Department of Civil Engineering

NERA
A Computer Program for
Nonlinear Earthquake site Response Analyses
of Layered Soil Deposits

by
J. P. BARDET and T. TOBITA

April 2001

Table of Contents
1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 1
2. MODELING SOIL RESPONSE DURING SHEAR CYCLES ....................................................... 1
2.1 Viscoelastic Model.................................................................................................................. 1
2.2 Equivalent Linear Model......................................................................................................... 2
2.3 Nonlinear and Hysteretic Model ............................................................................................. 3
2.3.1 Energy dissipated during strain cycles ............................................................................ 5
3. ONE-DIMENSIONAL GROUND RESPONSE ANALYSIS .......................................................... 9
4. FINITE DIFFERENCE FORMULATION OF ONE-DIMENSIONAL SITE RESPONSE
ANALYSIS...................................................................................................................................... 11
4.1 Spatial and time discretizations............................................................................................ 11
4.2 Central difference algorithm ................................................................................................. 12
5. DESCRIPTION OF NERA ......................................................................................................... 14
5.1 System requirement, distribution files and download NERA................................................ 14
5.2 Installing and removing NERA ............................................................................................. 14
5.3 NERA commands................................................................................................................. 15
5.4 NERA worksheets ................................................................................................................ 16
5.4.1 Earthquake data ............................................................................................................ 17
5.4.2 Soil Profile...................................................................................................................... 18
5.4.3 Material stress-strain damping-strain curves................................................................. 20
5.4.4 Calculation ..................................................................................................................... 21
5.4.5 Output (Acceleration)..................................................................................................... 22
5.4.6 Output (Strain) ............................................................................................................... 23
5.4.7 Output (Ampli)................................................................................................................ 23
5.4.8 Output (Fourier) ............................................................................................................. 24
5.4.9 Output (Spectra) ............................................................................................................ 25
5.5 Running NERA ..................................................................................................................... 26
6. REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 27
7. APPENDIX A: SAMPLE PROBLEM .......................................................................................... 29
7.1 Definition of problem ............................................................................................................ 29
7.2 Results.................................................................................................................................. 33
8. APPENDIX B: COMPARISON OF NERA AND EERA RESULTS ............................................ 39

1. INTRODUCTION
During past earthquakes, the ground motions on soil sites were found to be generally larger than
those of nearby rock outcrops (e.g., Seed and Idriss, 1968). One of the first computer programs
for simulating soil site responses was SHAKE (Schnabel et al., 1972). Based on Kanai (1951),
Roesset and Whitman (1969), and Tsai and Housner (1970), SHAKE assumes that the cyclic soil
behavior can be simulated using an equivalent linear model (e.g., Idriss and Seed, 1968; Seed
and Idriss, 1970; Kramer, 1996; Sugito, 1995; Idriss and Sun, 1992).
In 1998, the computer program EERA was developed starting from the same basic concepts as
SHAKE (Bardet et al., 1998). EERA stands for Equivalent linear Earthquake Response Analysis.
EERA implements the well-known concepts of equivalent linear earthquake site response
analysis taking advantages of FORTRAN 90 and spreadsheet program Excel.
In 2001, the implementation principles used for EERA were applied to NERA, a nonlinear site
response analysis program based on the material model developed by Iwan (1967) and Mroz
(1967). NERA stands for Nonlinear Earthquake Response Analysis and takes full advantages of
FORTRAN 90 and spreadsheet program Excel. Concepts similar to those in NERA have been
used by Joyner and Chen (1975); Prevost, (1989); and Lee and Finn (1978).
Following the introduction, the second section of this report reviews the material models used for
modeling the soil behavior in one-dimensional ground response analysis during earthquakes. The
material models include the viscoelastic model, the equivalent linear model and the model of Iwan
and Mroz. The third section describes the finite different formulation of one-dimensional ground
response analysis. The fourth section describes how to use NERA. The appendices contain a
sample problem and compare NERA and EERA results.

2. MODELING SOIL RESPONSE DURING SHEAR CYCLES

2.1 Viscoelastic Model
As illustrated in Fig. 1, one of the simplest models for simulating the soil stress-strain response
during earthquake loading is the viscoelastic Kelvin-Voigt model. The shear stress depends on
the shear strain and its rate  as follows:

= G + 

(1)

where G is shear modulus and the viscosity. In the case of harmonic loadings with a circular
frequency , Eq. 1 becomes:

(t ) = e it = (G + i )e it = G * e it = G * (t )

(2)

where G is the complex shear modulus; is the amplitude of shear stress; and is the amplitude
of shear strain. After introducing the critical damping ratio so that

= /2G

(3)
*

the complex shear modulus G becomes:

G * = G + i = G (1 + 2i)

(4)

-1-

Figure 1.

Schematic representation of viscoelastic Kelvin-Voigt model.

2.2 Equivalent Linear Model

The equivalent linear approach consists of modifying the Kelvin-Voigt model to account for some
types of soil nonlinearities. The nonlinear and hysteretic stress-strain behavior of soils is
approximated during cyclic loadings as shown in Fig. 2. The equivalent linear shear modulus, G,
is taken as the secant shear modulus Gs, which depends on the shear strain amplitude . As
shown in Fig. 2a, Gs at the ends of symmetric strain-controlled cycles is:

Gs =

c
c

(5)

where c and c are the shear stress and strain amplitudes, respectively. The energy dissipated
Wd during a complete loading cycle is equal to the area generated by the stress-strain loop, i.e.:

Wd = d

(6)

The maximum strain energy stored in the system is:

1
1
Ws = c c = G c2
2
2

(7)

The critical damping ratio can be expressed in terms of Wd and Ws as follows:

Wd
4Ws

(8)

The equivalent linear damping ratio, , is the damping ratio that produces the same energy loss in
a single cycle as the hysteresis stress-strain loop of the irreversible soil behavior.

-2-

Stress ()

Gsec
Gmax

Gsec

Gsec ,

Strain ()

Shear strain (log scale)

Figure 2.

(a)
(b)
Equivalent-linear model: (a) Hysteresis stress-strain curve; and (b) Variation of
secant shear modulus and damping ratio with shear strain amplitude.

In site response analysis, the material behavior is generally specified as shown in Fig. 2b.
Examples of data for Gs- and - curves can be found in Hardin and Drnevitch (1970), Kramer
(1996), Seed and Idriss (1970), Seed et al. (1986), Sun et al. (1988), and Vucetic and Dobry
(1991).

