Electrical Power and Energy Systems 62 (2014) 700711

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Electrical Power and Energy Systems

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijepes

Multiobjective evolutionary algorithm with a discrete differential

mutation operator developed for service restoration in distribution
systems
Danilo Sipoli Sanches a,, Joo Bosco A. London Jr. b, Alexandre Cludio B. Delbem c, Ricardo S. Prado d,
Frederico G. Guimares e, Oriane M. Neto e, Telma W. de Lima f
a

Federal Technological University of Paran, Cornlio Procpio, Brazil

So Carlos School of Engineering, University of So Paulo, So Carlos, SP, Brazil
c
Institute of Mathematical and Computing Sciences, University of So Paulo, So Carlos, SP, Brazil
d
Federal Institute of Minas Gerais, Ouro Preto, Brazil
e
Department of Electrical Engineering, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, UFMG, Brazil
f
Institute of Informatics, Universidade Federal de Goias, UFG, Brazil
b

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 22 March 2013
Received in revised form 24 April 2014
Accepted 10 May 2014
Available online 12 June 2014
Keywords:
Large-Scale Distribution Systems
Service restoration
Node-Depth Encoding
Multi-Objective Evolutionary Algorithms
Differential Evolution

a b s t r a c t
Network reconguration for service restoration in distribution systems is a combinatorial complex optimization problem that usually involves multiple non-linear constraints and objective functions. For large
scale distribution systems no exact algorithm has found adequate restoration plans in real-time. On the
other hand, the combination of Multi-Objective Evolutionary Algorithms (MOEAs) with the Node-Depth
Encoding (NDE) has been able to efciently generate adequate restoration plans for relatively large distribution systems (with thousands of buses and switches). The approach called MEAN results from the
combination of NDE with a technique of MOEA based on subpopulation tables. In order to improve the
capacity of MEAN to explore both the search and objective spaces, this paper proposes a new approach
that results from the combination of MEAN with characteristics from the mutation operator of the Differential Evolution (DE) algorithm. Simulation results have shown that the proposed approach, called
MEAN-DE, is able to nd adequate restoration plans for distribution systems from 3860 to 30,880
switches. Comparisons have been performed using the Hypervolume metric and the Wilcoxon ranksum test. In addition, a MOEA using subproblem Decomposition and NDE (MOEA/D-NDE) was investigated. MEAN-DE has shown the best average results in relation to MEAN and MOEA/D-NDE.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction
Distribution system problems, such as service restoration
(SR) [1], power loss reduction [2], and expansion planning [3],
usually involve network reconguration procedures [47]. As
a consequence, they can be considered Distribution System
Reconguration (DSR) problems, which are usually formulated as
multiobjective and multiconstrained optimization problems
[8,9,5,10,1,1113,6,14].
Several Evolutionary Algorithms (EAs) have been developed to
deal with DSR problems [8,4,9,5,10,14]. The results obtained by
Corresponding author. Tel.: +55 43 35204000; fax: +55 43 35204010.
E-mail addresses: danilosanches@utfpr.edu.br (D.S. Sanches), jbalj@sc.usp.br
(J.B.A. London Jr.), acbd@icmc.usp.br (A.C.B. Delbem), ricardo.prado@ifmg.edu.br
(R.S. Prado), fredericoguimaraes@ufmg.br (F.G. Guimares), oriane@dee.ufmg.br
(O.M. Neto), telma@inf.ufg.br (T.W. de Lima).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2014.05.008
0142-0615/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

such approaches have surpassed those obtained through both

Mathematical Programming and traditional Articial Intelligence
[9]. However the majority of EAs still demands high running time
when applied to Large-Scale Distribution Systems (DSs) [9], that is,
DSs with thousands of buses and switches.
The performance obtained by EAs for large-scale DSs is dramatically affected by the data structure used to represent computationally the electrical topology of the DSs. Inadequate data
structure may reduce drastically the EA performance
[9,15,13,14,10]. Other critical aspects of EAs are the genetic operators that are used. Generally these operators do not generate radial
congurations [13].
In order to improve the EAs performance in DSR problems, the
approach proposed in [5] uses a vertex encoding based on the Prufer number to encode the chromosomes. The Prufer number encoding ensures system radiality avoiding the tedious mesh check
algorithms, which are required to identify the existence of loops

