Sedimentary

Rocks
What Do We See

Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks

only 5% of Earths crust
J cover about 75% of surface
J raw material (sediment) of
sedimentary rocks - weathering
or erosion of pre-existing rock
J basic sources:
J

detrital
non-detrital

Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks

detrital - mineral/rock fragments
detritus or clasts - produced by
mechanical weathering or
erosion
detrital sedimentary rocks

sandstone
shale
mudstone

Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks

non-detrital - precipitate from
solution (chemical weathering)
inorganic or biochemical
processes
chemical sedimentary rocks

limestone
halite
gypsum

... whats
involved in the
physical
transport of
sediment?

Transport and Deposition

place of weathering to place of
deposition:

angular particles become rounded

sorted by size and composition
agents of sediment transport
water (primary mechanism),
gravity, wind, and ice
sediment deposition processes
(sedimentation):
loss of velocity, evaporation and/
or chemical interactions

Detrital Transport
carried in suspension by:
ice: any size particle
water: small gravel and
smaller size particles
wind: sand and smaller sizes
abrasion and rounding
removes corners
sorting separates like-sized
particles

Detrital Deposition
deposition = decrease in
energy or velocity
settling rate depends on:
particle size
density

... what
about
chemical
transport of
sediment?

Chemical Deposition
results from saturation
due to:
increase of available
ions through
oversupply or
evaporation
change in
temperature or other
chemical conditions

... in what
types of
environments
is sediment
deposited?

Depositional Environments
Deep Marine

deep ocean - submarine fans

(turbidites)

Depositional Environments
Marine - shallow ocean
(continental shelf)
lagoon
reef
barrier island

Depositional Environments
Transitional
Beach
Delta

Depositional Environments
Continental
(terrestrial)

fluvial (streams)
eolian (deserts)
lacustrine (lakes)
glacial

... how is
sediment
converted into
solid rock?

Lithification
conversion of sediment
into rock results from:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Compaction
Desiccation
Cementation
Crystallization

Lithification
1) Compaction - sediment grains
packed together through burial
reduction in volume by up
to 40%
results from pressure or
weight of overlying
sediments

Lithification
2) Desiccation - loss of water
from sediment pore spaces
results from compaction and
evaporation in air

Lithification
3) Cementation - minerals
precipitated from sediment
pore fluids bind particles
common cements - calcite
(CaCO3) and quartz (SiO2),
dolomite [(CaMg)CO3], iron
oxides (Fe2O3) and hydroxides
[FeO(OH)]

Lithification
4) Crystallization - formation of
interlocking crystals in
chemical sediments

... what
special
features
characterize
sedimentary
rocks?

Grain Sizes
both detrital and
chemical sedimentary
rocks can show
fragmented texture
separated by clast size
Wentworth Scale of
particle size commonly
used:
gravel > 2 mm
sand 1/16 to 2 mm
silt 1/256 to 1/16 mm
clay < 1/256 mm

Sorting

degree to which clast or

particle sizes similar

Sorting
occurs during transport with
particles separated by:
a) grain size - largest particles
settle first
b) composition - densest minerals
settle first

Sorting
poorly-sorted mix of particle
sizes

well-sorted - if
primarily one
particle size

Clast Shape

angularity or roundness depends

on how far rock transported:
a) Roundness degree of edge
and corner
removal
b) Sphericity degree to which
fragment
approaches
spheroid shape

Non-clastic Textures
interlocking crystals shown only
by chemical sedimentary rocks
subdivided according to crystal
size :

fine-grained (< 1 mm)

medium-grained (1-5 mm)
coarse-grained (> 5 mm)

... what are

the different
types of
sedimentary
rocks?

Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

conglomerate - gravel-sized
rounded particles (>2 mm)
surrounded by fine-grained
material:

deposition in high-energy
environment
characteristic of streams and
beaches

Conglomerate

Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

sedimentary breccia particles > 64 mm and angular:
material not transported great
distances

Sedimentary Breccia

Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

sandstones - sand-sized particles
(0.06-2 mm):

mainly quartz, some feldspar and

rock fragments:
1) Quartz Sandstone - almost pure quartz
2) Arkose - quartz and more than 25%
feldspar
3) Graywacke - Dirty sandstone containing
quartz, feldspar, rock, and clay

both arkose and graywacke lack of

transport

Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

Mudrocks - low-energy environment:
1) Siltstones

silt-sized quartz and feldspar particles ( 0.06

mm)

2) Mudstones

silt- and clay-sized particles ( 0.004 mm)

clay, quartz, feldspar, calcite, and dolomite
3) Claystones - mostly clay

4) Shales

most abundant detrital rock

rock breaks into layers (parallel to bedding)

Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

Rounded rock fragments

Conglomerate

Angular rock fragments

Breccia

Quartz predominates

Quartz
sandstone
Arkose

Quartz with considerable

feldspar
Dark color, quartz with
considerable feldspar, clay and
rock fragments
Splits into thin layers