2.3 Nonlinear and Hysteretic Model

As illustrated in Fig. 3, Iwan (1967) and Mroz (1967) proposed to model nonlinear stress-strain
curves using a series of n mechanical elements, having different stiffness ki and sliding resistance
Ri. Herafter, their model is referred to as the IM model. The sliders have increasing resistance
(i.e., R1 < R2 < < Rn). Initially the residual stresses in all sliders are equal to zero. During a
monotonic loading, slider i yields when the shear stress reaches Ri. After having yielded, slider i
retains a positive residual stress equal to Ri. As shown in Fig. 4, the stress-strain curve generated
by the IM model for two sliders (i.e, n = 2) is piecewise linear, whereas the corresponding slope
and tangential modulus H varies in steps. In the case of an IM model with n sliders, the stress
increment d and strain increment d are related through:

d
=H
d

(9)

where the tangential modulus H is:

H1 = k1
H = k 1 + k 1 1
1
2
2

H =
1
1
1 1
H n 1 = k1 + k2 + ... + kn 1
H n = k11 + k21 + ... + kn11 + kn1

if 0 < R1
if R1 < R2

if Rn 2 < Rn 1
if Rn 1 < Rn
if = Rn

-3-

(10)

k1

k2

kn-1

kn

R1

Rn-2

Rn-1

Rn

Figure 3.

Schematic representation of stress-strain model used by Iwan (1967) and Mroz

(1967).
B

Stress

C
R2

A
H1

G/Gmax

R2

R1

R1

H2
Strain

2R2

Stress

2R1
O
D

2R1

E
Strain

Figure 4.

Backbone curve (left) during loading and hysteretic stress-strain loop (right) of IM
model during loading-unloading cycle.

As shown in Fig. 4, the stress-strain curve during a loading is referred to a backbone curve. When
the loading changes direction (i.e., unloading), the residual stress in slider i decreases; slider i
yields in unloading when its residual stress reaches - Ri , i.e., after the stress decreases -2 Ri.
Instead of yield stress, it is convenient to introduce the back stress I: slider i yields in loading and
unloading when becomes equal to I + Ri and I - Ri, respectively. The IM model asumes that
parameters Ri are constant whereas the back stress I varies during loading processes. As
shown in Fig. 4, the cyclic stress-strain curves is hysteretic, and follows Masing similitude rule
(Masing, 1926). Curve CDEF is obtained from curve OABC by a simitude with a factor of 2.
The stress-strain curves of the IM model can be calculated using the algorithm of Table 1. this
algorithm returns an exact value of stress independently of the strain increment amplitude . At
first, the algorithm attempts to calculate the stress increment using the strain increment and
modulus H1. If + 1 + R1 (loading), then + is accepted; the stress is smaller that the yield
stress of slider 1. If + > 1 + R1, the strain increment was too large, and the stress +
exceeded the yield stress of slider 1; the tangential modulus of the stress-strain response was H1
only for the stress increment = i + Ri - and strain increment /H1. The algorithm is reapplied
to slider 2, instead of slider 1, using the remaining strain increment /H1. The algorithm is
repeated for other sliders until + becomes smaller than the yield stress of slider j. Each time,
the remaining strain increment referrred to as x in Table 1 becomes smaller. At this time, the
-4-

backstresses of sliders 1 to j-1 are updated. The algorithm of Table 1 works for loading and
unloading through the use of variable x, which is set to 1 for loading and 1 for unloading,
respectively.
Table 1. Algorithm for stress calculation for given strain increment.
Given , , I, Ri, and Hi for i = 1,,n
x =
if > 0 then x =1 else x = -1
loading or unloading
For i = 1 to n
=Hi x
trial stress increment
If | + - i| Ri then
inside slider i
+
Go to *
End if
= i + x Ri -
correct
+
update
x x - / Hi
left over strain increment
Next i
If i > n then i = n
avoid n+1
If | - i| < Ri or i = n then i = i -1 strictly inside slider i
For j = 1 to i
j = - x Rj
update j
Next j

The nonlinear backbone curve of Fig. 4 can be described in terms a variation of secant shear
modulus G with shear strain , especially by n data points, i.e., Gi-I , i = 1, , n. In this case, the
tangential shear modulus Hi is related to the secant modulus Gi as follows:

Hi =

Gi +1 i +1 Gi i
i = 2, , n-1 and H n = 0
i +1 i

(11)

Assuming that the backstress i is initially equal to zero, Ri is:

Ri = Gi i i = 1, , n

(12)

Equations 11 and 12 imply that the maximum shear resistance is Rn = Gnn, i.e., is specified by
the last point of the G- curve. When the G/Gmax- are specified, then Eqs. 11 and 12 become:

H i = Gmax
where

Gi'+1 i +1 Gi' i
'
i = 2, , n-1 and Ri = Gmax Gi i i = 1, , n
i +1 i

(13)

Gi' = Gi / Gmax .

2.3.1 Energy dissipated during strain cycles

A shown in Fig. 5, when the stress-strain curve follows Masing similitude rule (Masing, 1926), the
areas Ii and Ji corresponding to an unloading from +I to -I and an reloading from -I to +I,
respectively, are four times greater then the area Ai under the stress-strain curve for a loading
from 0 to I. The areas Ai, Ii and Ji are defined as:
i

Ai = d
0

Ii =

( i )d

= 4 Ai , and J i =

-5-

( i + )d

= 4 Ai

(14)

The dissipated energy

Wd i during a complete cycle of strain amplitude I, which is the area of the

hysteretic loop, is:

i

Wd i = d = d + d = I i + J i 4 i i = 8 Ai 4 i i i = 1, , n
i

Stress

Ai
Stress

(15)

Strain
i

Ii

Strain

i
i

Stress

i
i

Strain

i
i

Ji
i
Figure 5.

Areas Ai, Ii, and Ji used for calculation of hysteretic loop of IM model during
loading-unloading cycle.