D.S. Sanches et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 62 (2014) 700711

(meshes) in the temporary solutions (DSs congurations). On the

other hand, in [16] it was proposed an innovative and effective
heuristic graph-based approach to SR problem. The idea is to minimize the switch operations in the de-energized areas. The
approach is based on the Prim algorithm [17].
In this context, the approaches proposed in [15,18,14] use a
new tree encoding, called Node-Depth Encoding (NDE), and its corresponding genetic operators [19]. As it was shown in those references, the NDE can improve the performance obtained by EAs in
DSR problems because of the following NDE properties: (i) The
NDE and its genetics operators produce exclusively feasible congurations, that is, radial congurations able to supply energy for the
whole re-connectable system1; (ii) The NDE can generate signicantly more feasible congurations (potential solutions) in relation
to other encoding in the same running time since its average time
p
complexity is O n, where n is the number of graph nodes (each
graph node corresponds to a DS sector2); (iii) The NDE-based formulation also enables a more efcient forwardbackward Sweep Load
Flow Algorithm (SLFA) for DSs. Typically this kind of load ow
applied to radial networks requires a routine to sort network buses
into the Terminal-Substation Order (TSO) before calculating the
bus voltages [2022]. Fortunately, each conguration generated by
the NDE has the buses naturally arranged in the TSO. Thus, the SLFA
can be signicantly improved by the NDE-based formulation.
Observe that, once a feasible conguration is guaranteed, the objective function and the network operational constraints of a DSR problem can be analyzed solving a radial load-ow.
The approach proposed in [15] uses NDE together with a conventional EA, that is, an EA based on just one objective function
that weights the multiple objectives and penalizes the violation
of constraints. According to [11,23] this strategy for treating problems with multiple objectives and constraints suffers from various
disadvantages. In this sense, in [14] NDE was combined with a
technique of Multi-Objective Evolutionary Algorithm (MOEA)
based on subpopulation tables, where each subpopulation stores
the found solutions that better satisfy an objective or a constraint
of a DSR problem. The MOEA with subpopulation tables can more
easily leave the local toward global optima. Simulation results presented in [14] demonstrate that the Multi-Objective EA with NDE
(MEAN) is an efcient alternative to deal with DSR problems in
large-scale DSs. Also simulations results obtained by MEAN to treat
the SR problem in large-scale DSs have surpassed those obtained
by the NSGA-II, the SPEA-2 and the integration of MEAN with both
NSGA-II and SPEA-2 [24,25].
Beyond the scopes of multiobjective and data structures for DSR
problems, new relevant EAs have been investigated in the literature. The Differential Evolution (DE) [26] has received increased
interest from the Evolutionary Computation community, since DE
has shown better performance over other well-known metaheuristics like Genetic Algorithm (GA) and Particle Swarm Optimization
(PSO) [27]. The DE can identify promising regions of the search
space by a relatively simple operator (called differential mutation)
that generates new solutions (called individuals) from random calculation of pairs of differences between individuals.
Nevertheless, there are few proposals of implementation of this
operator in the space of discrete variables [2830] and their performance has not been evaluated for a signicant number of problems. Moreover, the available versions of DE for combinatorial
optimization in the literature focus on permutation-based combinatorial problems, such as the job shop scheduling, ow shop

1
The term re-connectable system means all areas having at least one switch
linking them to energized areas. Some out-of-service areas may not have any switch
to re-connect them to the remaining energized areas.
2
A sector is a set of buses connected by lines without switches.

