10
V2 = -0.10
Relay
Location
Relay
Location
V2 = -0.25
I0
I = 1.0
Positive Sequence
Balanced three phase load
Balanced three phase fault
No neutral (earth) current
Negative Sequence
Unbalanced load
Phase to phase fault
No neutral (earth) current
Zero Sequence
Earth fault
Neutral current = 3 . Io
Cannot flow into or out of a delta
Can circulate around (within) the delta
Barrie Moor : 2012
Fault
Location
Slide 16
V
Z pos + Z neg + Z zero
IB = 0
ZS2
ZS1
Fault
Location
V0 = -0.50
Relay
Location
INEUT = 3 I0
I = 1.0
Slide 17
I1
Relay
Location
ZS0
I2
Relay
Location
Zl
Zl
Zl
Fault
Location
Fault
Location
Fault
Location
Positive
Sequence
Negative
Sequence
I0
Zero
Sequence
Sequence Components
Summary
Z0f
I0
Fault
Location
IC = 0
Z2f
I2
IA = I1 + I2 + I0
V0 = -0.15
Z0f = 0.35
Fault
Location
I = 1.0
Relay
Location
I1 = I2 = I0 =
Z0s= 0.15
Z2f = 0.15
I2
Relay
Location
Z0s
Source
V1 = 0.90
V0 = 0
Source
Z1s = 0.10
Z2s
Sequence Networks
A Phase Earth Fault
V1 = 1 / 0
Source
Fault
Location
Source
Z1s
Source
Source
Sequence Components
Earth Fault
Slide 18
GENERATOR and
POWER STATION
PROTECTION
Io = 0
TRANSFORMERS
and
SEQUENCE
COMPONENTS
Io = 0
Io = 0
Differential
Protection
Requirements
Io
Io
Io
3Io
Slide 19
Slide 20
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
Sequence Components
Transformer Current Flows

z

z
Star / Star Transformer : LV Earth Fault
Current flows in corresponding HV winding

Appears as EF on the HV system also

But, suppose we dont have an upstream power system earth
However, consider the effect of adding a delta connected tertiary
winding
HV line current flows in a 2:1:1 ratio
No I0 on the HV system as there is no path for neutral current flow
I0
I0
I1,
I1, I2
I2 &
& I0
I0
I1,
I1, I2
I2 &
& I0
I0
I1,
I1, I2
I2
I1,
I1, I2
I2 &
& I0
I0
So
So where
where did
did the
the I0
I0 go
go ??
??
Slide 21

Retain the delta connected tertiary winding
But, lets reinstate the power system earth
Power system and delta winding zero sequence current flow
distributions will depend on their relative Z0 impedances
I0I0
Star/Star transformers, with a delta tertiary winding:

Will have a mismatch between zero sequence current flows on
the HV & the LV windings
It is thus necessary to exclude zero sequence current from the
differential relay protection algorithms
Star/Star transformers, without a delta tertiary winding:
May still have a mismatch between zero sequence current flows
on the HV & the LV windings
I1,
I1, I2,
I2, I0I0
I1,
I1, I2
I2 &
& I0
I0
Slide 24

z
The transformer tank can act as a low quality tertiary delta winding
It is thus still necessary to exclude zero sequence current from

the differential relay protection algorithms
Slide 25
Delta / Star Transformer : LV Earth Fault
Slide 23
Transformers, Sequence Components

and Differential Protection

z
ZS
Current in corresponding HV winding only

Appears as phase to phase fault from the perspective of
the HV system
ZS
I1
I1 &
& I2
I2 only
only
I1,
I1, I2
I2 &
& I0
I0
LV
LV
HV
Z1HL
HV
Zfdr
Zfdr
So
So where
where did
did the
the I0
I0 go
go ??
??
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 26
Slide 27
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
Sequence Components

ZS
ZS
LV
LV
HV
Z1HL
HV

Zfdr
ZS
Zfdr
ZS
Slide 28

z
Slide 30
I1
I1 &
& I2
I2
Slide 31
30 deg
Sequence Components
Transformer LV ph-ph fault
HV
Consider B-C fault on the LV of either of

Star Delta transformer
Delta Star transformer
30 deg phase shift
will shift + 30 deg
Positive seq components
Negative seq components
will shift - 30 deg
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 29
Current in all 3 LV windings

Current in all 3 HV windings
Appears as 2:1:1 fault on the HV system
30 deg
Zfdr
I1
I1 &
& I2
I2
I1
I1 &
& I2
I2
Sequence Components
Transformer LV ph-ph fault
HV
Star / Delta Transformer : LV phase to phase fault
Z1HL
Zfdr
Current in 2 LV windings
Current in 2 HV windings
Appears as 2:1:1 fault on the HV system
I1
I1 &
& I2
I2
LV
HV
Delta / Star Transformer : LV phase to phase fault
LV
Slide 33
LV
LV phase to phase fault

HV distribution is 1 : 2 : 1
LV distribution is 0 : 1 : 1
So be careful when grading HV & LV IDMT OC Relays
|I1| = |I2| = 50% of 3 fault level
But note that I1 & I2 are 60o apart on the LV, but are shifted 30o and
are thus, for the 2 phase, in phase on the HV
LV current is 86.6% of 3 fault level in both phases
HV current in the 2 phase is the same as for LV 3 fault !!
Slide 34
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
Sequence Components
Transformers, Sequence Components

and Differential Protection
z
z
Compensate for the transformer phase shift

Exclude zero sequence current from the differential relay
protection scheme
Zero sequence current can flow into and out of earthed

star windings
Zero sequence current cannot flow into or out of delta
windings
Zero sequence current can circulate around delta windings
(said to be trapped in the delta)
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 35
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
Transformer Protection
GENERATOR and
POWER STATION
PROTECTION
Types of Fault
z
z
z
TRANSFORMER
PROTECTION
z
z
z
z
z
z
Phase-ground faults - from winding to core or winding to tank

Phase-phase faults - between windings
Interturn faults - between single turns or adjacent layers of the same
winding (Buchholz)
Arcing contacts
Local hotspots caused by shorted laminations
Low level internal partial discharges (moisture ingress or design
problems)
Bushing faults (internal to the tank)
Tapchanger faults (often housed in a separate tank)
Terminal faults (external to the tank, but inside the transformer zone)
Slide 1
Slide 2
Gas Sample
Buchholz Protection
z
Alarm
Two floats in the relay:

Upper float
z
z
z
Detects accumulation of gas

Detects loss of oil
Incipient faults
Float
To Tank
Partial discharge
Winding & core overheating
Bad contacts and joints
z
Trip
Pressure Relief Device (Qualitrol)
Float
To Conservator
z
BUCHHOLZ RELAY
May alarm only or may be set to trip
Lower float
z
z
Spring assisted pressure relief devices

Relieves pressure impulses due to massive internal fault conditions.
Helps prevent the tank bursting or splitting
Relay contacts are also connected to trip the transformer.
Since pressure waves travel with a finite velocity, they may rupture
the tank locally before the pressure wave has reached the pressure
relief device, if it is some distance away. Several units may therefore
be required on larger transformers.
Detects surge in oil < 100ms

Although it does take a finite time for
pressure waves to initiate Buchholz
tripping
Slide 3
GENERATOR and
POWER STATION
PROTECTION
Basic Transformer Protection

z
Fuses
Transformers without CBs
Perhaps to a few MVA
Overcurrent & Earth Fault Protection
Transformers with CBs
Perhaps 5 - 50MVA
Transformers > 10MVA
z
z
z
Slide 4
TRANSFORMER
PROTECTION
Biased Differential
Protection
Fast
Can be sensitive
May detect terminal faults also
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 5
Slide 6
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
IT IS NOT THE P1/S1 OR P2/S2

ORIENTATIONS THAT ARE
IMPORTANT, BUT THE
PREFERENCE FOR THE
AWAY SIDES OF THE CTs
TO CONNECT TO THE RELAY
Differential Protection of Transformers

11/132kV
CURRENT FLOWS
INTO PLANT
CURRENT FLOWS
OUT OF PLANT
P1
P2
S1
S2
2400A
2400/1
200/1
200A
TRIPPING ELEMENT
DETECTS ONLY THE
MIS-MATCH CURRENT
CURRENT FLOWS
INTO RELAY
SIDE OF CT AWAY
FROM PROTECTED
PLANT CONNECTS
TO RELAY
CURRENT FLOWS
OUT OF RELAY
Differential
Relay
TRIP
ELEMENT
1A
TRIP
ELEMENT
SIDE OF CT AWAY
FROM PROTECTED
PLANT CONNECTS
TO RELAY
BIAS or
RESTRAINT
ELEMENT
Slide 7
Transformer Differential Mismatch

z
CT ratios selected to compensate for the transformer turns

ratio
z
z
Mismatched CTs
BIAS or
RESTRAINT
ELEMENT
Slide 8
Transformer Differential Mismatch
Differential CT ratio selection
1A
CTs do not exactly compensate for transformer turns ratio

Transformer turns ratio changes with tap changing
Implement a biasing restraint system
Inrush on energisation (2nd harmonic)

Over excitation (5th harmonic)
Transformer phase shifts
Earth fault (neutral zero sequence) currents
Magnetizing current in the CTs, especially as some

saturation due to DC fault current sets in.
The amount of bias is increased under heavy through fault

conditions to compensate for possible CT saturation
Slide 9
Inrush Current on
Energisation of Transformer
Second Harmonic on Inrush

z
Transformer inrush current on energization.
TRIP
ELEMENT
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 10
Slide 11
Inrush current produces a current from the energizing side

only, appearing as an internal fault.
Inrush current magnitude can be as great as a through 3
phase fault.
This current is characterized by the appearance of second
harmonics, so additional restraint can be based on this 2nd
harmonic signature
Relay setting below the 2nd harmonic level is required
(Ratio of 2nd harmonic to fundamental)
Slide 12
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
Inrush current : with 2nd Harmonic
Fifth Harmonic on over excitation
Transformer Inrush Current

z
12
10
Current
8
6
z
4
2
Overfluxing, caused by too high a voltage, or too low a frequency.