When the stress-strain curve is piecewise linear and generated by n discrete points (I, GiI), Ai
becomes:

A1 = 0 and Ai =

1 i
(G j j + G j 1 j 1 )( j j 1 ) i = 2, , n
2 j =2

(16)

and Eq. 15 becomes:

Wd i = 8 Ai 4Gi i2 i = 1, , n

(17)

Since the maximum strain energy stored in the system is:

1
Wsi = Gi i2
2

(18)

The critical damping ratio i at shear strain i can be expressed:

-6-

1 =0 and i =

Wd i
4Ws i

2 2 Ai

1 i = 2, ,n
2
Gi i

(19)

When the shear strain exceeds n the IM model assumes that the shear stress is equal to the
shear strength Rn. In this case, the secant modulus G and critical damping ratio becomes:

G=

Rn
2 2(An + Rn ( n ) )
1 for > n
and =

Rn

(20)

For very large shear strain, the secant modulus tends toward zero and the damping ratio tends
toward 2/, i.e.:

G 0 and

2
when

(21)

Equation 19 implies that depends on the shape of the G/Gmax- curve, but is independent of
Gmax. The IM model assumes that the hysteretic stress-strain loop follows Masing similitude. Its
material parameters (i.e., Hi and Ri, i = 1,..,n) are computed solely from the data points Gi-I , i = 1,
, n, which characterizes the G- curves. The IM model can be assigned the same G- curves as
the linear equivalent model. However the damping ratio curves of the IM model are calculated
using Eq. 19. They can not be defined independently as in the case of the linear equivalent
model. In summary, the IM model and the linear equivalent model can be assigned the same G-
curve but in general have different damping ratio curves. Figures 6 and 7 show examples of
calculation of damping ratio from G/Gmax- curves, and comparison to the damping ratio used by
linear equivalent model in the case of clay and sand (Idriss, 1990).
Modulus for sand (Seed & Idriss 1970) - Upper Range and damping for sand (Idriss 1990) - (about LRng from SI 1970)
Calculated
Damping (%)
Area Ai
G/Gmax
Strain (%)
Damping (%)
Strain (%)
1
1
0.99
0.96
0.85
0.64
0.37
0.18
0.08
0.05
0.035
0.0035

0.0001
0.0003
0.001
0.003
0.01
0.03
0.1
0.3
1
3
10

0.24
0.42
0.8
1.4
2.8
5.1
9.8
15.5
21
25
28

0.000000
0.000000
0.000000
0.000004
0.000044
0.000321
0.002288
0.011388
0.058288
0.288288
2.038288
33.538288

70
60

0.8

50

G/Gmax

Shear Modulus
0.6

40

Damping Ratio
0.4

30

Calculated Damping
Ratio

20

0.2
0
0.0001

0.00
0.00
0.00
0.61
2.53
7.34
15.08
25.84
29.11
17.91
10.49
58.34

Damping Ratio (%)

0.0001
0.0003
0.001
0.003
0.01
0.03
0.1
0.3
1
3
10
100

10

0.001

0.01

0.1

10

0
100

Shear Strain (%)

Figure 6.

First example of calculation of damping ratio from a G/Gmax- curve, and

comparison to a damping ratio used by linear equivalent model.
-7-

Modulus for clay (Seed and Sun, 1989) upper range and damping for clay (Idriss 1990)
G/Gmax
1
1
1
0.981
0.941
0.847
0.656
0.438
0.238
0.144
0.11
0.011

Strain (%)
0.0001
0.0003
0.001
0.003
0.01
0.03
0.1
0.3
1
3.16
10

Damping (%)
0.24
0.42
0.8
1.4
2.8
5.1
9.8
15.5
21
25
28

Calculated
Damping (%)
Area Ai
0.000000
0.00
0.000000
0.00
0.000000
0.00
0.000004
0.34
0.000048
0.84
0.000396
2.46
0.003581
5.85
0.023281
11.53
0.152571
17.96
0.822571
17.15
6.184571
7.92
105.184571
58.09

70

60

0.8

G/Gmax

50
0.6

Shear Modulus
40
Damping Ratio

0.4

30

Calculated Damping
Ratio

20

0.2
0
0.0001

Damping Ratio (%)

Strain (%)
0.0001
0.0003
0.001
0.003
0.01
0.03
0.1
0.3
1
3
10
100

10

0.001

0.01

0.1

10

0
100

Shear Strain (%)

Figure 7.

Second example of calculation of damping ratio from a G/Gmax- curve, and

comparison to a damping ratio used by linear equivalent model.

Compared to the linear equivalent model, the IM model has no damping ratio at small strain, and
its damping ratio may temporarily decrease for some strain range due to the relative variation of
Ai and strain energy Ws with shear strain amplitude. As derived in Eq. 21, the damping ratio
increases again and tends toward 2/ for large shear strain. Using Eq. 20, the first derivative of
w.r.t. is:

d 4 Rn n An
for > n
=
d Rn 2

(22)

which is always positive because Rnn is always larger than An. Equation 22 therefore explains
the re-increase of damping ratio for large strain. The damping ratio always increases with shear
strain once the material has failed at constant shear strength.
The IM model can simulate rigid-perfectly plastic material assuming that H1 and n = 1, which
leads to the following dissipated energy Wd, maximum strain energy Ws and damping ratio for
cycles of strain amplitude :

1
Wd = 4R1 , Ws = R1 and
2

Wd
2
=
4Ws
-8-

(23)

Equation 22 gives the upper bound of the damping ratio for the IM model, as the rigid perfectly
plastic model has the largest hysteretic loop.
The IM model can also simulate elastic-perfectly plastic material by selecting n = 1, H1 = Gmax and
R1 = max. When the response is elastic, = 0. The G- and damping curves become:

G Gmax

= R1
H1

when < R1 / H1
when R1 / H1

and

R
= 2
1 1
H1

when < R1 / H1

(24)
when R1 / H1

The damping ratio is initially zero when <R1/H1 then increases with until it reaches 2/.

3. ONE-DIMENSIONAL GROUND RESPONSE ANALYSIS

Figure 8 schematizes the geometry and boundary conditions of one-dimensional site response
analysis. Shear waves propagate vertically in a one-dimensional layered system, in which the soil
layers are assumed to be (1) horizontally homogenous, (2) of infinite horizontal extent, and (3)
subjected only to horizontal motion from bedrock. The governing equation is:

2d
d
+
=
2
t
t z

(25)

where is the soil unit mass; d is the horizontal displacement; z is the depth; t is the time; is the
shear stress; and is a mass-proportional damping coefficient. The boundary conditions are
specified at the free surface (z = 0) and at the bottom of the soil column (i.e., z = H):

= 0 at z = 0 and = B at z = H

(26)

The shear stress B at z = H, which is usually unknown, is calculated from the velocity at z = H.

Layer

Unit mass

Surface z=0
1
2

n-2

n-1

1
2

Thickness Nodes Displacement Spacing

1
d1
z1
2
d2
h1
d3
3
4
d5
h2
5
z5
6
d6
N-5

n-2

hn-2

N-3

n-1

N-2
hn-1

z=H

Figure 8.

