Important questions of Electrostatics

1. A spherical conducting shell of inner radius r1 and outer radius r2 has a charge Q. A charge q is placed at the
centre of the shell.

(a) What is the surface charge density on the (i) inner surface,

(ii) outer surface of the shell?

(b) Write the expression for the electric field at a point x > r2 from

the centre of the shell.

Ans: (a) Let us have a conducting shell of inner radius r1 and outer radius r2. When it is given a charge Q, the
charge spreads on its outer surface and there is no charge on inner surface of shell.
When a charge q is placed at the centre of the shell, it induces a charge q on inner surface 1 of the shell
and a charge + q on outer surface 2 of the shell.



(Q + q)




(i) The surface charge density on the inner surface

1 =

(ii) The surface charge density on the outer surface

1 = +



+q
r1

(iii) For a point lying outside the spherical shell (x > r2), electric field E is given by
E=

 
  









  

2. Show that the electric field at the surface of a charged conductor is given by  =

-q




r2

, where is the surface

charge density and  is a unit vector normal to the surface in the outward direction.

Ans: Consider a charged conductor whose surface charge density be . To determine electric field  at a point P
on its surface, choose a pill box as the Gaussian about the point P. the pill box is partly inside and partly

outside the surface of charged conductor and has a small area of cross-section S and negligible height.

Just inside the surface electric field is zero but just outside the field is E directed normal to the surface.
Or

= Flux passing through outer surface

(where  is a unit vector drawn normal
E =  .  = E. S ,

or

to the surface in the outward direction)

As per Gauss law total electric flux E =

(qenclosed) =

. . S

Comparing the two results for electric flux, we get

E.S  =

. . S,

E=

"



C2

3. A network of four capacitors each of 15 F capacitance is connected to a 500 V

supply as shown in the figure. Determine (a) equivalent capacitance of the

C3

C1
C4

network and (b) charge on each capacitor.

500 V

Ans: It is given that C1 = C2 = C3 = C4 = 15 F and supply voltage V = 500 V

(a) Since capacitors C1, C2 and C3 are connected in series, their combined capacitance C123 is given by
#$%&

#$

#%

#&

'

'

'

'


)

= ,

C123 = 5 F

As C123 has been connected in parallel to C4 hence equivalent capacity of the network
Ceq = C123 + C4 = (5 + 15) F = 20 F
(b) charge on capacitors C1, C2 and C3 being connected in series, is exactly same having a value
Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = C123 X V = 5 F X 500 V = 2500 C = 2.5 mC
Charge on capacitor C4 is

Q4 = C4. V = 15 F X 500 V = 7500 C = 7.5 mC

C1

4. Three identical capacitors C1, C2 and C3 of capacitance 6 F each are connected to

a 12 V battery as shown.

Find

12 V

(i) charge on each capacitor

(ii) equivalent capacitance of the network (iii) energy stored in the network of capacitors.

C2

C1 = 6 F

Ans: The capacitor arrangement can be redrawn as shown here:

C3

C2 = 6 F

(i) Combined capacitance of series arrangement of C1 and C2 is

C12 =
and

* +*

*  *

, + ,
,,

F = 3 F,

or

q1 = q2 = C12. V = 3 F X 12 V = 36 C

C3 = 6 F

q3 = C3V = 6 F X 12 V = 72 C

(ii) Equivalent capacitance of network C = C12 + C3 = 3 F + 6 F = 9 F

(iii) Energy stored in the network of capacitors U =




CV2 =




12 V

X 9 F X (12 V)2, = 648 J or 6.48 X 10-4 J

5. Keeping the voltage of the charging source constant, what would be the percentage change in the energy stored
in a parallel plate capacitor if the separation between its plates were to be decreased by 10%?
Ans: Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor C =

! -

10%, then d = 0.9 d and new capacitanc1e ,

As energy stored in a capacitor U =
45
4
4

X 100% = (

41
4




If separation between the plates is decreased by

C =

 /
01

 /

23 0

= 1.11

 /
0

= 1.11 C

CV2 and voltage V is constant, hence, percentage change in energy

6 7) X 100% = (

*1
*

6 7) X 100%,

= (1.11 1) X 100% = 11%

6. The following data was obtained for the dependence of the magnitude of the electric field, with distance, from
a reference point O, within the charge distribution in the shaded region.
Field Point
A
B
C
Magnitude of
E
E/8
E/27
electric field
(i) Identify the charge distribution and justify your answer.