Increased magnetising current
This is characterized by third & fifth harmonics.
Fifth harmonic restraint to retrain tripping of the differential
element
Typically no user calculations or settings are required
Sustained overfluxing may damage the transformer
Time delayed V/f tripping function (long time)
Especially applicable to generator transformers
z
2
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
Frequency can be anywhere from zero to nominal during run-up and

run down
Not so necessary for transmission or distribution applications

z
Frequency will not deviate significantly from nominal
Seconds
Transformer Inrush Current
Slide 13
GENERATOR and
POWER STATION
PROTECTION
Bias Differential Protection

z
z
z
Slide 14
Allow for Transformer turns ratio

Allow for Transformer phase shifts
Eliminate Zero Sequence currents from the relaying system
P1
S1
SEQUENCE
COMPONENTS
P1
S1
A Quick Review
Bias Windings
Operating
Winding
Slide 15
GENERATOR and
POWER STATION
PROTECTION
Slide 16
CT Connections and Ratios

z
z
TRANSFORMER
PROTECTION
z
z
Continued
Star/Delta and Delta/Star transformers have a 30 degree phase shift

Compensate with CTs connected opposite to the transformer
connections. ie:
Star connected CTs on the delta side of the transformer
Delta connected CTs on the star side of the transformer
Phase shift compensated
Zero sequence currents flowing in the transformer star windings
prevented from entering the relaying system
But how do we get the correct delta connection for our CTs ???
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 17
Slide 18
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
Determination of CT Connection
Determination of CT Connection
Yd11
Dy11
D11
D11
D1
D1
Diff Prot
Diff Prot
CT Primary is star connected

CT secondary is D11 connected
Overall connection is thus YD11
CT Primary is star connected

CT secondary is D1 connected
Overall connection is thus YD1
Slide 19
Star/Delta and Delta/Star Transformers

CT Connection Summary
z
Slide 20
CT Connection Summary
z
Transformer HV is STAR connected

HV CTs are delta connected (ie. phase shifting)
HV CTs EQUAL to the transformer phase shift
LV CTs in star
Compensates for the phase shift across a star-delta

transformer.
Prevents any zero sequence currents flowing in the star

winding from entering the relay
And for Star / Star transformers ??
Slide 21
CT YD11 Connections
The correct vector group must be chosen for the CTs to

ensure that through currents balance.
Transformer LV is STAR connected

LV CTs are delta connected (ie. phase shifting)
LV CTs OPPOSITE to the transformer phase shift
HV CTs in star
Since they are not present in the line on the delta side.
It is still necessary to eliminate Io from the relaying system
Connect CTs delta / delta
Or use the D12 / D12 feature of microprocessor relays
Slide 22
CT YD1 Connections
S2
S2
S1
D11
D11
D1
D1
S1
C
D11
A phase output is at "11 o'clock"

A phase "S1" connects to B phase "S2"
B phase "S1" connects to C phase "S2"
C phase "S1" connects to A phase "S2"

Barrie Moor : 2012
S2
S1
S2
S2
S1
D11
S1
S2
S1
S2
S2
C
S1
S1
S2
S1
Slide 23
B
C
D1

Slide 24
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
Away side of CTs connected to relay.

Hence, transformer current in or out
corresponds to relay current in or out
P1
P2
S1
S2
A1
A2
a2
a1
P2
P1
S2
S1
There must be a path for the current to flow

There must be an Ampere Turns balance
If there is current flowing in one winding
If there is no current flowing in one winding
z
z
Bias Windings
There must be current in the coupled winding

There can be no current in the coupled winding
Operating
Windings
Notice that the

connections for
the Delta windings
are the same !!
Away side of CTs connected to relay.
Hence, transformer current in or out
corresponds to relay current in or out.
External Phase Earth Fault

P1
P2
S1
S2
A1
A2
a2
Slide 26
External Phase Phase Fault

a1
P2
P1
P1
P2
S2
S1
S1
S2
A1
A2
Bias Windings
Operating
Windings
Protection Scheme remains balanced

HV 0:1:1 (HV looks like a phase phase fault)
LV 0:0:1 (LV is actually a single phase fault)
Barrie Moor : 2012
1 / 0 1/-240
= 1.732 /-30
-24
1/
P2
P1
S2
S1
Operating
Windings
Protection Scheme remains balanced

HV 1:2:1 (HV has a 2:1:1 current distribution)
LV 0:1:1 (LV is actually a phase phase fault)
Delta CTs and Ratio Selection
1/
CT ratios must allow for the fact

that current flowing into the
relay from the delta connected
CTs is 3 times the CT
secondary current
Hence, a standard 1A CT will
result in relay current of 3
times the CT secondary current
Thus, CTs with ratios such as
1000/0.577 are, for this reason,
quite common.
a1
Bias Windings
Delta CTs and Ratio Selection

z
a2
1 / -120
Slide 29
CT ratios must allow for the fact

that current flowing into the
relay from the delta connected
CTs is 3 times the CT
secondary current
Hence, a standard 1A CT will
result in relay current of 3
times the CT secondary current
Thus, CTs with ratios such as
1000/0.577 are, for this reason,
quite common.
Ia - Ic = 1.732 /-30
Slide 30
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
S1
Select
SelectCT
CTRatios
Ratios
132/66/11kV
132/66/11kV
80/80/10
80/80/10MVA
MVA
HV
HV800/600/400/100/0.577
800/600/400/100/0.577
LV
800/600/400/100/0.577
LV 800/600/400/100/0.577
TV
TVSingle
Singleratio
ratio--TBA
TBA
S1
z
z
P1
S1
S1
S1
S1
P1
P1
C
S1
P1
TV CT Ratio Selection
P1
Select
SelectCT
CTRatios
Ratios
zz
zz
P1
z
z
HV : 80 MVA @ 132kV = 350A

HV CT provides
800/700/600/500/400/300/200/100/0.577
Select HV CT = 400/0.577
132/66/11kV
132/66/11kV
80/80/10
80/80/10MVA
MVA
HV
HV800/600/400/100/0.577
800/600/400/100/0.577
LV
LV800/600/400/100/0.577
800/600/400/100/0.577
TV
TVSingle
Singleratio
ratio--TBA
TBA
Tertiary : 10MVA @ 11kV = 525A

Try for Tertiary CT = 600/1
A
S1
B
S1
S1
S1
C
S1
z
z
But now check for stability due to

an out-of-zone tertiary 3 ph fault
Lets check for say 4800A @ 11kV
P1
P1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
P1
P1
P1
P1
z
z
z
z
Slide 32
Select
SelectCT
CTRatios
Ratios
zz
TV CT Ratio Check
Tertiary out-of-zone 3 phase fault

of 4800A @ 11kV
CT = 600/1 star connected
Relay current = 8A
TV CT Ratio Review
HV CT is 400/0.577
Base the tertiary ratio on this and the transformer ratio

Not on Tertiary MVA rating
z
A
S1
B
S1
8A
8A
132/66/11kV
132/66/11kV
80/80/10
80/80/10MVA
MVA
HV
HV800/600/400/100/0.577
800/600/400/100/0.577
LV
LV800/600/400/100/0.577
800/600/400/100/0.577
TV
TVSingle
Singleratio
ratio--TBA
TBA
132kV current = 4800 * 11 / 132 = 400A