N-4

N-1
N

dN
Bedrock

One-dimensional layered soil deposit system and its spatial discretization.

-9-

Figure 9 defines a few terms used in site response analysis. The free surface motion is the
motion at the surface of a soil deposit. The bedrock motion is the motion at the base of the soil
deposit. The rock outcropping motion is the motion at a location where bedrock is exposed at the
ground surface.

Rock
outcropping
motion

Free surface motion

2d I

d1
d I +d R
Bedrock motion
Incoming motion
dI
Figure 9.

Terminology used in site response analysis, and shear wave amplitude at various
location.

As shown in Fig. 9, the eathquake generates an incoming shear wave which propagates vertically
upward and has for amplitude dI through the bedrock. The wave amplitude is dI+dR at the top of
the bedrock under the soil layers where dR is the amplitude of the wave refracted at the soilbedrock interface. The wave amplitude is 2 dI at the rock outcrop because there is no shear
stress on free surfaces. The wave amplitude d1 at the top of the soil column is the main quantity
to be determined by site response analysis.
The stress B at the bottom of the soil column (z = H) can be calculated assuming that the
bedrock is elastic (Joyner and Chen, 1975). Incident waves travel upward through a rock with
shear wave velocity vs . The particle displacement dI due to the incident wave in the bedrock is a
function of depth z and time t :

d I = d I ( z + vs t )

(27)

Similarly, the particle displacement dR due to the reflected wave at the soil-bedrock interface is:

d R = d R ( z vs t )

(28)

The shear stress B is:

B = (
where

d I d R
+
)
z
z

(29)

is the shear modulus of the bedrock. Taking the first derivative of Eqs. 27 and 28,

d I v I
d R
v
and
=
= R
z
vs
z
vs

(30)

where vI and vR are the particle velocity of the incident and refracted waves, respectively. The
velocity vB at z = H is the sum of the velocity of incident and reflected waves,
(31)

vB=vI+vR

- 10 -

Using Eqs. 29 to 31, B becomes,

B =

(2vI vB ) = vs (2vI vB )
vs

(32)

where is the unit mass of the bedrock. Equation 32 relates the shear stress and velocity at the
soil-column interface; it provides an additional equation to define the shear stress at the lower
boundary. Equation 32 also applies to the case of rock outcropping: since B = 0 then vB =2 vI

4. FINITE DIFFERENCE FORMULATION OF ONE-DIMENSIONAL

SITE RESPONSE ANALYSIS
4.1 Spatial and time discretizations
As shown in Fig. 8, the soil deposit is divided into m-1 layers having various thickness hi and unit
mass i for i = 1 to m-1. The displacement d and stress are evaluated at N grid nodes, which
define sublayers within layers. The displacement of node i at time tn is denoted d(zi, tn) = di,n
where zi is the depth of node i. Similarly the stress and strain at node i at time tn are denoted i,n
and i,n, respectively. vi,n and ai,n. denote the velocity v(zi, tn) and acceleration a(zi,tn) of node i at
time tn. First order derivative are approximated using a forward finite-difference approximation:

df ( z i )
f ( z i +1 ) f ( z i )
= lim
0

z
i
dz
z i

(33)

where f represents any differentiable function and zi = zi+1 - zi. Forward finite-difference is
preferred to higher order approximation because it accounts simply for the discontinuity of
displacement derivatives at the layer interfaces. The strain (i.e., displacement gradient) in the
layer below node i and time tn is:

i,n =

d di +1, n di , n
=
z
zi

(34)

As shown in Fig. 10, strain is constant between nodes i and i+1, which implies that the stress is
also constant between nodes i and i+1. The governing equations at nodes i = 1, , N at time tn
are:

i ai , n + i vi , n = Fi , n

(35)

where i and i are the unit mass and viscosity of between nodes i and i+1, respectively, and Fi,n
is the stress gradient at node i. The stress gradient at node i = 2, , N-1 at time tn is evaluated as
follows:

Fi ,n =

2
i ,n

i ,n i 1,n

(36)

z i + z i 1

At node 1 (surface), the stress should be equal to 0. As shown in Fig. 11a, a fictitious node 0 and
fictitious layer of thickness z1 are introduced above node 1. In this fictitious layer, the stress 0,n
should be equal to 1,n so that the average stress be equal to zero at node 1 (i.e., 0,n+1,n=0 =0),
which implies that:

F1, n =

21, n
z1

(37)

At node N (bottom), the stress should be equal to B. As shown again in Fig. 11b, a fictitious node
N+1 and fictitious layer of thickness zN-1 are introduced below node N. In this fictitious layer, the

- 11 -

stress N,n is equal to 2B,n-N-1,n so that the average stress at node N is equal to B,n . The stress
gradient at node N is therefore:

FN , n =

N , n N 1, n
N 1, n
= 2 B, n
z N 1
z N 1
zi-1
zi

(38)

di-1,n
i-1

zi-1

i-1,n

di,n

i
zi

zi+1

i,n

i,n

di+1,n

i+1

Depth
Figure 10.

i-1,n

Stress

Strain

Displacement

Definition of displacement, strain, and stress in finite-difference formulation.

d0,n
z1

(a) Surface (z=0)

z1

1,n

d1,n

=0

1
2

1,n

d2,n
dN-1,n

N-1
zN-1

(b) Bottom (z=H)

zN-1

N-1,n

dN,n

N
N+1

N,n

dN+1,n

Displacement
Figure 11.

B,n

Stress

Definition of fictitious nodes 0 and N+1 at (a) surface and (b) bottom of soil
column.