A
E/2

B
E/16

C
E/54

(ii) If the potential due to this charge distribution has a value at the point A,
what is its value at the point A?

B
A

Ans: (i) From the data given in the question, we observe that along line number 1,
the magnitude of electric field varies inversely as the cube of the distance from
the reference point i.e.., E & . Hence, the charge distribution must be a short
8

B
l

C
l

electric dipole. Moreover, as at 2nd line value of electric field E is one half of the corresponding value E at
1st line, it shows that 1st line is the axial line of the short electric dipole and the 2nd line is the equatorial

line of dipole. (ii) As point A lies on the equatorial line of dipole, hence, electric potential at point A must
be zero.
7. Four point charges are placed at the four corners of a square in the two ways

-Q

-Q
C

-Q

+Q
C

(i) and (ii) as shown below. Will the (i) electric field , (ii) electric potential
at the centre of the square, be the same or different in the two
configurations and why?

A
+Q

(i)

B
+Q

A
+Q

(ii)

Ans: (a) Electric field is different in the two configurations. In fig. (ii), electric fields due to diagonally opposite
charges nullify each other and net electric field is zero. But in fig. (i), electric field due to diagonally
opposite charges are added up and net electric field is finite.

B
-Q

(b) Electric potential at the centre of the square is same in both cases because potential is a scalar
quantity given by V =





. (q/r) and in both cases potential at centre of square comes out to be zero.

8. Two identical plane metallic surfaces A and B are kept parallel to each other in air separated by a distance of
1.0 cm as shown in the figure. Surface A is given a positive potential of 10 V and the outer surface of B is
earthed.

(i) What is the magnitude and direction of the uniform electric field between points Y and Z?
A

(ii) What is the work done in moving a charge of 20 C from point X to point Y?
Ans: (i) Electric field between point Y and Z is  = and

9


: ;: = V Y V Z = 10 V and : <: = 1 cm = 10 m,
-2

or E =

 9

1.0 cm

= >

-1

= 10 V m

The direction of  is from Y to Z i.e.., along the direction of fall in potential.

(ii) As points X and Y lie on same metallic surface A, hence V X = V Y and the work done in moving a charge q
W = q (V Y V X) = 0.

= 20 C from X to Y,

9. An electric dipole of dipole moment ? is placed in a uniform electric field  . Write the expression for the
torque  experienced by the dipole. Identify two pairs of perpendicular vectors in the expression.
Show diagrammatically the orientation of the dipole in the field for which the torque is
(i) maximum

(ii) half the maximum value,

(iii) zero.

Ans: The torque acting on the dipole  = ? X  . Obviously, (a)  and ?, as well as
(b)  and  are mutually perpendicular. As  = ? X  , hence = pE sin

+q

(i) It will have a maximum value pE when = 900 i.e.., @

is at right angle to  as shown below:

-q
900

or

-q

+q

(ii) Torque will have a value equal to half the maximum value i.e..,

= pE sin =




pE, when sin =




+q

or = 300

+q

300

or

-q

or 1500. The situation is graphically shown below:

1500
-q

= pE

(iii) The torque will have a zero value i.e..,

= pE sin = 0 or = 00 or 1800.

900

-q

The situation is graphically shown below:

+q
= 00

or

+q

-q

= 1800

=0

10. The graph shown here, shows the variation of the total energy (E) stored in a capacitor against
the value of the capacitance (C) itself. Which of the two-the charge on the capacitor or
the potential used to charge it is kept constant for this graph?

Ans: From the graph, it is clear that as the capacitance C increases, the total energy E stored in the
capacitor decreases. It is possible only if charge Q remains because then

E=

11. The two graphs drawn below, show the variation of the electrostatic potential (V) with
the field point from the point charge) for two point charges q1 and q2.

B#

E 1/C

(r being distance of
+Ve
V

(i) What are the signs of the two charges?

(ii) Which of the two charges has a larger magnitude?

q2

Ans: (i) As potential V is negative for q1 but positive for q2, hence we conclude that q1 is a
negative charge but q2 is a positive charge.