Breaks into clumps or blocks

Graywacke

Shale

Mudstone

Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

organic (biochemical) or inorganic
activity
1) limestone/dolostone (carbonate rock) biochemical or inorganic rock of calcite or
dolomite
2) evaporite (rock salt, rock gypsum) - halite,
sylvite, or gypsum inorganically precipitated
3) chert - microscopic quartz deposited by
biochemical or inorganic processes
4) coal - biochemical material (land plants that
grew in swamps)

Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

Inorganic

Clastic or
non-clastic
Clastic or
non-clastic
Non-clastic
Non-clastic
Non-clastic

Clastic or
non-clastic
Biochemical Non-clastic
Non-clastic

Calcite, CaCO3

Limestone

Dolomite,
CaMg(CO3)2
Microcrystalline
quartz, SiO2
Halite, NaCl

Dolomite
(dolostone)
Chert

Gypsum
CaSO42H2O
Calcite, CaCO3

Rock gypsum

Rock salt

Limestone

Microcrystalline
Chert
quartz, SiO2
Altered plant remains Coal

... what can

sedimentary
rocks tell us
anyway?

evidence preserved in sedimentary

rocks allows events and processes
which formed them to be inferred
specific depositional environment of
ancient sedimentary rocks indicated
by sedimentary structures

Sedimentary Structures

Bedding or Stratification
usually horizontal
or sub-horizontal
layering

Sedimentary Structures

Laminated Bedding
closely spaced parallel layering

Sedimentary Structures

Graded Bedding
progressive
decrease in
grain size
upward
through
bed
rapid
deposition
top of bed
indicator

Sedimentary Structures

Cross-Bedding
nonhorizontal
bedding
wind or water
currents
indicate top
of bed and
paleocurrent
directions

Sedimentary Structures

Ripple Marks
small waves on surface
of sediment caused by
water or wind
movement
used as top of bed
indicator
two forms:
a) wave-formed ripple
marks
b) current-formed
ripple marks

Sedimentary Structures

Wave-formed Ripple Marks

symmetric
ripples
formed in surf
zone

Sedimentary Structures

Current Ripple Marks

water or air
moves in one
direction
current indicator

Sedimentary Structures

Mud Cracks

polygonal
cracks

contraction
during
desiccation of
silt- and claysized sediment
shallow water
deposition
top indicator

Sedimentary Structures

Secondary Structures
form long after rock formation
provide no clues about
deposition:
nodules

concretions
geodes

Sedimentary Structures

Nodules
parallel
bedding
irregular,
knobbysurfaced
mineral body
different
composition
than
surroundings

Sedimentary Structures

Septarian Nodules
dehydration
cracks filled
by material
of different
composition

Sedimentary Structures

Concretions
usually spherical
characterized by
concentric
layering
composed of
silicic material

Sedimentary Structures

Geodes
in limestone and
shale
roughly spherical
hollow structures
pocket of water
surrounded by
silica deposition
large quartz or
calcite crystals
grow inward

Sedimentary Structures

Fossils
preserved plant and animal
remains

clues about ancient life, evolution,

and depositional environment
basis for constructing geologic
calendar
allow rocks to be correlated in time
two types

Fossils
most dissolved
and replaced
silica and pyrite
(e.g., petrified
wood):
mold - cavity
cast - filled
mold

. so what do
these structures
tell us about how
and where
sediments are
deposited?

Sedimentary Facies
different sedimentary rocks deposited
in different places at same time
change in composition and nature
laterally due to changes in depositional
environment
rock assemblages reflect particular
depositional environment

Sedimentary Facies
may result from sea level fluctuations:
1) Marine Regressions

sediment deposition during falling sea

level
deep marine deposits overlain by
shallower marine and nearshore deposits

2) Marine Transgressions

sediment deposition during sea level rise

sandstone (nearshore) overlain by shale
(shallow marine) and limestone (deeper
marine)

why are such

variations important
and why worry
about where
sediments are
deposited anyway?

Sedimentary Hosted Resources

Petroleum/
Natural Gas/
Oil Shales/
Tar Sands
migrate upward
until reach surface
or trapped
petroleum trap permeable
reservoir rock and
impermeable cap
rock

Sedimentary Hosted Resources

Uranium ores
occur in fluvial sandstones containing
organic matter
uranium transported in groundwater
until reducing conditions cause
precipitation

Banded iron formations

largest source of iron ore
deposited in shallow seas
iron precipitated from
seawater by oxygen
addition from algae
(photosynthesis) or
bacteria (respiration)

Sedimentary Hosted Resources

other sediment or sedimentary
rock derived resources:
building materials
sand and gravel - construction
limestone - cement
gypsum - wallboard and plaster
clay - bricks
quartz - glass

Sedimentary Hosted Resources

other sediment or sedimentary
rock derived resources:
halite - seasoning and preservative
clay - ceramics and kitty litter
phosphates - fertilizers, matches,
and preservatives
diatomite - filtration
coal - energy and coke in steel
production