4.2 Central difference algorithm

The central difference method is a particular type of Newmark algorithm (Hughes, 1986). The
~
predicted velocity v
i , n +1 is:

v~i , n +1 = vi , n + 12 ai , n t

(39)

v~i , n+1 is related to the displacement and velocity at times tn and tn+1 through:
di , n +1 = di , n + tv~i , n +1 and vi , n +1 = v~i , n +1 + 12 ai , n +1t
Since

(40)

vi , n = v~i , n + 12 ai , n t then velocity and acceleration can be expressed in terms of predicted

velocity at times tn and tn+1:

- 12 -

vi , n =

1 ~
1
(vi ,n +1 + v~i , n ) and a i ,n = (v~i ,n +1 v~i ,n )
2
t

(41)

Using Eq. 41, Eq. 36 becomes for i = 1,,N:

v~i , n +1 =

~
t
t
vi , n (1 i
) + Fi , n
t
i
2 i
1 + i
2 i
1

(42)

In the absence of viscosity terms (i.e., i = 0), Eq. 42 becomes i = 1,,N:

t
v~i , n +1 = v~i , n + Fi , n
i

(43)

At node N (bottom), Eq. 32 becomes:

B , n = N vs (2VI , n vN , n )

(44)

Using Eq. 38, 41 and 44, Eq. 43 yields:

v~ (z v t ) + 4vsVI , n t 2 N 1, n t N
v~N , n +1 = N , n N 1 s
z N 1 + vs t

(45)

When the bedrock is rigid (vs ), Eq. 45 becomes:

v~N , n +1 = v~N , n + 4VI , n

(46)

The velocity at Node N is therefore:

1
vN , n = (v~N , n +1 + v~N , n ) = 2VI , n
2

(47)

which is the anticipated result for rigid bedrock. Once

v~i , n +1 is determined, vi,n, ai,n, and di,n+1 are

computed using Eqs. 40 and 41. Table 2 summarizes the operations used for determining the
accelerations, velocities and displacements of nodes, and the strains and stresses within
sublayers. In Step 1, all variables are initialized to zero. In Step 2, the strain and stress in
sublayers are calculated from the nodal displacements. In Step 3, the input ground motion
velocity is calculated from the time history of input ground acceleration. In Step 4, the predicted
nodal velocities at time tn+1 are calculated from those at time tn. in Step 5, displacement, velocity
and acceleration are updated. Note that nodal acceleration and velocity are not required in the
calculation. They are only calculated for displaying the time history of acceleration and velocity at
selected nodes.

- 13 -

Table 2. Algorithm used in NERA

Given : Material constants:
i: unit mass of soil layer i
N: density of bedrock
vs: shear wave velocity of bedrock
(1) Initialization

n = 1, v~i , n = 0, ai , n = 0, di , n = 0, i ,0 = 0, i ,0 = 0, i = 1, , N and VI,0 = 0, aI,0 = 0

(2) Calculate strain, strain increment and stress (i = 1,, N 1)
d
di, n
i , n = i +1, n
, i , n = i , n i , n 1 and i , n = IM ( i , n 1 , i , n )
zi
(3) Calculate input velocity from prescribed acceleration aI,n

VI , n = VI , n 1 + 12 (aI , n + aI , n 1 )t

(4) Calculate predicted velocity

v~ (z v t ) + 4vsVI , n t 2 N 1, n t N
at node N (bottom)
v~N , n +1 = N , n N 1 s
z N 1 + vs t

t
at node i = 2,,N-1
v~i , n +1 = v~i , n + 2 i , n i 1, n
zi + zi 1 i
2 t
at node 1 (surface)
v~1, n +1 = v~1, n + 1, n
z1 1
(5) Calculate displacement, velocity and acceleration (i = 1, , N )
di , n +1 = di , n + v~i , n +1t

1 ~
(vi ,n +1 + v~i , n )
2
1
a i ,n = (v~i ,n +1 v~i ,n )
t
(6) n n + 1 go to (2)
vi , n =

5. DESCRIPTION OF NERA
NERA (Nonlinear Earthquake site Response Analysis) is a modern implementation of nonlinear
earthquake site response analysis.

5.1 System requirement, distribution files and download NERA

NERA requires Windows 95/98/NT/2000/ME and EXCEL 97 or later. NERA does not work for
other operating systems and spreadsheet program. All the files required for NERA can be
downloaded from http://geoinfo.usc.edu/gees in one zip file named NERA.zip, which contains the
following files:
NERA.xla, Microsoft Excel Add-in
NERAM.xls, Example Startup file (metric units)
NERA.xls, Example Startup file (British units)
NERA.dll, NERA Dynamic Link Library
Diam.acc, Example earthquake input acceleration file

5.2 Installing and removing NERA

It is recommended to install NERA on your computer system as follows:
1. Copy the distribution files in a new directory on your hard drive
- 14 -

2. Move NERA.dll and dforrt.dll on the Windows/System directory. Keep NERA.xla in a

directory of your choice.
3. In EXCEL, install the Add-in NERA.xla using Tools and Add-ins... As shown in Fig. 12,
use Browse to locate NERA.xla. Do not move NERA.xla after installing it.
4. When NERA is properly installed, the NERA menu will appear to the right of the EXCEL
pull-down menus (Fig. 13).
NERA can be de-installed by using Remove NERA in the NERA pull-down menu.

Figure 12.

The EXCEL Add-ins menu.

Figure 13.

After a successful installation of NERA, the pull-down menu NERA should appear
to the right of EXCEL pull down menus.

5.3 NERA commands

As shown in Fig. 14, there are seven commands in the NERA pull-down menu
1. Process Earthquake Data - Read and process earthquake input motion (input/output in
worksheet Earthquake)
2. Calculate step-by-step - Read profile, material curves, and execute the main calculation
(input/output in worksheet Iteration)
3. Calculate Output
Acceleration/Velocity/Displacement - Calculate time history of
acceleration, relative velocity and displacement at the top of selected sublayers (input/output in worksheet Acceleration ...)
- 15 -

4.
5.
6.
7.

Stress/Strain - Calculate stress and strain at the middle of selected sublayers (input/output in worksheets Strain ...)
Amplification - Calculate amplification factors between two sub-layers
(input/output in worksheets Ampli ...)
Fourier Spectrum - Calculate Fourier amplitude spectrum of acceleration at
the top of selected sub-layer. (input/output in worksheet Fourier ...)
Response Spectrum - Calculate all response spectra at the top of selected
sub-layers (input/output in worksheet Spectra ...)
All of the above - Calculate all the output
Duplicate Worksheet - Duplicate selected worksheet for defining new material
curves, and adding new output (e.g., response spectra for several sub-layers)
Delete Worksheet - Delete unnecessary worksheet (some worksheet cannot be
deleted)
Remove NERA - De-install NERA from EXCEL
About NERA - Number of NERA version

Figure 14.

The NERA pull-down menu.

NERA commands are to be used in the following order:

1. Process Earthquake Data
2. Calculate step-by-step
3. Calculate Output

5.4 NERA worksheets

As shown in Table 3, an NERA workbook is made of nine types of worksheets, which have
predefined names that should not be changed. As indicated in Table 3, six of nine types of
worksheet can be duplicated and modified using Duplicate Worksheet in the NERA pull-down
menu. This feature is useful for obtaining output at several sub-layers and defining additional
material curves. Table 3 also indicates the number of input required in each worksheet. All input
data is in blue characters.