A$

(ii) We know that V =





(1/r)
q1




-ve



 

( ). So, the

slope of V -

graph should be





Since the magnitude of slope of the V - graph for charge q1

is more, hence we conclude that magnitude of q1 is larger i.e.., :D : E :DB :.

12. Calculate the temperature at which the resistance of a conductor becomes 20% more than its resistance at
270 C. the value of the temperature coefficient of resistance of the conductor is 2.0 X 10-4/K.
It is given that T1 = 270C = 300 K, = 2.0 X 10-4/K and

Ans: We know that R2 =R1 [1 + (T2 T1)],

R2 = R1 + 20% of R1 = 120% of R1 = 1.2 R1.
-4

1.2 R1 = R1 [1 + 2 X 10 X (T2 300)]

Substituting the values, we have

T2 300 = 1000 T2 = 1300 K.

3 F
3 F

13. (a) The given figure shows a network of five capacitors connected to a 100 V supply.

1 F

Calculate the total charge and energy stored in the network.

2 F

2 F

Ans: (a) The given network of capacitors can be redrawn as below:

100 V

Here capacitors of 3 F and 3 F being joined in parallel makes a capacitance C1 = 3 + 3 = 6 F.

Similarly, capacitors of 1 F and 2 F joined in parallel gives a capacitance C2 = 1 + 2 = 3 F.
Then C1 and C2 are joined in series and gives a capacitance C12 =

, + F
,F

= 2 F.

3 F

1 F

3 F

2 F

This combination is in parallel with the 5th capacitor of capacity 2 F and hence

2 F

net capacitance of the combination C = 2 + 2 = 4 F.

or

Total charge on combination Q = C V = 4 F X 100 V = 4 X 10-6 C or 400 C

100 V

Total energy stored in the network U = C V2 = X (4 X 10-6 F) X (100)2 = 0.02 J.

14. (a) Electric field in the following figure is directed along + X direction and given by
Ex = 5Ax + 2B, where E is in N C-1 and x is in metre, A and B are constants with
dimensions.

Taking A = 10 N C-1 m-1 and B = 5 N C-1, calculate

(i) the electric flux through the cube (ii) net charge enclosed within the cube.
-1

-1

l = 10

-1

Ans: (a) (i) As Ex = 5Ax + 2B, where A = 10 N C m and B = 5 N C and surface area of each face of cube
or
Electric flux through the face with point M on it.
S = (10 cm)2 = 0.01 m2,


but
EM = 0 + 2 x 5 = 10 N C-1
1 =  . GH = - EM S (because flux is inward),
or

1 = - 10 X 0.01 = - 0.1 N C-1 m2,

Similarly, flux through the face with point N on it 2

= + EN S (because flux is outward)

but

2 = + 15 X 0.01 = + 0.15 N C-1 m2,

zero because  is along Exonly.

Flux through other four faces of the cube will be

or

-1

E = 1 + 2 = - 0.1 + 0.15 = + 0.05 N C m

EN = 5 X 10 X 0.1 + 2 X 5 = 15 N C-1

Or

Total electric flux through the cube

(ii) As per Gauss theorem E = 1/0 (qenclosed)

net charge enclosed within the cube q = 0. E = 8.85 X 10-12 X 0.05 = + 44.25 X 10-14 C.
1
2

15. Fig shows tracks of three charged particles in a uniform electrostatics

field. Give the signs of the three charges. Which particle has the
highest charge to mass ratio?

Ans: In figure particles number 1 and 2 are negatively charged because these are deviated towards the positively
charged plate. As particle number 3 is being deviated towards negatively charged plate. It is positively
charged particle.

Let as shown in fig. a particle of charge q and mass m enters normally in a


uniform electric field  with a speed u. Force on charged particle in the direction of electric field F = qE.

Or

Acceleration of charged particle a = F/m = qE/m

If the charged particle takes a time t to cross the electric field (where t = l/u), then the deflection of
particle along the electric field,




at2 =

 I 
I 
K
.  =  . or ,
 > J
J >
L

As deflection of

particle number 3 is maximum and the deflection is directly proportional to the ratio of charge to mass of
the particle, hence, we conclude that ratio of charge to mass is maximum for particle number 3.
16. A point charge causes an electric flux of 1.0 X 103 N m2/C to pass through a spherical Gaussian surface of
10.0 cm radius centered on the charge.