132kV CT is 400 / 0.577 delta connected
Relay current = 400 / (400/0.577) * 1.7321 = 1A
Select
SelectCT
CTRatios
Ratios
zz
132/66/11kV
132/66/11kV
80/80/10
80/80/10MVA
MVA
HV
HV800/600/400/100/0.577
800/600/400/100/0.577
LV
LV800/600/400/100/0.577
800/600/400/100/0.577
TV
TVSingle
Singleratio
ratio--TBA
TBA
Tert CT = HV CT * Tx Ratio
Tert CT = 400 * 132 / 11 = 4800/1
A
S1
B
S1
S1
z
z
z
Whoops !!!
Will trip on through current
Review Tertiary CT ratio
P1
P1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
P1
P1
P1
P1
1A
1A
Re-check Tertiary out-of-zone

3 phase fault of 4800A @ 11kV
CT is now 4800/1 star connected
Relay current = 1A
z
z
132kV current = 4800 * 11 / 132 = 400A

132kV CT is 400 / 0.577 delta connected
Relay current = 400 / (400/0.577) * 1.7321 = 1A
Yes !!!
Remains stable on through current
Barrie Moor : 2012
S1
S1
S1
P1
P1
P1
132/66/11kV
132/66/11kV
80/80/10
80/80/10MVA
MVA
HV
HV800/600/400/100/0.577
800/600/400/100/0.577
LV
LV800/600/400/100/0.577
800/600/400/100/0.577
TV
TVSingle
Singleratio
ratio--TBA
TBA
HV CT = 400/0.577
LV : 80 MVA @ 66kV = 700A

LV CT provides 800/700/600/500/400/300/200/100/0.577
Select LV CT = 700/0.577
NO !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
A
S1
S1
S1
1A
1A
C
S1
P1
P1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
P1
P1
P1
P1
z
A
z
A
Select
SelectCT
CTRatios
Ratios
LV CT Ratio Selection
S1
1A
1A
S1
S1
P1
Slide 34
zz
132/66/11kV
132/66/11kV
80/80/10
80/80/10MVA
MVA
HV
HV800/600/400/100/0.577
800/600/400/100/0.577
LV
LV800/600/400/100/0.577
800/600/400/100/0.577
TV
TVSingle
Singleratio
ratio4800/1
4800/1
P1
S1
z
z
P1
Select
SelectCT
CTRatios
Ratios
zz
Slide 33
TV CT Ratio Re-Check
C
S1
Base the LV CT on HV ratio

and the transformer ratio,
not on LV MVA rating
LV CT = 400 * 132/66
= 800 / 0.577
S1
P1
P1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
P1
P1
P1
P1
Slide 35
Slide 36
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
CT Ratio Selection
Modern Microprocessor Relays

z
The CT ratios must be opposite to the transformer ratio
Choose one CT ratio

Base all other CT ratios on this selection and transformer
turns ratio
Not on winding MVA !!!
All CTs connected in Star

Relay has to process phase shifts
Relay has to remove neutral current
And, as noted before CT ratios must allow for the fact

that current flowing into the relay from the delta connected
CTs is 3 times the CT secondary current
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
P1
P1
IBRELAY = IB IA
ICRELAY = IC IB
D11
IA RELAY
1 1 0 IA
1

IBRELAY = 3 0 1 1 IB
ICRELAY
1 0 1 IC
A
Slide 39
D12
Barrie Moor : 2012
S1
S1
B
S2
S2
S2
S2
S1
S1
C
D11

B
C
D1

Slide 40

D12 Zero sequence current elimination
IA RELAY
2 1 1 IA
1

IB
=
RELAY
3 1 2 1 IB
ICRELAY
1 1 2 IC
S2
IARELAY
1 0 1 IA
1
IB

RELAY = 3 1 1 0 IB
ICRELAY
0 1 1 IC
D11
P1
D1
S1
IA RELAY
1 1 0 IA
1

ICRELAY
1 0 1 IC
S1
IA RELAY
1 0 1 IA
1

ICRELAY
0 1 1 IC
S2
D1
S1
P1
Slide 38
S1
IA RELAY
1 0 1 IA
1

ICRELAY
0 1 1 IC
S1
IA RELAY = IA IC
S1
P1
P1
S1
P1

P1
S1
P1
Slide 37
P1
P1
P1
IA RELAY
2 1 1 IA
1

IB
=
RELAY
3 1 2 1 IB
ICRELAY
1 1 2 IC
IA RELAY =
1
(2 IA IB IC)
3
1
(3 IA IA IB IC)
3
1
(3 IA (IA + IB + IC))
3
1
(3 IA 3 I0)
3
= IA I0
Slide 41
Slide 42
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
CT Phase and Ratio Adjustment

TAP POSITION
All CTs can now be connected in Star
Dyn1
20MVA 33/11kV
Relay internal processing adjusts for phase angle

Relay internal processing rejects zero sequence
components
400/1
CT ratios mismatches can also now be accommodated
Magnitudes normalised to transformer FLC

Phase angles compensated
Zero sequence current eliminated
Slide 43
00
1A
Select one ratio to meet load requirements

Base all other ratios on the first (not on load !)
Yd11
1A
Software CT
x 1.429
Use the relay equations to determined the worst

mismatch
Typically
I1 + I2
2
Bias =
the worst mismatch of transformer ratio

and CT ratios (remember 3 for delta CTs !!!)
50%
Not Average !!
Diff = I1 + I2
At the top tap position .......... & then

At the bottom tap position.
And both should be the same for a microprocessor based
relay that is correctly mid tap balanced
00
Slide 44
To decide worst case - consider the overall scheme
Differential
Element
Allow Margin (perhaps 10-15%) allowing
Yy0
Software CT
x 1.143
Differential Relay Bias Settings
CT ratio selection
0.7A
Transformer Microprocessor Differential Protection Relay
Differential Relay Bias Settings
-300
-300
0.875A
Software
CT Ratio
Adjustment
1500/1
1050A
00
00
Internal processing within relay then adjusts CT current to

match transformer turns ratio
CTs can be fine tuned to match middle tap position
Allows for more sensitive relay settings
350A
Slide 45
I1 & I2 are the currents into the two sides of the

transformer
Slide 46
Tap Changer Position
Transformer Bias Differential Protection

4
For any setting of tap changer and through current, and

given the CT ratios, the values of bias current and
differential current can easily be calculated.
Base calculation on the relay algorithm not on an
arbitrary or simple mismatch calculation
Diff := I1 + I2
OPERATE
OPERATE
1.5
RESTRAIN
RESTRAIN
Through
ThroughFault
Faultwith
with
CT
CTSaturation
Saturation
1
0.5
Probably 10 15%
And check your elbow !!
Barrie Moor : 2012
Transformer
Transformer
Internal Fault
Internal Fault
Protection Trips
Protection Trips
Note that the previous equations are not the only options
available to and used by relay manufacturers
Hence use THE ACTUAL RELAY equations !!
3.5
2.5
Allow the recommended safety margin
Differential
Current
0.5
1.5
15% Differential Setting

Slide 47
2.5
3.5
Bias Current
Through
ThroughFault
Fault
Mismatch
Mismatchdue
duetotoCT
CTRatios
Ratios&&
Transformer
TransformerTap
TapChanging
Changing
4.5
5
5.5
6
Bias :=
I1 + I2
2
Slide 48
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
GENERATOR and
POWER STATION
PROTECTION
CT Requirements
z
Some CT saturation is permissible for through faults
Such CT saturation occurs mainly due to the DC

component of the fault current
TRANSFORMER
PROTECTION
Most manufacturers provide simple equations to

determine CT class
No complex calculations required
Winding Neutral
End Faults
Slide 49
Slide 50
Transformer Neutral Fault Current & Primary Current
Protection for neutral end earth faults
Significant current flows in the

actual fault near to the neutral
end of the transformer winding
16
14
FAULT
CURRENT
Small current
Many turns
12
10
Line current mismatch

is too small to trip the
differential relay
multiples
of
rated
current
Large current
Few turns
But very little line

current flows at the
HV terminals
We need to monitor
neutral current flow
0
0
10
20
30
40
Fault Current in Shorted Turns

Primary Current
Slide 51
50
60
70
80
90
100
DISTANCE OF FAULT
FROM NEUTRAL
(Percentage of winding)
Slide 52
Auto Transformer
High Imp Phase Segregated Protection
All CT ratios to
be the same
This CT will carry
maximum current
and hence
dictates ALL CT
ratios
CT terminals
near to
protected object
are connected
REF
Barrie Moor : 2012
CT terminals
away from
protected object
are connected
DIFF
Slide 53
But this CT is internal

and may only have a
single fixed ratio.
Therefore, this must be
specified correctly at
the time of purchase !!
Slide 54
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
HV CTs
High Impedance Protection

z
z
LV CTs
One per phase at neutral end

But above the star point
Especially sensitive in detecting earth faults in the

bottom 25% of the winding
Application to
Neutral CTs
Auto Transformers
REF earth fault schemes
Tertiary windings not specifically protected

Setting principles same as for bus zone
Select voltage setting to achieve through fault stability

CT Vk > 2.Vset to ensure scheme operation
Tertiary
High
Impedance
Relays
Slide 55
GENERATOR and
POWER STATION
PROTECTION