- 16 -

Table 3. Types of worksheets in NERA and their contents

Worksheet
Earthquake
Mat I

Contents
Earthquake input time history
Material curves (G/Gmax and Damping
versus strain for material type i

Profile

Vertical profile of layers

Iteration

Results of main calculation

Time history of
acceleration/velocity/displacement
Time history of stress and strain
Amplification between two sub-layers
Fourier amplitude spectrum of
acceleration
Response spectra

Acceleration
Strain
Ampli
Fourier
Spectra

Duplication
Number of input
No
7
Yes
Dependent on number of
soil layers
No
Dependent on number of
data points per material
curve
No
2
Yes
1
Yes
Yes
Yes

1
3

Yes

5.4.1 Earthquake data

As shown in Fig. 15, Worksheet Earthquake is used to define the earthquake input motion. There
are six required entries and one optional entry. All entries are in blue characters.
Cell A1
The earthquake name is optional.
Cell B2
The time step T is the time interval between the evenly spaced data points of the
time history of input ground motion.
Cell B3
The desired maximum frequency is used to scale the peak amplitude of the input
acceleration.
Cell B4
The maximum frequency cut-off fmax is used to filter the high frequencies from the
input acceleration.
Cell B5
The frequency cut-off fmax can be used to eliminate high frequencies from the input
acceleration records.
Cell B6
The number m of data points in the FFT calculation can be defined. m is generally
selected to be larger than the number n of data points in the input acceleration time
history. In this case the input record is padded with zero in order to produce a record
of length n.
Cell B7
The input acceleration can be read from an external data file. NERA is capable of
reading many earthquake data formats from external data files. In this case, select
Yes in Cell B5, then follow NERA instructions for selecting data format. As shown in
Fig. 16, you can open earthquake files of different types, eliminate headers, and
select various formats. Header lines are skipped by selecting a starting row number
in Fig. 16. If you do not wish to import earthquake data for an external file, you may
select No in Cell B5. This option is useful when (1) you have already imported
earthquake data, or (2) you have pasted your own earthquake acceleration time
history in column B15-.

- 17 -

Figure 15.

Worksheet Earthquake.

Figure 16.

Importing earthquake input data.

5.4.2 Soil Profile

As shown in Fig. 17, Worksheet Profile is used to define the geometry and properties of the soil
profile. All input data are in blue cells. Input data can be graphically checked as shown in Fig. 18.
Cell A1
The soil profile is optionally named.
Column C6- The number of material type is specified for each layer. Each material type i is
defined in a separate worksheet called Mat i.
Column D6- Each layer may be subdivided in several sub-layers. This feature improves the
accuracy of calculations.
Column E6- The thickness of each layer is specified.
- 18 -

Column F6- The small strain values of shear modulus is entered in the unit specified in Cell F5. If
this column is left blank then the shear wave velocity must be input in column I6Column H6- The total unit weight is entered in the physical unit specified in Cell H5
Column I6- The shear wave velocity is enter in the physical unit specified in Cell I5. If this
column is left blank then the maximum shear modulus must be input in column F6Column K6- The depth of the water table can be specified in order to calculate vertical effective
stresses. This input is optional as it is only used in the calculation of initial stresses,
and not in other calculations.
Cell E3
The average shear wave velocity V of the soil profile is calculated as follows:

V =

hv

(48)

i i

i =1

i =1

where hi is the height of layer i, vi is the shear wave velocity in layer i, and N is the
total number of layers.
The fundamental period T of the soil profile is calculated as T = 4 H/V where H is the
total thickness of soil profile and V is the average shear wave velocity of soil profile
as calculated in Cell E2.

Cell E2

Note: The average shear wave velocity V and fundamental period T can also be computed as
follows:
N

V =

Figure 17.

i =1
N

hi

i =1 v i

and

T = 4
i =1

hi
vi

Worksheet Profile.

- 19 -

(49)

Figure 18.

Worksheet Profile.

5.4.3 Material stress-strain damping-strain curves

As shown in Fig. 19, several material modulus-strain curves can be defined. You may generate
additional worksheets for material properties by using Duplicate worksheet from the main NERA
menu. Input data can be graphically checked as shown in Fig. 19.
Cell A1
The material type is optionally named.
- 20 -

Column A3- The values of shear strain corresponding to ratio G/Gmax data in column B3- are
entered as increasing numbers.
Column B3- Enter the values of ratio G/Gmax corresponding to strain data in column A3-.
Column C3- The values of shear strain corresponding to critical damping ratio data in column D3are entered as increasing numbers. These values are not used in the calculation.
They are only useful for comparison to the damping computed by NERA.
Column D3- Enter the values of critical damping ratio corresponding to strain data in column C3-.
Again, these values are not used in the calculation. They are only useful for
comparison to the damping computed by NERA.

Figure 19.

Worksheet Mat.

5.4.4 Calculation
As shown in Fig. 20, the worksheet iteration has two entries (shown in blue characters):
Cell E1: the number of time sub-increments is specified.
Cell E2: The type of input motions is defined.

- 21 -

Figure 20.

Worksheet Iteration.

5.4.5 Output (Acceleration)

As shown in Fig. 21, the worksheet Acceleration defines the time history of acceleration/ relative
velocity and relative displacement at a selected sublayer. The worksheet can be duplicated by
using Duplicate Worksheet in the NERA menu.
Cell D1: The number of selected sublayer is specified.

Figure 21.

Worksheet Acceleration.

- 22 -

5.4.6 Output (Strain)

As shown in Fig. 21, the worksheet Strain defines the time history of stress, strain and dissipated
energy, and stress-strain loops. The worksheet can be duplicated by using Duplicate Worksheet
in the NERA menu.
Cell D1: The number of selected sublayer is specified.

Figure 22.

Worksheet Strain.

5.4.7 Output (Ampli)

As shown in Fig. 23, the worksheet Ampli defines the amplification factor between two sublayers.
The worksheet can be duplicated by using Duplicate Worksheet in the NERA menu.
Cell D1:
The number of the first sublayer is specified. You must define an Acceleration
worksheet for both sublayers in Cells D1 and D2.
Cell D2:
The number of the second sublayer is specified.
Cell D3:
The number of moving average to smoothen Fourier spectra is specified.

- 23 -

Figure 23.

Worksheet Ampli.