(a) If the radius of the Gaussian surface were

doubled, how much flux would pass through the surface?

Ans: Here

E = - 1.0 X 103 N m2/C.

(b) What is the value of the point charge?

(a) The flux over a closed (spherical) Gaussian surface

depends only upon the amount of charge present inside. Therefore, even on doubling the radius of the
Gaussian surface, the value of electric flux remains unchanged at 1.0 x 103 N m2/C.
(b) or

Value of point charge q = 0.E = 8.854 X 10-12 X (- 1.0 X 103)

= - 8.854 X 10-9 C

or

8.854 nC = - 8.8 nC

17. An finite line charge produces a field of 9 X 104 N/C at a distance of 2 cm. Calculate the linear charge density.
Ans: It is given that E = 9 X 104 N/C and r = 2 cm = 0.02 m.



 

As for an infinite line charge electric field at a point is E =

= 2 X 3.14 X 8.854 X 10-12 X 0.02 X 9 X 104,

Linear charge density = 2 0 r E

= 10-7 C m-1 M 0.1 C m1

18. Two large, thin metal plates are parallel and close to each other. On their inner faces, the plates have surface
(a) in the outer region
charge densities of opposite signs and of magnitude 1.70 X 10-22 C/m2. What is  :
of the first plate; (b) in the outer region of the second plate, and (c) between the plates?

Ans: Let A and B be two large, thin metal plates held parallel and close to each other as shown in fig.
Surface density of charge on A,

= + 17.0 X

and surface density of charge on B, - = - 17.0 X

10-

10-

electric field is zero as in (a).

22 C/m

(a) At any point K in the outer region of first plate A, we have

NO N = NP N = (/2 0) but their directions are mutually opposite,

Hence  K =  A +  B = Q

22 C/m2

(b) Again at a point M in the outer region of the second plate, net
(c) At a point N between the plates A and B,  A and  B are equal in

magnitude and both are directed in same direction and are, therefore, added up, hence net electric field is
given by

 =  A +  B = (/2 0) + (/2 0),

= /0 =

R2 + =

S2S) + =

= 1.92 X 10-10 N C-1 or 1.9 X 10-10 N C-1.

19. A hollow charged conductor has a tiny hole cut into its surface. Show that the electric field in the hole is

(/20) , where  is the unit vector in the outward normal direction, and is the surface charge density
near the hole.

Ans: Let us consider a hollow charged conducting body P having a tiny hole H cut into its surface. If be the
surface of charge near the hole, then we know that the electric field at a point B outside the conductor
and near the hole =  = (/20). , and electric field at a point A inside the hollow conductor = 0.

Obviously electric field at points A as well as B may be considered as the vector sum of electric field due
to the remaining conductor  1 and electric field due to hole portion of the conductor  2.
As shown in fig. at point A, we have,
N N = N T B N = E1 E2 = 0 and it leads to N N U NB N

Again at point B,
N N U N N T NB N = E1 + E2 = 2 E1 = /0

 1 = (/20) , where  is unit vector in the outward normal direction.

20. A particle of mss m and charge (- q) enters the region between the two charged plates initially moving along
x-axis with speed x (like particle 1 in fig). The length of plate is L and an uniform electric field E is
maintained between the plates. Show that the vertical deflection of the particle at the far edge of the
plate is qEL2/(2m x2).
Ans: Let a particle of mass m, charge q and initial speed x along x-axis enters a uniform electric field region at
O. The field  is along y-axis as shown in fig. and extends to a length L.
P

As there is no field along x-axis, velocity x along x-axis remains unchanged and

time taken by charge particle to cross the field t = (L/x).

Force experienced by charged particle along y-axis

NV N = - q  or qE towards +ve charged plate.

Q
L

Or

Acceleration of charged particle along y-axis ay = F/m = qE/m (towards +ve charged plate).

Or

Deflection suffered by charged particle along y-axis, while crossing the electric field, is given by
y=




ayt2 =




X (qE/m) X (L/x)2 = (qEL2/2m2x) towards +ve charged plate.

21. The particle in is an electron projected with velocity x = 2.0 X 106 m s-1. If E between the plates
separated by 0.5 cm is 9.1 X 102 N/C, where will the electron strike the upper plate?
(:W: = 1.6 X 10-19 C, me = 9.1 X 10-31 kg)
Ans: For electron particle q = :W: = 1.60 X 10-19 C and mass of electron me = 9.1 X 10-31 kg. Moreover, it is given that
x = 2.0 X 106 m s-1 and E = 9.1 X 102 N/C.