HV scheme also remains
stable for all LV EFs
LV scheme remains
stable for external EF
HV scheme remains
stable for external EF
EARTHING
TRANSFORMERS
Restricted EF Prot
Operation
and
Protection
Restricted EF Prot
Transformer delta winding and star winding REF protection schemes

Earthing Transformer Fault Currents
Slide 58
Earthing Transformer
LOAD
B
C
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 59
Slide 60
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
Earthing Transformer Fault Currents
Earthing Transformers
z
z
LOAD
z
z
Provide a good earth reference for a delta winding during

earth faults
Restrict the voltage rise on the healthy phase during
earth faults inoperative during balanced voltage
conditions
Carry significant current only during earth faults
ie. 3 x I0 only
Earthing transformer and associated power transformer
considered as a single unit and tripped together
Slide 61
Effectively Earthed System
R0/X1 < 1
X0/X1 < 3
Limit voltage rise on unfaulted phases
Slide 63
Two types of faults we need to consider:
Internal faults - faults inside the earthing transformer, the

result of insulation breakdown.
External faults - faults on the system outside the earthing

transformer. These can cause overheating of the earthing
transformer
Interturn, interwinding or winding-to-core faults

Fed from delta-connected current transformers, so that
earth faults on the system, which generate only zero
sequence current, are not seen
Hence, O/C setting can be very low
Barrie Moor : 2012
Long term low level unbalance may cause thermal

damage
Need to consider and set earth fault below
z
z
Slide 64
Slide 62
Protection of Earthing Transformer
80% of rated phase - phase voltage

Otherwise healthy phases can reach 100% of rated phase
- phase voltage
May even exceed this on transients
Slide 65
continuous rating capability

short-time rating capability
Combination of IDMT and definite time functions used
Slide 66
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
Overcurrent Setting Must be:

z
z
LOAD
O/C relay
z
Def Time E/F relay

IDMT E/F relay
Slide 67

Affected by long term residual voltage, which may cause
thermal damage
actual thermal limit
30
1 10
adiabatic
thermal limit
4
1 10
remember - no over temperature sensor is provided
Need to consider and set earth fault below
Thermal Protection
1 10
TIME - SECONDS
Slide 68
2300
O/C relay does not operate for external

earth faults
Def Time and IDMT E/F relays operate for
external earth faults
Greater than the magnetising current

Greater than the maximum inrush current. This depends on
Earthing transformers B-H characteristics
The point-on-wave of the energisation
The remanence of the core
One common estimate of upper bound is 50x the magnetising
current
Tolerant of Earthing Transformer manufacturing variations
Impedances variations between the individual phases of the
earthing transformer may result in some spill current from the
delta CTs under through EFs
continuous rating capability

short-time rating capability
Combination of IDMT and definite time relays used to do

this
earthing transformer E/F relay - Definite Time

100
10
earthing transformer
E/F relay - IDMT
downstream E/F relay
0.1
10
cont
rating
30A
100
1 10
EARTH FAULT CURRENT - AMPS
EARTHING TRANSF THERMAL PROTECTION
max E/F
current
2300A
1 10
Slide 69
Earthing Transformer CTs

Differential Trip due to LV I0 Currents

400/0.577
z
z
Earthing transformers are included inside the biased differential

zone of their power transformer
Current transformer connections important
LV CTs will be star connected
Thus Io can flow to the differential relay
And earthing transformer now supplies Io
Thus stability for external earth faults becomes an issue
1600/1
0
0
a
b
c
external
earth
fault
To eliminate Io from the relaying system
132 / 33 kV
YD12 CT connection with microprocessor differential relay

Or utilise additional Earthing Transformer CT connections
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 71
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
Earthing Transformer CTs

Eliminate I0 from the relaying system
Zero Sequence Current Trap
400/0.577
A
1600/1
0
132 / 33 kV
0
CT includes a delta tertiary

winding to trap zero
sequence currents
b
c
C
all 1600/0.333
N
Star connected interposing

CTs with neutral connection
external
earth
fault
Interposing CT secondary
without neutral connection
3 wire connection to the relay
I1 & I2 only
GENERATOR and
POWER STATION
PROTECTION
D1
D11
D12
Slide 74
IARELAY
1 0 1 IA
= 1 1 1 0 IB
IB
RELAY

3
0 1 1 IC
ICRELAY
TRANSFORMER
PROTECTION
IARELAY
1 1 0 NoIA
phase change
1
IB
IB
1removes
1 But,
RELAY = 3 0
neutral current
1 0
1 IC
ICRELAY
Delta Windings with

Earthed Corner
IARELAY
2 1 1 IA
IB
1

RELAY = 3 1 2 1 IB
ICRELAY
1 1 2 IC
Slide 75
Typical for transformer tertiary windings

To maintain stability on through faults
Slide 76
Earthed Delta Corners inside the

Differential Zone
Delta windings with earthed corner

z
Need to include CT in the earthed corner

CT to be the same ratio as the main CT
Connect in parallel with the earthed phase CT
This cannot be overcome with phase shifting and Io

facilities of microprocessor based relays
CT installed on the earthed corner.

Same ratio as phase CTs
In parallel with the phase CT on
the earthed phase
This is also required for
microprocessor relay schemes
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 77
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
GENERATOR and
POWER STATION
PROTECTION
Neutral Displacement Protection

z
z
TRANSFORMER
PROTECTION
Applicable to delta windings with no earth reference

Connected to open delta of VT secondary
z
z
Neutral Displacement
Protection
To provide a zero sequence flux path

3 x 1 phase VTs or
5 limb VT
Relay must be immune to 3rd harmonics

Tripping time can be relatively slow
Problems can occur with resonance on energisation
Slide 79
Slide 80

z
Measures 3.Vo for a solid E/F
VT with open delta

secondary winding
Healthy phases rise to full phase-phase potential

Healthy phases are now only 60 deg apart
Thus, for standard 63.5V VT, output voltage is 190.5V
Set relay to 10% say 20V
190.5
0
63.5
VV VVVV
0110
63.5
190.5
110
VA = 0
Voltage
Displacement
Relay
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 81
VC = 3
VB = 3
+150
-150
Neutral
Displacement
Protection
Slide 82
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
Motor Protection
GENERATOR and
POWER STATION
PROTECTION
Motor Protection
z
To detect faults within the motor and supply system
MOTOR
PROTECTION
Thermal Withstand
Faults on the supply system, cables, etc

Internal faults
Often as a result of previous thermal events
Motor overload
Starting and Stalling currents & times
Unbalanced voltage supply (NPS)
System events
Loss of load, under voltage, etc.
Slide 1
GENERATOR and
POWER STATION
PROTECTION
Motor Protection
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
Thermal Protection
Extended Start Protection
Stalling Protection
Number of Starts Limitation
Negative Sequence Current Detection
Short Circuit Protection
Under Voltage Protection
Loss of Load Protection
Winding RTD measurement and trip
Slide 2
MOTOR
PROTECTION
THERMAL
PROTECTION
Thermal Protection
Slide 3
Thermal Overload Protection
Slide 4
61
Starting Current
5
0.8
z
z
Winding failures are often due to previous heating

Because of the motors thermal mass
Infrequent short term overloads may have no affect

But sustained overloads, of even just a few percent, may
cause aging and premature insulation failure
Insulation life may be halved for operation every 10 deg C
above rated maximum.
High starting current reduces

to full load current as the motor
gains speed
Positive sequence impedance
of the motor at any slip is :-
4
0.6
IZ( (ss) )
0.4
2
0.2
1
250
500
750
2
Z POS = R S1 + R1 + (X S1 + X R 1 )
S
Barrie Moor : 2012
1000
1250
1500
Slide 5
Slip =
NSYNC N ACT
NSYNC
Slide 6
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
Motor Protection
Motor Impedances
Positive Sequence Impedance
(Rs1 + Rr1)
j(Xs1 + Xr1)
At any slip
2
2
Z POS = R S1 + R1 + (X S1 + X R1 )
S
(1 - S) Rr1
S
Positive Sequence Equivalent Circuit

of Induction Motor
(Rs2 + Rr2)
At standstill with slip = 1.0
j(Xs2 + Xr2)
Z POS =
(R S1 + R R1 )2 + (X S1 + X R1 )2
(S - 1) Rr2
(2 - S)
Negative Sequence Equivalent Circuit

of Induction Motor
Slide 7
Negative Sequence Impedance

z
This is a small impedance, hence high starting current

eg. up to 6 pu
Slide 8
Motor Impedances
z
At any slip
Positive Sequence : Standstill

Z POS =
2
Z NEG = R S2 + R 2 + (X S2 + X R 2 )
2S
(R S1 + R R1 )2 + (X S1 + X R1 )2
Negative Sequence : Running
At normal running with slip 0
2
Z NEG = R S2 + R 2 + (X S 2 + X R 2 )
2
2
Z NEG = R S 2 + R 2 + (X S 2 + X R 2 )
2
R is small compared with X:
These will be approximately the same !!
Z POS STANDSTILL = Z NEGRUNNING