5.4.8 Output (Fourier)

As shown in Fig. 24, the worksheet Fourier defines the Fourier spectrum for a selected sublayer.
The worksheet can be duplicated by using Duplicate Worksheet in the NERA menu.
Cell D1:
The number of the selected sublayer is specified. You must define an Acceleration
worksheet for this sublayer.
Cell D2:
The number of moving averages is specified. This feature filtered noises in the
Fourier spectrum.

- 24 -

Figure 24.

Worksheet Fourier.

5.4.9 Output (Spectra)

As shown in Fig. 25, the worksheet Spectra defines response spectra for a selected sublayer.
The worksheet can be duplicated by using Duplicate Worksheet in the NERA menu.
Cell D1:
The number of the selected sublayer is specified. You must define an Acceleration
worksheet for this sublayer.
Cell D2:
The selected value of critical damping ratio for the response spectra.

- 25 -

Figure 25.

Worksheet Spectra.

5.5 Running NERA

NERA is distributed with the example file NERAM.xls. Once you have opened this example file
from within EXCEL, you can perform the following operations using the NERA pull-down menu:
1. Process Earthquake Data
2. Calculate step-by-step
3. Calculate Output and All of the Above
As you perform these steps above, the output data will be first erased and then recalculated. No
user-input in the worksheet is required in this example. Some of the output figures are displayed
in Appendix A.
You can define your own problem. NERA input data is in the cells with blue characters. A help
message is displayed as you move the cursor to input cells. A suggested way to proceed is as
follows:
1. Copy NERAM.xls (or an existing NERA file), and rename it as you like (e.g.
Myrun.xls)
2. In Myrun.xls, retype on existing blue cells to enter your data. You may use additional
line in worksheets Mat..., Profile and Earthquake
3. If additional material curves and additional output is required, duplicate worksheets
using Duplicate Worksheet
4. Run NERA by using successively
1. Process Earthquake Data
2. Calculate step-by-step
3. Calculate Output and All of the Above
In general, a NERA site response analysis is performed in three successive steps.
Step 1
Define all earthquake data in worksheet Earthquake
Use Process Earthquake Data
Step 2
- 26 -

 Define the soil profile in worksheet Profile

Define all the material stress-strain response curves in worksheets Mat...
Define the main calculation parameters in worksheet Iteration
Use Calculate step-by-step
Step 3
Define the input parameters in worksheets Acceleration
Use Calculate Output and Acceleration/...
Define the input parameters in worksheets Strain
Use Calculate Output and Stress-Strain
Repeat the same process for Ampli, Fourier, and Spectra

6. REFERENCES
1. Bardet, J. P., Ichii, K., and Lin, C. H. (2000) "EERA, A computer program for Equivalent
linear Earthquake site Response Analysis of layered soils deposits, University of
Southern California, Los Angeles.
2. Hardin, B. O. and Drnevich, V. P. (1972) "Shear Modulus and Damping in Soils: I.
Measurement and Parameter Effects," Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Division, ASCE, Vol. 98, No. 6, pp. 603-624.
3. Hardin, B. O. and Drnevich, V. P. (1972) "Shear Modulus and Damping in Soils: II.
Design Equations and Curves," Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Division,
ASCE, Vol. 98, No. 7, pp. 667-691.
4. Idriss, I. M. (1990) "Response of Soft Soil Sites during Earthquakes", Proceedings,
Memorial Symposium to honor Professor Harry Bolton Seed, Berkeley, California, Vol. II,
May.
5. Idriss, I. M. and Seed, H. B. (1968) "Seismic Response of Horizontal Soil Layers,"
Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, ASCE, Vol. 94, No. 4, pp.10031031.
6. Idriss, I. M. and Sun, J. I. (1992) Users Manual for SHAKE91, Center for Geotechnical
Modeling, Department of Civil Engineering, University of California, Davis.
7. Iwan, W. D. (1967) "On a class of models for the yielding behavior of continuous and
composite systems," Journal of Applied Mechanics, ASME, Vol. 34, pp.612-617.
8. Joyner, W.B. and Chen, A. T. F. (1975) Calculation of nonlinear ground response in
earthquakes, Bulletin Seismological Society of America, Vol. 65, pp. 1315-1336.
9. Kramer, S. L. (1996). Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, Prentice Hall, Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey, pp. 254-280.
10. Lee, M. K. W. and Finn, W. D. L. (1978) "DESRA-2, Dynamic Effective Stress Response
Analysis Of Soil Deposits With Energy Transmitting Boundary Including Assessment Of
Liquefaction Potential", Faculty of Applied Science, University of British Columbia,
Vancouver, Canada.
11. Lysmer, J., Seed, H. B. and Schnabel, P. B. (1971) "Influence of BaseRock
Characteristics on Ground Response," Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America,
Vol. 61, No. 5, pp. 1213-1232.
12. Masing, G. (1926) "Eigenspannungen und Verfestigung beim Messing," Proceedings of
the Second International Congress of Applied Mechanics, pp.332-335.
13. Mrz, Z. (1967) "On the description of anisotropic workhardening," Journal of Mechanics
and Physics of Solids, Vol.15, pp.163-175.
14. Prevost, J. H. (1989) DYNA1D: A Computer Program for Nonlinear Seismic Site
Response Analysis - Technical Documentation, Multidisciplinary Center for Earthquake
Engineering Research, Report NCEER-89-0025.
15. Roesset, J. M. and Whitman, R. V. (1969) "Theoretical Background for Amplification
Studies," Research Report No. R69-15, Soils Publications No. 231, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, Cambridge.
16. Schnabel, P. B., Lysmer, J., and Seed, H. B. (1972) SHAKE: A Computer Program for
Earthquake Response Analysis of Horizontally Layered Sites, Report No. UCB/EERC- 27 -

17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.

72/12, Earthquake Engineering Research Center, University of California, Berkeley,

December, 102p.
Seed, H. B. and Idriss, I. M. (1970) "Soil Moduli and Damping Factors for Dynamic
Response Analysis", Report No. UCB/EERC-70/10, Earthquake Engineering Research
Center, University of California, Berkeley, December, 48p.
Seed, H. B., Wong, R. T., Idriss, I. M. and Tokimatsu, K. (1986) "Moduli and Damping
factors for Dynamic Analyses of Cohesionless Soils," Journal of the Geotechnical
Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 11 2, No. GTI 1, November, pp.1016-1032.
Sugito, M. (1995) Frequency-dependent equivalent strain for equi-linearized technique,
Proceedings of the First International Conference on Earthquake Geotechnical
Engineering, Vol. 1, A. A. Balkena, Rotterdam, the Netherlands, pp. 655-660.
Sun, J. I., Golesorkhi, R. and Seed, H. B. (1988) "Dynamic Moduli and Damping Ratios
for Cohesive Soils," Report No. UCB/EERC-88/15, Earthquake Engineering Research
Center, University of California, Berkeley, 42p.
Tsai, N. C., and Housner G. W. (1970) Calculation of Surface Motions of a Layered Half
Space, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, Vol. 60, No. 5, pp. 1625-1651.
Vucetic, M. and Dobry, R. (1991) "Effect of Soil Plasticity on Cyclic Response," Journal
of the Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 111, No. 1, January, pp. 89-107.