Let after covering a distance L the electron strikes the upper plate after suffering a deflection y = 0.5 cm
= 5 X 10-3 m. Then from the relation,

y = (qEL2/2mx2), we have

6F
 + 32 + 6F +) + 
L = x X XYZ[\D = (2 X 106) X ]
63
 ,

2, + 

+32 + 

= 1.58 X 10-2 m = 1.58 cm = 1.6 cm.

22. In a medium the force of attraction between two point electric charges, distance d apart, is F. What distance
apart should these be kept in the same medium so that the force between them becomes
(i) 3F,

(ii) F/3 ?

Ans: (i) d1 = d/^_

(ii) d2 = ^_ d.

23. The flux of the electrostatic field through the closed spherical surface S is found to be

4 times through the closed spherical S. Find the magnitude of the charge Q.

= (1/0) (q1 + q2 + q3) = 1/0 (1 2 + 9.854) X 10-6 = (8.854 X 10-6/0) N C-1 m2

or

q2
S

Ans: As per Gausss law, electric flux through spherical surface S is

and flux through spherical surface S is,

q1
S

Given q1 = 1 C, q2 = - 2 C, q3 = 9.854 C.

q3

1m

2m

= 1/0 (q1 + q2 + q3 + Q) = 1/0 (8.854 X 10-6 + Q) N C-1 m2

= 4 hence 8.854 X 10-6 + Q = 4 X 8.854 X 10-6,

Q = 26.6 X 10-6 C = 26.6 C

24. A parallel plate capacitor with air between the plates has a capacitance of 8 pF (1 pF = 10-12 F). What will be
the capacitance if the distance between the plates is reduced by half, and the space between them is filled
with a substance of dielectric constant 6?

Ans: Here C = 8 pF = 0 A/d,

Now d = (d/2) and space is filled with a substance having K = 6.

Hence, new capacitance,

C = K 0A/d =

` ! O
ab c
B

= 12 (0A/d) = 12 X 8 pF = 96 pF

25. (a) Show that the normal component of electrostatic field has a discontinuity from one side of a charged
surface to another given by
( 2 -  1). = /0
where  is a unit vector normal to the surface
at a point and is the surface charge density at that point.

(The direction of  is from side 1 to side 2).

Hence, show that just outside a conductor, the electric field is (/0).

Ans: As shown in fig consider a small cylindrical Gaussian surface passing normally through the charged surface
and encompassing surface area S. Normal electric field is present on either side of surface but within the
surface there is no electric field. Hence electric field has a discontinuity from one side of charged surface
1
2
to another. Applying Gauss law, we have
[ 2 . (+ ) +  1 . (- )] S = (S/0),
where is the surface charge density.

( 2 -  1)  = /0,

Thus,

This shows that the electric field just outside the conductor is /0.

P
S

26. In a hydrogen atom, the electron and proton are bound at a distance of about 0.53 :

(a) Estimate the potential energy of the system in eV, taking the zero of the potential energy at infinite
separation of the electron from proton.

(b) What is the minimum work required to free the

electron, given that its kinetic energy in the orbit is half the magnitude of potential energy obtained in (a)?
(c) What are the answers to (a) and (b) above if the zero of potential energy is taken at 1.06 separation?
Ans: (a) When zero of potential energy is taken at infinity, then potential energy of hydrogen atom system will be
U=
or

 



 

U=

In present case q1 = + 1.60 X 10-19 C, q2 = - 1.60 X 10-19 C and r = 0.53 X 10-11 m

a2, + =3 c a
2, + =3 c 3 + 3

)2F + =

(b) K.E. of electron in its orbit K =

:4:


J,

a2, + =3 c +3 + 3

)2F + = +2, + =3

=-

eV,

= - 27.2 eV

[Because K.E. is always positive],

or

K = 27.2/2 = 13.6 eV,

or

Total energy of electron = K + U = 13.6 27.2 = - 13.6 eV

or

Minimum work required to free the electron = + 13.6 eV

(c) If zero of potential energy is taken at r1 = 1.06 = 1.06 X 10-10 m, then the potential energy of the
system for r2 = 0.53 = 5.3 X 10-11 m is given by,
=

a2, + =3 c a
2, + =3 c + 3 + 3

2, + =3

)2F + =

but kinetic energy of electron K = K = + 13.6 eV,

U=

2, + =

 