Slide 9
Motor Impedances
z
z
Barrie Moor : 2012
Positive sequence impedances at Start-up & Running

ZPOSSTARTING
ZPOSRUNNING
ZPOSRUNNING
Slide 11
Full Load Current

Starting Current
eg. 1/6 th
eg. ZNEG = ZPOS / 6

So, what does this
mean for NPS current
ZPOSSTARTING = ZNEGRUNNING
And since:
ZNEGRUNNING
Or, as a typical example, when running, 1% NPS

supply voltage would result in:
6% NPS current
Slide 10
Motor Impedances
Consider an example where ISTART/IFLC = 6

Hence, 1pu positive sequence supply voltage results in:
1 pu current when running at full load
6 pu current at start-up
But the negative sequence impedance at running is the
same as the positive sequence impedance at startup
So, when running, 1 pu NPS supply voltage would
result in:
6 pu NPS current
Full Load Current

Starting Current
Slide 12
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
Motor Protection
Negative Sequence Current

z
Question
Negative sequence current will equal:
% of NPS in the supply voltage

Multiplied by the ratio of starting / full load current
Multiplied by full load current
z
z
An induction motor starting current is 6 times the full load

running current.
The supply is unbalanced so that there is 5% NPS
component in the voltage component.
What will the NPS current component be (as a percent of
positive sequence FLC)
V Starting Current
INPS = NPS
[IFLC ]
FLC
VPOS
Slide 13
Question
z
Rotor Currents
A motor operates at a slip on 0.05
z
z
The rotor currents due to the positive sequence supply

current will be at what frequency ?
The rotor currents due to the negative sequence supply

current will be at what frequency ?
Slide 15
Negative Sequence Protection

z
IEQ =
(IPOS )2 + (K INPS )2
INPS =
VNPS Starting Current
IFLC
VPOS
FLC
K=1.5 to 6
Low level setting to provide alarm

IDMT element for tripping
Slide 16
Impedance increases as the motor speeds up

2
2
ZPOS = RS1 + R1 + (XS1 + XR1)
S
Time grade/time delay, as possible
Due to Positive Sequence Supply : close to DC

Due to Negative Sequence Supply : close to double
frequency
NPS current skin effects exacerbate rotor heating
Motor Starting Current vs Speed
Two stage protection
Slide 14
To allow unassociated system NPS events (eg. system

earth faults) to be cleared by their protection systems
And hence, current reduces with speed
Also the speed does not

increase linearly with time
Acceleration tends to be slow
initially
And, especially so, with high
inertia loads
I( s)
250
500
750
1000
1250
1500
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 17
Slide 18
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
Motor Protection
Motor Starting Current vs Time

Speed
Starting & Stalling

z
Motor current remains practically unaltered during the

entire starting time
Current alone cannot distinguish between:
I( s)
Normal starting
Stalled condition
z
2
Low Inertia Loads
2502
3 500 4
750
5
6 10007
81250 9
Rapid Starting
Starting time is likely to be less than the safe stall time
Duration of starting current distinguishes starting/stalling
1500
10
t ( ss)
Slide 19
Starting & Stalling

z
Older Style Relays
Electronic & Numeric Relays
Long time for a normal start up 10s of seconds
Long time starting is OK due to cooling from rotation and

windage
Safe stall withstand time may be less than normal starting

time
Speed switch interlock confirms a normal start
Slide 20
Motor Thermal Protection
High Inertia Loads
Characteristics may be questionable

Characteristics easily adapted by the user to match the
motor characteristic
A stalled motor receives no cooling and may be damaged
Slide 21
Motor Thermal Protection

(eg. via P&B Golds Relay)
z
C
B
Fixed Trip
Contact
Flag
z
HEATERS
Slide 22
Stalling of a Motor, Once Running
Thermal Contacts
A, B & C phase elements

operated via
Heaters
Bi-metallic coils
Elements trip for
Overload
Unbalance
Saturating CT elements
provide for
Relay settings
De-sensitise to heavy
starting currents
Stalling of a motor once running (eg. due to a bearing

seizure)
Successful start-up and current has fallen to FLC

Massive rise in current due to stalled motor event
Rapid tripping now required
Interlock with under-voltage detection, as necessary
Perhaps to allow re-acceleration following a system voltage

dip
Perhaps to prevent re-acceleration following a system
voltage dip
SATURATING CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 23
Slide 24
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
Motor Protection
Stalling of a Motor, Once Running

z
Temperature Detection Devices

z
Bearing failure
Roller bearings tend to fail very quickly
Protection is basically limited to preventing consequential

thermal damage to the motor
Sleeve bearings temperature rise may be indicative of

prospective failure
RTDs or Thermistors
Measure temperature of:
Detect:
Also include RTD bearing temperature detection
Slide 25
Number of Starts Limitation

z
z
Slide 27
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 28
Protects against failure of mechanical systems, eg:
Slide 29
Breakage of a conveyor belt

Loss of pump priming
Based on a low power element
2 heating time constants are required

In star connection, the winding current equals the line current
In delta connection, the winding current reduces to 0.577 times
the line current
Motor power, required to drive the load, is the same

Hence, supply line current to the motor also remains unchanged
But, via the delta connection, the motor winding voltage has now
increased by a factor of 1.732
Therefore, motor winding current reduces to 0.577
Relays require a dual slope characteristic
This line current is thus 1/3 of the delta connected DOL current
Change to delta connection, once motor approaches full

speed
Loss of Load Protection
At full speed, independent of motor connection (star or delta)
Each phase winding is only supplied at VPH-N voltage

Hence, motor winding current is reduced to 0.577 of the delta
connected DOL current
Line current is the same as the motor winding current
Star / Delta Starting Systems
Requires both ends of all 3 phase windings to be made available

to the switching circuitry
Star connection for start-up
Slide 26
Motor is initially star connected, to limit the starting current
Less number of hot starts are allowable

Relay must maintain a separate count of hot and cold
starts
Relay interlock enforces the necessary time delay required
between successive starts to provide for motor cool down
Alarm & Trip

Fine tune the relays thermal algorithm
Star / Delta Starting Systems
Starting blocked if the permitted number of starts is

exceeded
Hot & Cold starts
Motor overloading
Prospective failure of associated plant
Prospective failure of sleeve bearings
Actions:
Motor windings
Shaft bearings
Must be configured to not prevent motor starting

Low inertia loads (eg. compressors) may require this to be
inhibited during the entire startup period
Time delay required to prevent mal-operation during
system transient events
Slide 30
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
Motor Protection
GENERATOR and
POWER STATION
PROTECTION
Under Voltage Protection

z
z
Motor may stall under sustained under voltage

For transient under voltages (due to unrelated system
events):
Time delay to allow the motor to re-accelerate, if the plant
requirements permit
MOTOR
PROTECTION
Contactors may need to be latched
Trip the motor if plant operation would be threatened by

the re-acceleration or re-start, following a system event
Under voltage protection must allow for voltage suppression
on start-up
Settings <80% are typical
Ensure any under voltage protection does not block normal
starting
Short Circuit
Protection
Slide 31

z
Motor design makes internal phase-phase faults very

unlikely
Any internal phase to phase fault will almost certainly also
involve earth
However, phase to phase faults are significantly more
likely on the supply cable or within the motor terminal box
Slide 33
Motor Thermal & HZ EF Protection

z
z
Stabilising
Resistor
EARTHFAULT
PROTECTION
Barrie Moor : 2012
Ideally, set for instantaneous operation

Hence, set above starting current
Slide 34
High Impedance EF Protection
EF protection via residual

connection of CTs
Low impedance EF protection
OK for CTs with adequate
knee point voltage
High impedance EF protection
applicable for lower quality
CTs
Time delayed characteristic

IDMT characteristic
High set elements to quickly clear major faults
Set above FLC, but below start-up current

To prevent mal-operation during start-up
Be aware of mal-operation due to CT unbalance due to

high starting currents
Motor
Thermal Protection
Sensitive elements may detect faults in their early stages

and hence minimise fault damage.
Earth Faults
Slide 32
Phase - Phase Faults
Allows for CT saturation on

starting current
(No through fault condition to
consider).
Otherwise, EF protection will

require a time delay to prevent
mal-operation during start-up
Slide 35
ISTART
RSTAB =
z
z
z
z
CTRATIO
(RCT + k RL + RR )
IEFsetting
RCT = CT resistance
RR = Series connected O/C and/or thermal relay resistance
RL = Lead resistance (one way)
k = CT connection factor
k = 1 for 4 wire connection : star point at CT typical

k = 2 for 6 wire connection : star point at relay unusual
Slide 36
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
Motor Protection
Sensitive EF Protection via