701

scheduling and the travelling salesman problem, precluding their

use for SRs in DSs.
The main contribution of this paper is to propose a differential
mutation operator based on the NDE. The new operator can extract
the essential difference between two DS feasible congurations
and use it in order to compose new feasible congurations. Moreover, the average time complexity of the proposed operator is
p
O n, enabling efcient manipulation of large-scale networks. In
addition, the differential mutation operator based on the NDE is
combined with MEAN, producing a new powerful MOEA (called
MEAN-DE) to solve SR problems for large-scale DSs. Experimental
results have indicated that MEAN-DE can nd restoration plans
with one-fourth less switching operations than MEAN plans for
the largest DS used in the tests (30,880 buses and 5166 switches).
Although the majority of MOEA has successfully worked with
combinatorial Multi-Objective Problems (MOPs) with at most
two objectives, the MEAN have solved the SR problem formulated
with more than two objectives [14]. Other MOEA that has obtained
interesting results for MOPs with more than two objectives is the
MOEA based on Decomposition (MOEA/D) [38]. As a consequence,
we also proposed an extension of MOEA/D using NDE, called
MOEA/D-NDE, adapted for the SR problem. However, the MEANDE also presented better results in relation to MOEA/D-NDE for
the SR problem.
This paper is organized as follows: Service restoration problem
formalizes the SR problem; Addressing the SR problem for largescale DSs addresses the SR problem for large-scale DSs; Evolutionary Algorithms with NDE summarizes the MEAN, proposes the
extension of MOEA/D using NDE (MOEA/D-NDE) and describes
the recombination operator for the NDE; Discrete DE with movements list presents the Discrete Differential Evolution algorithm
with list of movements proposed in [46]; Proposed approach proposed the MEAN-DE; Experimental analyses evaluates and compares MEAN-DE to the MEAN and MOEA/D-NDE approaches;
nally, Conclusions summarizes the main contributions and concludes the paper.
Service restoration problem
Next sections present the nomenclature and the general formulation for the SR problem.
Nomenclature
After the faulted areas have been identied and isolated, the
out-of-service areas must be connected to other feeders by closing
and/or opening switches. Fig. 1 shows an example of SR in a DS
with three feeders. Nodes 1, 2 and 3 represent power sources in
a feeder, solid lines are Normally Closed (NC) switches, dashed
lines are Normally Open (NO) switches, and each circle represents
sectors.3 Suppose sector 4 is in fault (Fig. 1). Then, sector 4 must be
isolated from the system by opening switches A and B. Sectors 7 and
8 are in an out-of-service area (gray box in Fig. 1). One way to restore
energy for those sectors is by closing switch C.
Mathematical formulation
The SR problem emerges after the faulted areas have been identied and isolated. The desired solution is the minimal number of
switching operations that results in a conguration with minimal
number of out-of-service loads, without violating the operational
and radial constraints of the DS. The minimization of the number
3
Lines and buses without sectionalizing or tie-switches are inside a sector, thus,
they are not shown in DS representations, similar to the one in Fig. 1.

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D.S. Sanches et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 62 (2014) 700711

 The nodes are arranged in the TSO for each produced conguration G in order to solve Ax b using an efcient SLFA for DSs
[33]. The NDE stores nodes in the TSO. Through x obtained from
a backward sweep, the complex node voltages are calculated
from a forward sweep.
 /G 0. The NDE always generates forests that correspond to
networks without out-of-service consumers in the re-connectable system.
Eq. (1) can be rewritten as follows:

wG; G0 ; cG and

Min:

xx XG xb BG xv VG
subject to

G is a forest generated by the NDE;

Load flow calculated using the NDE
Fig. 1. Ilustration of DS modeled by a graph and the restoration process: (a) an
original conguration in fault; and (b) a conguration with service restorated.

of switching operations is important since the time required by the

restoration process basically depends on the number of switching
operations.
The SR problem can be formalized as follows:

Min:

/G; wG; G0 and cG

s:t:

Ax b
XG 6 1
BG 6 1

where xx ; xb and xv are weights balancing among the network

operational constraints. In this paper, these weights are set as
follows:

xx
xb
xv

VG 6 1
G is a forest;
where G is a spanning forest of the graph representing a system
conguration [31] (each tree of the forest [32] corresponds to a feeder or to an out-of-service area, nodes correspond to sectors and
edges to switches); /G is the number of consumers that are outof-service in a conguration G (considering only the re-connectable
system); wG; G0 is the number of switching operations to reach a
given conguration G from the conguration just after the isolation
of the faulted areas G0 ; cG are the power losses, in p.u., of conguration G; A is the incidence matrix of G [32]; x is a vector of line
current ow; b is a vector containing the load complex currents
(constant) at buses with bi 6 0 or the injected complex currents
at the buses with bi > 0 (substation); XG is called network loading
of conguration G, that is, XG is the highest ratio xj =xj , where xj is
the upper bound of current magnitude for each line current magnitude xj on line j; BG is called substation loading of conguration G,
that is, BG is the highest ratio bs =bs , where bs is the upper bound of
current injection magnitude provided by a substation (s means a
bus in a substation); VG is called the maximal relative voltage
drop of conguration G, that is, VG is the highest value of
jv s  v k j=d, where v s is the node voltage magnitude at a substation
bus s in p.u. and v k the node voltage magnitude at network bus k in
p.u. (obtained from a SLFA for DSs) and d is the maximum acceptable voltage drop (in this paper d 0:1, i.e. the voltage drop is limited to 10%). The formulation of Eq. (1) can be synthesized by
considering:
 Penalties for violated constraints XG; BG and VG.
 The use of the NDE [14], i.e. an abstract data type for graphs that
can efciently manipulate a network conguration (spanning
forest) and guarantee that the performed modications always
produce a new conguration G that is also a spanning forest (a
feasible conguration).

1; if; XG > 1

0; otherwise;
1; if; BG > 1

0; otherwise;
1; if; VG > 1
0; otherwise:

Addressing the SR problem for large-scale DSs

The SR problem, as formulated in the previous section, is based
on NDE, thus, the efciency in solving it depends on such encoding.
The NDE operators generate only feasible congurations (radial
congurations able to supply energy for the whole re-connectable
system). As a consequence, such abstract data type does not
require a specic routine to verify and to correct unfeasible congurations. Those aspects enable the construction of new congurations in a fast way for large-scale DSs (average-time complexity
p
O n, where n is the number of sectors in DS). In addition, a SLFA
[20,21] based on the TSO provided by the NDE fast evaluates each
new produced conguration for large-scale DSs [33] (average-time
p
complexity O nb , where nb is the number of load buses of the
DS).
Moreover, the formulations of Eqs. (1) and (2) correspond to a
Multi-Objective Problem (MOP). MOEAs are among the most relevant methods to deal with MOPs [23,34]. However, these and other
methods have shown success to work with combinatorial MOPs
with at most two objectives. In fact, problems with more objectives
have been called many-objective problems and relatively few
approaches were developed for them. Fortunately, MOEA combined with the NDE proposed in [14] has properly solved DSR problems formulated with more than two objectives.
Node-Depth Encoding
A graph G is a pair NG; EG, where NG is a nite set of elements called nodes and EG is a nite set of elements called edges.
A DS can be represented by graphs, where nodes represent the sectors and edges represent the sectionalizing- and tie-switches. A
tree is a connected and acyclic subgraph of a graph. The depth of
a node is the length of the unique path from the root of its tree
to the node.
The NDE is basically a representation of a graph tree in a
linear list containing the tree nodes and their depths. It can be

D.S. Sanches et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 62 (2014) 700711

703

Multi-Objective EA with subpopulation tables (MEAN)

Fig. 2. (a) A graph, a spanning tree (thick edges) and (b) its NDR assuming node 1 as
root.