- 28 -

7. APPENDIX A: SAMPLE PROBLEM

Appendix A describes the same sample problem as that used for SHAKE91 (Idriss and Sun, 1992). Input
data for this sample problem is given in the EXCEL spreadsheets NERA.xls (British units) and
NERAM.xls (Metric units).

7.1 Definition of problem

The sample problem is a 150-ft soil profile consisting of clay and sand overlying a half-space. The
geometry of the soil layers is defined in Fig. A1. The profiles of shear wave velocity and unit weight are
shown in Fig. A2. The three different types of material properties are defined in Figs. A3 to A5. The input
motion is specified as an outcrop motion from the acceleration time history recorded at Diamond Heights
(EW component) during the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. The ground motion is normalized to a target
peak acceleration of 0.1 g (Fig. A6). As shown in Figs. A3 and A4, the gray line indicates the damping
ratio curves calculated by NERA, and compare it to those used by EERA. Figures A1 to A6 shows a
snapshot of the actual computer screen. As shown in Figs. A7 and A8 and Table A1, the same results
can be displayed and pasted as individual graphs or tables ready for inclusion in technical reports.

Figure A1.

Definition of soil profile in example problem (EXCEL file NERAM.xls).

- 29 -

Figure A2.

Profiles of shear wave velocity and unit weight of sample problem (EXCEL file
NERAM.xls).

Figure A3.

Material properties of material type No.1 (EXCEL file NERAM.xls).

- 30 -

Figure A4.

Material properties of material type No.2 (EXCEL file NERAM.xls).

Figure A5.

Material properties of material type No.3 (EXCEL file NERAM.xls).

- 31 -

Time history of input ground motion (EXCEL file NERAM.xls).

30

25

0.8

G/G max

20
0.6

Shear Modulus
Damping Ratio

15

0.4
10
0.2
0
0.0001

Damping Ratio (%)

Figure A6.

5
0
0.001

0.01

0.1

10

Shear Strain (%)

Figure A7.

Modulus reduction and damping ratio curves used for sample problem (material No. 1).

- 32 -

Table A1. Values of modulus reduction and damping ratio curves used for sample problem.
Modulus for clay (Seed and Sun, 1989) upper range and damping for clay (Idriss 1990)
G/Gmax

Strain (%)
0.0001
0.0003
0.001
0.003
0.01
0.03
0.1
0.3
1
3
10

1
1
1
0.981
0.941
0.847
0.656
0.438
0.238
0.144
0.11

Strain (%)
0.0001
0.0003
0.001
0.003
0.01
0.03
0.1
0.3
1
3.16
10

Damping (%)
0.24
0.42
0.8
1.4
2.8
5.1
9.8
15.5
21
25
28

Acceleration (g)

0.1
0.05
0
-0.05
-0.1
-0.15
0

10

20

30

40

Time (sec)

Figure A8.

Acceleration time history for Diamond Heights during Loma Prieta earthquake.

7.2 Results
The results of the site response analysis are contained in the EXCEL spreadsheets NERA.xls and
NERAM.xls. Some of these results are shown in Figs. A9 to A15.
Figure A9 shows the variation with depth of maximum shear strain and shear stress. Figure A10 shows
the corresponding variation with maximum acceleration, relative velocity and relative displacement. The
relative velocity and displacement are calculated relatively to the bedrock motion. Figure A11 shows the
computed time histories of acceleration, relative velocity and relative displacement at the free surface.
Figure A12 shows the time histories of shear strain, shear stress and energy dissipated per unit volume,
and the stress-strain loop computer at sublayer No. 4. Figure A13 shows the computed amplitude of
amplification ratio between bottom and free surface. Figure A14 shows the computed amplitude of Fourier

- 33 -

amplitude at free surface. Finally, Fig. A15 displays the acceleration response spectrum computed at free
surface for a 5% critical damping ratio.

Figure A9.

Variation with depth of maximum shear strain and shear stress.

Figure A10.

Variation with depth of maximum acceleration, relative velocity and relative displacement.

- 34 -

Figure A11.

Computed time histories of acceleration, relative velocity and relative displacement at the
ground surface.

- 35 -

Figure A12.

Computed time histories of shear strain, shear stress and energy dissipated per unit
volume, and stress-strain loop at sublayer No. 4.

- 36 -

Figure A13.

Computed amplification ratio between bottom and free surface.

Figure A14.

Computed Fourier amplitude at free surface.

- 37 -

Figure A15.

Computed acceleration response spectrum at free surface (5% critical damping ratio).

- 38 -

8. APPENDIX B: COMPARISON OF NERA AND EERA RESULTS

Appendix B compares the results of NERA and EERA for the particular example problem described in
Appendix A. Figure B1 compares the variation with depth of maximum shear strain, maximum shear
stress and maximum acceleration computed by EERA and NERA. Figure B2 compares the time history of
acceleration, relative acceleration and relative displacement at the surface as calculated by EERA and
NERA. This example shows that, for this earthquake, there is relatively little difference between EERA
and NERA, although these computer programs are based on different principles.

Figure B1.

Relative difference of maximum shear strain, maximum shear stress and maximum
acceleration along the depth between NERA and EERA

- 39 -

Figure B2.

Comparison of time history of absolute acceleration, relative velocity and relative

displacement at the surface calculated by NERA and EERA.

- 40 -

Figure B3.

Comparison of time history of strain, stress, strain energy and hysteretic stress-strain
loop at the surface calculated by NERA and EERA.

- 41 -

Figure B4.

Comparison of transfer function between surface and bedrock calculated by NERA and
EERA.

- 42 -

Figure B-5

Comparison of Fourier amplitude spectra at the surface calculated by NERA and EERA.

- 43 -

Figure B-6

Comparison of response spectra calculated by NERA and EERA.

- 44 -