Core Balance CT
z
Core Balance EF Protection and Cables
Resistance earthed systems
Core balance EF protection allows for sensitive settings

Setting should be <30% of EF current
Setting must be >3 times the steady state charging current
of the feeder
To prevent mal-trip during un-associated system earth faults
Otherwise, utilise a VT supply to implement a directional core

balance SEF scheme
All three phases pass through a single CT
Also, the neutral for a 4 wire system
Beware of sheath earthing requirements for cable systems
SEF
Slide 37
Fuse Contactors
Cable sheath earthing via

the core balance CT
ensures detection of phase
to sheath faults
Slide 38
Fuse Contactors
100
High fault level applications
eg
40kA fault level

Contactor rated to only 10kA
Fuse operates for all faults above say 7 kA
Contactor and associated protection relay operate for
lower fault levels
Warning the fuse may also have a minimum breaking
capacity and the contactor must be set to operate above
this point
0.1
10kA Contactor
operates for faults
below 7kA 0.01
100
Fuse operation
below 2kA is not
permissible
10
Slide 39
Fuse operates for

faults above 7kA
1 .10
Fuse
Relay / Contactor
Fuse
1 .10
1 .10
Slide 40
Stabilising
Resistors
Relays
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 41
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
GENERATOR and
POWER STATION
PROTECTION
z
Generator Fault
Generator Event
External Event
GENERATOR
PROTECTION
Rapid tripping necessary

Slower tripping, with alarm to allow operator intervention
Remember that every generator in the power station will
see this event
Remote power stations may also see this event
Tripping to be as slow as possible, with alarm to allow
operator intervention
Islanding may also be an option
Slide 1
GENERATOR and
POWER STATION
PROTECTION
Slide 2
z
z
GENERATOR
PROTECTION
Generator Faults
Detects multiphase faults

Earth faults typically limited by high resistance earthing
Consequences of multiphase faults
Damage due to fault current
Damage due to unbalanced mechanical forces
Generator design to minimise risk
Design to minimise risk of multiphase faults
Earth switch systems
Differential protection schemes
Bias Differential
High Impedance Differential
Overall Differential
Slide 3

z
Current Transformers
Bias
Neutral and Line CTs to be matched

Good quality : Class PX recommended
Protection
Select a relay operating quantity,

eg. Vector addition of CT currents
I1 + I2
Select a relay restraining quantity,

eg. 50% of scalar addition of CT currents
I1 + I2
2
Bias
Operate
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 4
Slide 5
Slide 6
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and

Under Through Fault Conditions
Bias

Under Internal Fault Conditions
Bias
I1
Bias
I2
Bias
I1
I2
Operate
Operate
I1+I2 0
I1+I2 = IF
Slide 7

Typical Relay Characteristic

Typical Relay Characteristic
I1 + I2
I1 + I2
Operating Current
Operating Current
TRIP
TRIP
RESTRAIN
RESTRAIN
TRIP
TRIP
RESTRAIN
RESTRAIN
Restraint (Bias) Current
I1 + I2
2
Restraint (Bias) Current
Slide 10

z
Slide 8
I1 + I2
2
Slide 11
Protection - Can be set reasonably sensitive
CTs are matched

No phase angle mismatch across the generator
No neutral current (zero sequence) mismatch
No over excitation (3rd & 5th harmonic) mismatch
No 2nd harmonic (transformer inrush) mismatch
z
Nevertheless, a small amount of 2nd harmonic restrain may

be warranted, especially if a hard energisation of the
generator transformer may occur
Relay bias
z
z
Allows for any CT mismatch

Bias increased at higher fault currents to accommodate any
CT saturation
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 12
Slide 13
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and

z
CTs are matched
Exactly the same ratio ie no compensating turns !!

Class PX recommended
Worst mismatch ??
CT saturation on a heavy through fault

Ensure stability for this as worst case event
Zmag = 0
Rct
Rleads
Rstab
V=
IF
(R CT + R LEADS )
CT
Rleads
Slide 14

Setting Voltage and Margins
z
AC Component
DC Component
Hence, employ a DC Stabilised Relay
And considering 0% / 100% CT saturation case
No additional margin on the setting is required

This in an unrealistically extreme case
100% safety margin is automatically built in
Rstab
So, no additional safety margin on setting is required
Slide 17

CT Selection
z
z
All CTs to be the same ratio

All CTs to have Vk 2.Vsetting
This is an absolute MUST

Preferably Vk 5.Vsetting
Need to know
Slide 16
Fault current comprises
Knee Point voltage

CT Resistance
Not critical
But easiest to specify
class PX CTs
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 18

Metrosils
Magnetising
Magnetising
current
currentat
atknee
knee
point
pointvoltage
voltage
z
z
z
CT
CTknee
knee
point
pointvoltage
voltage
CT
CTinternal
internal
resistance
resistance
In the case of a heavy internal fault, secondary system voltages may

become excessive
Implications include damage to equipment and safety of personnel
Empirical Formula
VPEAK = 2 2 VK (VF VK )
z
z
Class Requirements
VK 2 VSET
VK = CT RMS knee point voltage

VF = Maximum RMS voltage that would occur if the CT did not
saturate
Install metrosils if this voltage become excessive
(eg. >2.8kV peak)
0.1 PX 200 R5
Slide 19
Slide 20
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
Core Balance Differential Protection

(for smaller generators)
BIAS DIFF
'X'
BIAS DIFF
'Y'
Diff
G
HIGH IMP
DIFF 'Y'
BIAS DIFF
'X'
Slide 21
Slide 22
Voltage Displacement Protection

OVERALL
BIAS DIFF
z
TRANSFORMER
BIAS DIFF
z
z
z
High resistance earthing

And with the GCB open un-earthed system
Voltage displacement protection measures 3.Vo
Problems
Ferro-resonance
Unbalanced Capacitance
GENERATOR
HIGH IMP
DIFF
Slide 23
Slide 24
Voltage Displacement Protection

z
GCB
(OPEN)
GENERATOR
TRANSFORMER
Measures 3.Vn for a solid E/F
Healthy phases rise to full phase-phase potential

Healthy phases are now 60 deg apart
Thus, for standard 63.5V VT, output voltage is 190.5V
Set relay to 10% say 20V
VT with open delta

secondary winding
190.5
63.5
110
63.5
110 VVVV
190.5
Voltage
Displacement
Relay
Barrie Moor : 2012
Neutral
Displacement
Protection
Slide 25
Slide 26
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
Stator Earth Fault Protection

z
High resistance earthing limits E/F to low levels
Not less than capacitance current

Insulation breakdown
Core damage
Rapid Tripping
To minimise EF damage
To minimise probability of subsequent EF causing a
phase-phase fault
But not to result in nuisance tripping
95% Protection Neutral Voltage Displacement

100% Protection - Signal Injection
Slide 27
Slide 29
95% Stator Earth Fault Protection
95% Stator
EF Protection
Slide 30
Slide 31
Transient Overvoltage Conditions

and Stator Earthfault Protection
100% Stator Earth Fault Protection
A
B
C
NEUTRAL
GROUNDING
STRAY
CAPACITANCES
I CAPA
EARTH
FAULT
I CAPB
95% Stator
EF Protection
I CAPTOTAL
I CAPA I CAPB
IN
100% Stator EF Protection
via Injection Method
Barrie Moor : 2012
Require : I N
Slide 32
I CAPTOTAL
Slide 33
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
Transient Overvoltage Conditions

and Stator Earthfault Protection
z
z
z
z
z
Transmission System
Faults & Stator Earthfault Protection
350 MVA Generator

20 kV phase-phase
0.4 F per phase
I1 & I2 only
Determine a suitable direct connected neutral earthing

resistor
The neutral earthing resistor is to connected via a
20kV/220V transformer determine the neutral earthing
resistor
No generator neutral
current for HV system
earth fault.
Slide 34
Transmission System
Transmission System
Transformer
HV to LV
Winding Capacitance
z
z
z
z
z
UGN = Generator rated voltage

C12 = HV-LV coupling capacitance
UHV = System HV voltage
6 = only 1/6 th of voltage is effective
6 = 3 phases x 2 safety factor
0.05 = 5% setting voltage
Re max
Small generator neutral
earth fault, due to Transformer
HV-LV capacitive coupling.
Slide 36
Slide 37
0.05 U GN
U
6 C12 HV
6
Transformer
HV to LV
Winding Capacitance
Small generator neutral

earth fault, due to Transformer
HV-LV capacitive coupling.
Slide 38
3rd Harmonic Earth Fault Protection

3rd harmonic voltage
exists under normal
conditions
3rd harmonic voltage

is essentially shorted
out and falls to a low value
under fault conditions
REF
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 39
Slide 40
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
Parallel Connected Generators