implemented by an array of pairs nx ; dx , where nx is the node label

and dx is the node depth in the tree. The order the pairs are
disposed on the linear list is important. A depth search [17] in the
graph spanning tree can produce the proper ordering by inserting
a pair (nx ; dx ) in the list each time a node nx is visited by the search.
This processing can be executed off-line. Fig. 2 presents a graph,
where thick edges highlight a spanning tree of it and the NDE
corresponding to such spanning tree, assuming node 1 as root
node. The proposed forest representation is composed of the union
of the encodings of all trees that compose the forest. Therefore, the
forest data structure can be easily implemented using an array of
pointers, where each pointer indexes an NDE of a tree.
Two operators were developed to efciently manipulate a
forest stored in NDEs producing a new one: the Preserve
Ancestor Operator (PAO) and the Change Ancestor Operator
(CAO). Each operator modies the forest encoded by NDE arrays,
which is equivalent to pruning and grafting a sub-tree of a forest
generating a new forest. The CAO produces more complex
modications than PAO in a forest, as described in [14]. Both
p
operators are computationally efcient, requiring O n average
time for the construction of a new forest. Additional information
about the NDE and its operators applied to DSR problems are
described in [14].
Evolutionary Algorithms with NDE
EAs are stochastic search algorithms based on principles of
natural selection and recombination. They have been used to
solve difcult problems with objective functions that are multimodal, discontinuous or non-smooth functions. These algorithms
attempt to nd the optimal solution to the problem in hand by
manipulating a set (called population) of candidate solutions
(called individuals) [35]. The individuals are evaluated according
to a tness function (based on a criterion that evaluates solutions
of the problem in hand). Better solutions have a higher probability
of being selected to reproduce, generating a new population.
The process of constructing a population from another is called
generation. After several generations, very t individuals dominate
the current population, increasing the average quality of the
generated solutions. An EA does not guarantee a global optimal
solution [36]. However, as the literature shows, this technique
often nds useful solutions to relatively complex problems. EAs
have also shown superior performance to work with multiobjective
problems [23].

MEAN was proposed in [14] and uses a simple and computationally efcient strategy to deal with several objectives and constraints. The basic idea is to subdivide a population into
subpopulation tables related to different objectives and constraints. The MEAN is different from VEGA (Vector Evaluated
Genetic Algorithm [37]), since it adds a fundamental subpopulation table that stores individuals assessed by at least one aggregation function (see Eq. (3)), moreover, any individual can be
simultaneously evaluated using weighted (by table(s) of aggregation function(s)) and non-weighted scores (through the remaining
tables) from objectives and no additional heuristic is required to
induce middling values as proposed in [37]. The ability of simultaneously searching for the extreme points of the Pareto-front4 and
the best values of the aggregation function makes MEAN more similar to the MOEA/D [38].
The whole set of tables is organized as follows:
1. Tables associated with each objective and constraint:
(a) T 1 solutions with low cG;
(b) T 2 solutions with low VG;
(c) T 3 solutions with low XG;
(d) T 4 solutions with low BG;
(e) T 5 solutions with low values of an aggregation function,
dened as follows:

fagg G wG; G0 cG xx XG xb BG
xv VG;

where wG; G ; cG; XG; BG; VG; xx ; xb and xv were

dened in Service restoration problem5;
2. Tables denoted T 5p that are related to the required pair of
switching operations after fault isolation:
(a) Each Table T 5p , with p = 1,. . . , 5, stores the best solutions
found with more than p  1 and at most p pairs of switching
operations. In these tables the solutions are ranked (in
increasing order) according to the value of VG XG. Solutions with similar value, considering precision 102 , are randomly ranked.
A new generated individual (Inew ) is included in subpopulation
table T i if this table is not full or if Inew is better than the worst solution in T i , then replacing it. Note that the same individual may be
included in more than one subpopulation table. The MEAN requires
the following input parameters:
 Gmax is the maximum number of individuals generated by the
MEAN. It is also used as the stopping criterion;
 STi is the size of the subpopulation table T i indicating how many
individuals can be stored in T i , with i 1; . . . ; 10.
The reproduction operators used to generate new individuals
are the NDE operators PAO and CAO. First a solution is selected
from the subpopulation tables as follows: a subpopulation T i
is randomly chosen, then, an individual from it is randomly
picked up. Next, PAO or CAO (according to a dynamic probability
[14]) is applied to such individual, generating a new one, Inew .
Subpopulation table T i receives Inew if T i is not full (since T i
has size bounded by ST i ) or if Inew is better (according to the cri4
Pareto front contains the non-dominated solutions of the whole set of found
solutions. A solution Gi dominates another Gj if Gi is better than Gj according to at
least one objective and Gi is not worse than Gj in all other objectives.
5
Note that all congurations generated by MEAN are feasible, that is, they are
radial networks able to supply energy for the whole re-connectable system.