6 ]

] eV,



= (13.6 27.2) eV = - 13.6 eV

or Total energy of electron = K + U = 13.6 13.6 = 0

As an amount 13.6 eV [as calculated in case (b) above] has been used up in increasing the potential energy
from 27.2 eV to 13.6 eV. Therefore, minimum work required to free the electron
= 0 (- 13.6) eV = 13.6 eV.
27. If one of the two electrons of a H2 molecule is removed, we get a hydrogen molecular ion H2+. In the ground
state of an H2+, the two protons are separated by roughly 1.5 , and the electron is roughly 1 from each
proton. Determine the potential energy of the system. Specify your choice of the zero of potential
energy.
e

Ans: If zero of the potential energy is taken at infinity, then in present set up the potential
energy of the system should be,

U=





 



 F
F

 F
F

]
P+

1.5

P+

= 9 X 109 [
+

a2, + =3 c a2, + =3 c

2) + =

a2, + =3 c a
2, + =3 c

 + =

a2, + =3 c a
2, + =3 c

+ =

= - 3.072 X 10-18 J = - (3.072 X 10-18/1.60 X 10-19) eV = - 19.2 eV.

28. Two charged conducting spheres of radii a and b are connected to each other by a wire. What is the ratio of
electric fields at the surfaces of the two spheres? Use the result obtained to explain why charge density
on the sharp and pointed ends of a conductor is higher than on its flatter portions.
Ans: When two charged conducting spheres of radii a and b are connected to each other by a wire, they share
their charges and acquire same potential i.e.., V1 = V2. If charges on two spheres be Q1 and Q2, respectively,
d

  e

then it means that,

d

  f

or

d

d

= a/b

Now electric fields at the surfaces of two spheres will have a ratio,

E1/E2 =

d
  e
d

  f

d f

d e

f

f e

As electric field very near a conducting surface is given by E = (/0), hence surface charge densities will
g

g

have the ratio

h

h

Thus, surface density of

charge at a point of a conductor is inversely proportional to the radius (for thickness). Hence, charge
density of a conductor is much higher at the sharp and joined ends and less on its flatter portion.
29. An electrical technician requires a capacitance of 2 F in a circuit across a potential difference of 1 kV. A
large number of 1 F capacitors are available to him each of which can withstand a potential difference of
not more than 400 V. Suggest possible arrangement that requires the minimum number of capacitors.
Ans: As potential difference required by the technician = 1 kV = 1000 V and potential difference rating of each
1 F capacitor = 400 V,

or

Minimum number of capacitors to be joined in series,

n = 1000/400 = 2.5

It means that atleast 3 capacitors should be joined in a series row, whose combined capacitance will be
C/3 = 1 F/3 = 1/3 F,

As technician requires a capacitance of 2 F, hence number of capacitor

rows to be joined in parallel should be

m=


i


F
i
F

=6

Minimum number of capacitors needed by the technician = nm = 3 X 6 = 18.

The technician should arrange

these 18 capacitors in 6 parallel rows, each row consisting of 3 capacitors in series.

30. Describe schematically the equipotential surfaces corresponding to
(a) a constant electric field in the z-direction.
(b) a field that uniformly increases in magnitude but remains in a constant (say, z) direction,
(c) a single positive charge at the origin and,
(d) a uniform grid consisting of long equally spaced parallel charged wires in a plane.
Ans: We know that an equipotential surface is always perpendicular to the direction of electric field lines. Hence,
(a) For a constant electric field in the z-direction, equipotential surfaces are planes parallel to x-y plane.
(b) For a field in z-direction increasing uniformly in magnitude, equipotential surfaces are planes parallel to
x-y plane. However, planes differing by a fixed potential get closer as the electric field increasing.
(c) For a single positive charge at the origin, equipotential surfaces are concentric spheres with origin as
their centre.

(d) For a uniform grid consisting of long equally speed parallel charged wires in a

plane equipotential surfaces at large distances are planes parallel to the grid. However, very near the grid
the equipotential surfaces have curved shapes due to edge effect.