& Stator Earthfault Protection
Generator Earthing via Earthing Transformer
Core Balance
Current Direction
Detection
Core Balance
Current Direction
Detection
A-E
A
Core Balance
Current Direction
Detection
z
z
z
z
Slide 41
Generator Earthing via Earthing Transformer
Slide 42
Transverse Differential Protection

A
N1 / N2
Earthing Resistance
RA
Earthing Transformer rated to perhaps several hundred kVA

Open Delta secondary voltage is not VSEC
A-E & B-E voltages now become full ph-ph potential
And are at 60 deg, not 120deg
Open delta output is 3 x VSEC
B-E
C
Earthed
95% Stator
EF Protection
B
RB
100% Stator
EF Injection
Signal
BIAS ELEMENTS
Slide 43
Interturn Protection
Rotor Earth Fault Protection

z
z
z
Unearthed system
Single Fault not a major problem - Delayed tripping
Double Fault is a major problem - Instantaneous tripping
VT Star point NOT

earthed, but connected to
generator star point,
above the earthing resistor
Barrie Moor : 2012
Arcing and burning damage due to current flow

Mechanical damage due to unbalanced mechanical forces
This may be disastrous !!!!!
Monitor DC insulation level - Usually 2 stages
Interturn
Protection
Slide 44
Alarm when DC insulation falls a little

Trip when DC insulation becomes unacceptably low
Hence, we
measure phase
unbalance, not
3.Vo
Slide 45
Slide 46
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and

Potentiometer Method

Injection Method
Detects all Field
Winding earth faults
even when generator is
off-line
Detects all Field

Winding earth faults
except mid-point faults
Field
Winding
Field
Winding
Exciter
Exciter
Slide 47
To initiate backup tripping

of remote CBs
z
z
Breaker Fail
Current Check
High fault current events

Low fault current events
Current Check
CB Contacts
&
&
0.15
sec
0.20
sec
Trip
Trip
Generator CB status
based on
Auxiliary Contact Operation
Generator and
Transmission Events
Slide 49
z
z
Thermal Overload Capacity
t=
Tripping of Generator
Islanding of Generator
Start Stage
Tripping Stage
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 50
Stator Overload Protection
Generator Event
External Event
And, for both of these, consider the effects of ...
GENERATOR
PROTECTION
Generator CB
TRIP Signal
Slide 48
GENERATOR and
POWER STATION
PROTECTION
Generator CB Fail Protection

z
Auxiliary
Supply
Push Button to detect

Field Winding mid-point
faults
Slide 51
Const
I2 1
Alarm
Delayed to allow time for operator action
But within the machine capability
Thermal memory
Slide 52
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
Stator Overload Capability
Stator Overload Capability
1 10
Seconds
Seconds
1 10
1000
100
Curve Allowing
for
Stator Cooling
1000
t=
100
Manufacturers
Adiabatic
10 Curve
t =
Manufacturers
Adiabatic
10 Curve
Const
I2 1
t =
2
I
Const
1
ln 1 rated2
2
I rated 1 I 1
Const
I2 1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
1.2
Generator Current (pu)
1.4
1.6
1.8
Generator Current (pu)
Slide 53
Slide 54
VOLTAGE CONTROLLED OVERCURRENT
NPS Protection
TIME
Reverse rotating stator flux cuts the rotor at double

frequency
Rotor is not laminated
Long time tripping
Overload characteristic
(Voltage Normal)
Results in significant rotor eddy current heating effects

To allow time for operator intervention
I2 t = const
Fault Characteristic
(Voltage Depressed)
CURRENT
Slide 55
Slide 56
NEGATIVE PHASE SEQUENCE PROTECTION

Continuous NPS Rating
I 2R
8.%
Generator NPS Constant
Const
10
Manufacturers Formula
2.
Const
NPS Capability
t
Const
I 2
1 10
For NPS heating over a longer time, allow for heat

dissipated
t=
SECONDS
1000
I
K
ln 1 2R
2
I2 R
I2
100
10
0.1
0.01
0.1
10
NPS CURRENT
Standard Manufactuers NPS Formula
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 58
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
NEGATIVE PHASE SEQUENCE PROTECTION

Continuous NPS Rating
I 2R
8.%
Generator NPS Constant
Const
10
Manufacturers Formula
2.
Over Voltage Protection

t
Const
Const
I 2
GEC Formula including

allowance for heat dissipation
Const .
ln 1
2
I 2R
I 2R
I 2
Causes
1 10
AVR malfunction
Transmission system major load rejection
SECONDS
Time delay
1000
100
To allow time for transmission system causes to be

rectified (eg. By tripping of capacitor banks)
Effects
10
Over Voltage damage to insulation

Over Excitation heating effects
0.1
10
0.1
0.01
NPS CURRENT
Standard Manufactuers NPS Formula
GEC NPS Formula including heat dissipation effects
Over Excitation Protection
Over Excitation Protection

z
V = 4.44 f N max
V
1
=
f 4.44 N
z
z
z
Slide 61
May only be active when GCB is open

May be set to trip excitation only when the GCB is open
Several Stages
Coordination with O/V Protection
Reset Ratio
Voltage
Frequency
GCB Interlocking
V
f
max
Flux depends on
max
Slide 60
To ensure Over Excitation protection resets OK after

clearance of transmission system events.
Slide 62
Reverse Power Protection
GeneratorOver
Allowable VoltsCapability
/ Hertz
Generator
Generator OverExcitation
Excitation Capability
1000
Generator Over Excitation

Capability
SECONDS
Trip GCB
100
Trip Switchyard CBs

Over Excitation
Stage 2
z
Over Excitation
Stage 1
(GCB Closed)
10
z
Over Excitation
Stage 1
(GCB Open during run-up)
Over Voltage
Protection
1
1
1.025
1.05
1.075
1.1
Allowable Volts / Hertz
1.125
1.15
1.175
1.2
1.225
1.25
1.275
Causes
Loss of prime mover
Out of step events
Inadvertent GCB closure
GCB closure without excitation
Consequences
Fire hazard
Shaft damage
Turbine blade damage (eg. due to loss of steam cooling)
Tripping
High speed during genuine reverse power faults
Low speed during normal machine shut down
(eg to ensure steam valves are really closed)
1.3
Volts / Hertz (pu)
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 64
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
Under Excitation Protection

z
Generator Capability Diagram
Total loss of excitation
Under excitation due to generator (eg AVR) faults
Under excitation due to system events
Prime Mover (MW)

Limit
Operation as an induction generator

Rotor slip frequency current thermal damage
High speed tripping
MW
Stator Current (MVA)

Limit
Stability
Limit
Field
Current
Limit
Delayed tripping
Multi stage tripping
MVAr
Slide 66
Generator Capability Diagram
Slide 67
Under Excitation Protection
MW
Results in a circle of
infinite diameter on the
MW / MVAr diagram
ie. a straight line
R
Also results in a circle
on the MW/MVAr
capability diagram
Loss
Lossof
of
Excitation
Excitation
Protection
Protection
Under
Under
Excitation
Excitation
Protection
Protection
Based on generator
impedance parameters,
but recommend to check
the capability diagram too.
MVAr
Slide 68
Slide 69
Under Frequency Protection
Generator
Under
Frequence Capability
Capability
Generator
Under
Frequency
100
Over Excitation Problems
z
z
LP Turbine blade stress problems

Cumulative effects
Multi-staged tripping
Continuous : 47.5 - 51 Hz
Minutes
SECONDS
Best covered by genuine Over Excitation protection
10
Allow for (say) 15 events in the machines lifetime

First stages to island the machine
Final stage to trip the machine
0.1
45 45.5 46
46.5 47
Turbine Life
Barrie Moor : 2012
47.5 48
48.5 49
49.5 50 50.5 51 51.5 52 52.5 53 53.5 54
Frequency
Slide 70
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and
Generator
Under
Capability
Generator
Under
Frequency
Generator
Under
Capability
Generator
Under
Frequency
100
100
Minutes
SECONDS
Minutes
SECONDS
10
10
1
Complete Shutdown
1
Complete Shutdown
Island
Island
0.1
0.1
45 45.5 46
46.5 47
47.5 48
48.5 49
49.5 50 50.5 51 51.5 52 52.5 53 53.5 54
Turbine Life
45 45.5 46
Frequency
Under Frequency Protection

z
z
z
z
z
Barrie Moor : 2012
49.5 50 50.5 51 51.5 52 52.5 53 53.5 54
Frequency
Slide 75
Typically the generator is unloaded in over frequency (over

speed) scenarios
Mechanical devices also provide over speed protection
Slide 76
Out of Step Protection

(Pole Slipping)
X
Causes
Transmission system power swings due to slow clearance of
faults
Increased transmission system reactance due to tripping of
feeders
Effects
Voltage and frequency fluctuations
Indiscriminate operation of generator and transmission system
protection relays
Other generators also fall out of step
Mechanical damage
Detection by monitoring transmission system impedance
48.5 49
Many relays provide over frequency protection