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D.S. Sanches et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 62 (2014) 700711

terion associated with T i ) than the worst solution in T i , then

replacing it.

Multi-Objective EA based on Decomposition (MOEA/D)

MOEA/D is a Multi-Objective EA that uses a technique of
decomposition [38] of a problem into subproblems. This algorithm
simultaneously optimizes V single objective subproblems, each of
them corresponds to an aggregation function. MOEA/D usually
employs the Tchebycheff approach [39] for the decomposition of
a Multi-Objective Problem into subproblems. A coefcient vector
ki denes each aggregation function and a set with the U coefcient
vectors that are the closest to ki in fk0 ; . . . ; kV g composes the neighborhood of ki [38].
The coefcient vectors should spread uniformly in the objective
space. The number of vectors is V C o1
Ho1 , where o is the number
of problem
objectives and H 1 is the size of weight set


0 1
; ; . . . ; HH used to construct coefcient vectors. As a conseH H
quence, a tradeoff between o and H should be found in order to
bound V, generating a number of subproblems that is computationally tractable.

At the rst generation, MOEA/D generates a random population.

In the next generations, genetic operators applied on solutions of
the same neighborhood produce new solutions. Then, the algorithm updates solutions of each neighborhood. The non-dominated
solutions from the population compose what is called External
Population (EP), completing a generation of MOEA/D or nishing
it when a stop criterion is achieved.
In relation to MEAN, MOEA/D requires the additional parameters U and H. To work with the SR problem, we adapted MOEA/D
to use NDE, which was called MOEA/D-NDE.
Evolutionary history recombination
In this section the recombination operator for the NDE is
described: Evolutionary History Recombination (EHR) proposed
in [40]. As the name of the operator suggests, EHR is based on
the evolutionary history of the operators PAO and CAO, that is,
on the sequence of vertices (p; a), for PAO, and (p; r; a),X for CAO,
applied in the generation of new individuals. The history of each
individual can be retrieved by using the auxiliary structures from
NDE: matrix Px , which stores the positions of node x in each individual, and array p, which stores the ancestor of each individual.

Fig. 3. History of applications of PAO and CAO operators.

D.S. Sanches et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 62 (2014) 700711

Fig. 3 shows an example of the evolutionary history of successive applications of PAO and CAO operators. In this gure, starting
from forest F0 and applying the operator PAO using vertices p = F
and a = B, we obtain forest F1 (left). Forests F2 and F3 (right) are
generated from the application of the operator CAO to F0 (with vertices p = E, r = D and a = H) and to F2 (with vertices p = G, r = J and
a = A) respectively.
In order to simplify the utilization of EHR, we propose a modication in array p, called pm , such that it can store not only the
index of the ancestor but also a triple of nodes (a; r and p) that were
used in the application of the operator PAO or CAO (in the case of
PAO, the value in r is null). In this way, a sequence of movements to
generate individual F i from any ancestor can be accessed from pm .

EHR illustrative example

To better illustrate EHR, let us consider the DS in Fig. 4, consisting of 3 feeders. The NDE of each feeder is shown in Fig. 5.
Figs. 6 and 7 show two individuals randomly selected in the
population. They were generated by operators PAO and CAO,
respectively. These two individuals have a common ancestor (see
Fig. 8), which is the forest shown in Fig. 4. PAO with p 11 and

705

a 17 generates individual 1 and CAO with p 21; r 20 and

a 14 produces individual 2 from the common ancestor. Combining these two modications, it is possible to obtain a new individual such as the one shown in Fig. 9.