Not a problem for the turbine blades

(Pole Slipping)
z
47.5 48
Over Frequency Protection
Cumulative effect
Assume say 15 events over the machines lifetime
Protection set to trip when 1/15th of life is used
Set each stage tripping time based on the withstand of the next
stage
If stages 1-3 island and stage 4 trips the generator
May be prudent to set stage 4 to a slower time than stage 3
Provides for rapid fall in frequency and prevents unnecessary
tripping
Stage 3 has already de-loaded the generator, so slower stage 4
time is OK
46.5 47
Turbine Life
Unstable swing, but not

specifically involving this
particular generator.
May trip on 2nd or subsequent
swings.
Zsystem
Stage 2
Unstable swing, specifically

involving this particular
generator. Trip on 1st swing.
swings if coordination with
transmission system power
swing tripping is required.
0.9 x Xtf
Stage 1
-Xd'
Slide 77
Slide 78
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and

(Pole Slipping)
z
z
Characteristic A
-Xd'
ra
0.9 x XTr
Requires a swing counting system
120
R
Stage 2 swing involves other generators

May raise alarm only
May trip on 2nd or subsequent swings
z
rb
Requires a swing counting system

Characteristic B
Slide 79

(Pole Slipping)
Slide 80

(Pump Storage Synchronous Motor)
Stable swing, but not specifically

involving this particular generator.
Tripping not required.
Characteristic A
Characteristic A
ra
ra
0.9 x XTr
120
R
Stable swing, specifically involving

this particular generator.
Tripping not required.
0.9 x XTr
120
R
X'd
X'd
rb
rb
Characteristic B
Characteristic B
Slide 81
Embedded Generation and

Protection Schemes at PCC
Over Voltage
Under Voltage
Over Frequency
Under Frequency
Loss of Utility Supply
Neutral Voltage Displacement

Reverse Power
Directional Over Current
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 82
The embedded generation must not be permitted to

supply Utility customers in isolation
And also perhaps

Islanding Detection
Typical protection schemes at the Point of Common

Coupling (PCC) include
Unstable swing, specifically

involving this particular
generator. Trip on 1st swing.
swings if coordination with
transmission system power
swing tripping is required.
X'd
Should be employed in conjunction and coordination with

transmission system Power Swing Tripping schemes
Unstable swing, but not

specifically involving this
particular generator.
swings.
Stage 1 swing requires tripping of generator

May trip on first or 2nd swing
z
0.9 x Xtf
Swing entering and leaving from the RHS

will stabilise
Swing entering the RHS but exiting via the LHS
will not stabilise

(Pole Slipping)
Zsystem
Stage 2
Stage 1
Slide 83
The Utility supply is normally the means of regulating the

system voltage and frequency within the permitted limits.
The Utility connection may be the only means of ensuring
an effectively earthed system.
Utility reclose onto unsynchronised embedded generators
is likely
Safety for utility workers : Who may not expect the system
to remain energised by the embedded generation supply
Slide 84
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and

Islanding Detection
z

Islanding Detection
On lost of Utility connection
Embedded generation may be overloaded, leading to

generator undervoltage/underfrequency.
Embedded generation may be underloaded, leading to
overvoltage/overfrequency.
Little change to the absolute levels of voltage or frequency
if there is little resulting change to the load flow.
Significant mismatch between embedded generator

capability and island system load
But when the embedded generator capability and island

system load reasonably match
Slide 85
Voltage Vector Shift Relay
Change in load on disconnection from the utility

Subsequent step change in generator phase angle
Easily determined by measuring zero crossing duration of

the voltage waveform
Slide 87

Islanding Detection
z
Barrie Moor : 2012
Probably the most often used scheme

Rate of change of frequency (df/dt), in response to
inevitable small load changes
df/dt is greater with the generation isolated than when
the generation is in parallel with the public,
interconnected power system.
Simply determined by measurement of time between zero
crossings system of voltage.
Problem : Possible nuisance tripping in response to normal
power system events, where the system is subject to
significant frequency excursions.
Direct intertripping simply based on SCADA system status

of Utility system CBs and Reclosers
Power Line signalling scheme
Signal is continually broadcast from the utility system
using the power lines as the signalling path
Lost of signal at the generator indicates an island
condition
Slide 88

Islanding Detection
ROCOF (Rate of Change of Frequency) Relay
Slide 86
Transfer Tripping Schemes
V1 V2
P=
Sin()
X
Transfer Tripping schemes

ROCOF (Rate of Change of Frequency) relay
Change in Harmonic Distortion
Active Detection Techniques

Islanding Detection

Islanding Detection
z
May be detected by voltage and frequency protection

schemes
Vector Shift Protection
Change in Harmonic Distortion
Slide 89
Harmonic distortion when connected to the utility will be

small and stable
Especially with invertor based generators, total harmonic
distortion (THD) will increase when disconnected from the
utility supply
Easily detected by changes in 3rd harmonic.
Slide 90
(07) 3298 5260
Generator and

Islanding Detection
z
REF 'Y'
And putting it all together

VOLTAGE
DISPLACEMENT 'X'
PILOT WIRE 'Y'

PILOT WIRE 'X'
VOLTAGE
DISPLACEMENT 'Y'
SYNCH
GENERATOR
TRANSFORMER
Active Detection Techniques
To detect islanding even under perfect load match

Small variations are purposely applied to the AVR system
When connected to the utility supply, these variations
have negligible effect on the output from the embedded
generator
But when disconnected from the utility system,
significant turbulence results
Reactive Export Error Detector (REED) relay detects
excessive changes in reactive power flow
corresponding to the AVR changes
Detection time will be greater than for the passive
schemes
DIFF 'Y'
CB FAIL 'X'
DIFF 'X'
CB FAIL 'Y'
INST OC 'Y'
STATOR
OVERLOAD 'Y'
NEGATIVE
SEQUENCE 'Y'
OUT OF
STEP 'Y'
REVERSE
POWER 'Y'
LOSS/UNDER
EXCITATION 'Y'
DIFF 'X'
BUCH
AVR
HIGH IMP
DIFF 'Y'
BIASED
DIFF 'X'
UNIT
TRANSFORMER
NEF
AVR
IDMT OC
SYNCH
OC 'X'
DIFF 'Y'
EXCITATION
TRANSFORMER
UNDER
FREQUENCY 'X'
UNDER
FREQUENCY 'Y'
OVER
VOLTAGE 'X'
OVER
VOLTAGE 'Y'
OVER
EXCITATION 'X'
OVER
EXCITATION 'Y'
OUT OF
STEP 'X'
NEGATIVE
SEQUENCE 'X'
REF 'Y'
LOSS/UNDER
EXCITATION 'X'
STATOR
OVERLOAD 'X'
REVERSE
POWER 'X'
BUS ZONE
SHUNT
ROTOR
EF 'X'
ROTOR
EF 'Y'
STATOR EF 'X'
STATOR EF
INJECTION 'Y'
Barrie Moor : 2012
Slide 91
(07) 3298 5260

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Generator and

Power Station Protection

The material presented in this module is for Educational purposes

Barrie Moor : 2012

Over Current Protection

High Impedance Differential Protection

Barrie Moor : 2012

Seminar costs will vary depending on attendee

You can expect savings of between 40%

2 or 3 day seminar presentation

Each attendee receives:

Two or three day seminar presentation

Seminar conference room (preferably on-site, within your own facilities)

To discuss your requirements, or to obtain a firm price quotation,

Over Current Protection

Over Current Protection

Over Load Protection

Over Current Protection

Operation to the thermal capability of plant

Setting chosen to ensure CB nearest to the fault opens

Apply where fault current varies with fault location due to

Barrie Moor : 2012

Relay A cannot distinguish

And a fault here for

Over Current Protection

Discrimination by Time & Current

Significant difference between

Inverse Over Current Relays

Faster operating times at higher fault levels

Curves generally plotted in log - log or

Time and current

Inverse time and

Relay Curves to IEC 60255

Relay Curves to IEC 60255

TIME Very _ Inverse =

I = Actual relay current

Barrie Moor : 2012

I = Actual relay current

Over Current Protection

Relay Curves to IEC 60255

Relay Curves to IEC 60255

TIME Long _ Time _ Inverse =

I = Actual relay current

I = Actual relay current

IDMT Relay Grading Curves

Standard Characteristics to IEC 60255

Very Inverse (VI)

Extremely Inverse (EI)

Long Time (LTI)

Standard Inverse (SI)

Electro Mechanical Relays

US Characteristics to IEC 60255

U5 Short Time Inverse

L FLUX PRODUCED BY SHADING LOOP

FLUX PRODUCED BY INPUT CURRENT

Barrie Moor : 2012

FLUX PRODUCED BY INPUT

= Time dial (TMS)

Over Current Protection

Electro Mechanical Relays

Electro Mechanical Relays

Current sensitivity selected by Plugs on the magnetic circuit