Performance assessment
The performance of MOEAs is usually assessed by the quality of
the approximated Pareto fronts found by the algorithms. In general, three characteristics are taken into account to evaluate an
approximated Pareto front: (1) proximity to the Pareto-optimal
front, (2) diversity of solutions along the front and (3) uniformity
of solutions along the front. These three criteria guide the search
to a high-quality and diversied set of solutions which enable
the choice of the most appropriate solution in a posterior decision-making process [41].

Fig. 7. Individual 2 generated by CAO.

Fig. 4. DS with 3 feeders modeled by a graph with three trees.

Fig. 8. Common ancestor of the individuals in Figs. 6 and 7.

Fig. 5. NDE for the feeders in Fig. 4.

Fig. 6. Individual 1 generated by PAO.

Fig. 9. New individual obtained from the combination of modications that

generated other two individuals from a common ancestor.

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D.S. Sanches et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 62 (2014) 700711

To quantify these three characteristics in a set of nondominated solutions, various metrics have been developed, for
instance, Error Ratio [42], Generational Distance [42], the R2
and R3 [43], Hypervolume (HV) [44] and -indicator [44]. In this
paper, HV is used to assess the performance of the proposed
approach (denominated MEAN-DE, that is, MEAN with DE) and
MEAN.
The HV metric uses the covered volume, dominated by an
approximated Pareto front PF, as a measure of quality of such front.
The calculus of the covered volume requires a reference point,
which usually consists of an anti-utopian point or worst values
point in the objective space [45]. For each generated decision vector v eci a hypercube v oli is constructed in relation to the reference
point, after this, the hypercubes of all decision vectors are joined.
Higher values of Hypervolume are expected to mean a larger scattering of solutions and a better convergence to the true Pareto
front. The HV of PF is given by Eq. (4) [41].

HV

v oli ; v eci 2 PF:

Discrete DE with movements list

In [46] the authors propose an optimization approaches for the
Differential Evolution, called Discrete Differential Evolution algorithm with List of Movements (DDELM). DDELM was applied to
combinatorial problems where the operators difference, addition,
and product by scalar in the differential mutation equation are
redened in the space of discrete variables.
The difference between two candidate solutions is a list of
movements in the search space dened as:
Denition 1. A list of movements M ij is a list containing a
sequence of valid movements mk such that the application of
these movements to a solution si 2 S leads to the solution sj 2 S,
where S is the search space, that is, the set of all possible
combinations of values for the variables.
In this way, the difference between two solutions is dened
as being the corresponding list of movements:

M ij si  sj ;

where  is a special binary minus operator that returns a list of

movements Mij that represents a path from si towards sj . This list,
in some sense, captures the differences between these two
solutions.
The multiplication of the list of movements by a constant is
dened as:
Denition 2. The multiplication of the list of movements, M ij , by a
 

constant F 2 0; 1, returns a list M 0ij with the F  M ij  movements
 
of Mij , where M ij  is the size of the list.

v i x0  F  x1  x2
v i x0  F  M12
v i x0  M012 ;
which is the proposed discrete version of the typical differential
mutation equation.
We emphasize that in this paper we extend the ideas in [46] by
proposing a list of movements based on the NDE, which is suitable
for representing candidate solutions in DSR problems.
Proposed approach
The proposed approach is called MEAN-DE, which consists
basically of MEAN and the mutation operator of DE re-designed
from the EHR operator. In other words, the list of movements
[46] is obtained from the application of EHR operator. In this sense,
the difference between any two individuals x1 and x2 is a list of
movements M 12 composed by a sequence of triples p; ; a and
p; r; a obtained from pm (Evolutionary history recombination).
In fact, the list is the concatenation of two sequences: one from
x1 to xc and another from xc to x2 , where xc is their common
ancestor.
Thus, the EHR can be used to implement a discrete differential
p
mutation operator that is computationally efcient (O n in average). The implementation is straightforward as follows:
Be x0 ; x1 , and x2 three individuals randomly selected from the
current population to participate in the differential mutation
equation:

v i x0  F  x1  x2
v i x0  F  M12 ;

where the list of movements M12 is obtained from the history of

applications of PAO, CAO and EHR, which are stored into the modied array pm .
To illustrate the proposed differential mutation operator based
on EHR, consider the tree representation of the common ancestor
xc (Fig. 10) of individuals x1 and x2 (shown in Figs. 11 and 12,
respectively) generated through the application of CAO and PAO.
Individual 1 comes from ancestor xc by the following sequence of
PAO applications (11,_,17), (7,_,6) and (24,_,23). Individual 2
derives from xc by applying CAO as follows: 21; 20; 14, and
11; 12; 13.
Thus, with the aid of the EHR, the list of movements for each
individual is written as:

Mc1 11; ; 17 7; ; 6 24; ; 23

Mc2 21; 20; 14 11; 12; 13

Finally, the application of a list of movements to a given solution is dened as follows:

Denition 3. The application of the sequence of movements in the
list M 0ij into a solution sk , returns a new solution s0k :

s0k sk  M 0ij :

With the denition above, one can generate a mutant vector

dened as:

The list of movements M 12 between individuals x1 and x2 is the

junction of this two lists. M12 is built by choosing alternately one

Thus, the multiplication of the list of movements by a constant

can be denoted, using the special binary multiplication operator ,
by:

M 0ij F  M ij :

Fig. 10. Common ancestor xc of individuals x1 and x2 .

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D.S. Sanches et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 62 (2014) 700711

Fig. 11. Individual x1 generated by three applications of the PAO operator into the
common ancestor of Fig. 10.

Fig. 14. The result mutant vector

vi.

The list of movements captures the differences between any two

individuals and can be scaled and applied to the base individual
in order to generate a mutant solution. MEAN-DE employs the differential mutation operator as the search engine within the MEAN
framework.

Experimental analyses

Fig. 12. Individual x2 generated by three applications of the CAO operator into the
common ancestor of Fig. 10.

movement from each list of the individuals in order to avoid a bias

of the movements list from one only individual. So, the movement
list M12 is given by:

M 12 11; ; 17; 21; 20; 14; 7; ; 6; 11; 12; 13; 24; ; 23

In order to analyze how the MEAN and MEAN-DE approaches

behave with the increase in the network size for the SR problem,
the real Sao Carlos city DS (System 1 hereafter) was used to compose other three DSs with size varying from two to eight times
the original DS. System 2 is composed of two Systems 1 interconnected by 13 NO new additional switches. System 3 is composed of
four Systems 1 interconnected by 49 NO new additional switches.
Finally, System 4 is composed of eight Systems 1 interconnected by
110 NO new additional switches (the data of the four DSs are available in [47]).
Those DSs have the following general characteristics:

10
Assuming that F 0:6 [46], the number of movements used from
M12 is dF  jM12 je d0:6  5e 3. Thus M012 results in:

M 012 11; ; 17; 21; 20; 14; 7; ; 6:

11

The mutant vector v i is obtained by applying each movement of M012

into the base vector x0 :

v i x0  M012 :

12
M012

Thus, using x0 from Fig. 13 and

obtained above, the resultant
mutant vector is the one shown in Fig. 14.
In summary, the proposed approach allows the implementation
of the differential mutation operator for DSR problems by using the
EHR operator to build the list of movements as proposed in [46].

Fig. 13. Individual x0 , base vector, randomly choosing in a current population.

System 1 (S1): 3860 buses, 532 sectors, 632 switches (509 NC

and 123 NO switches), 3 substations, and 23 feeders.
System 2 (S2): 7720 buses, 1064 sectors, 1277 switches (1018
NC and 259 NO switches), 6 substations, and 46 feeders.
System 3 (S3): 15,440 buses, 2128 sectors, 2577 switches (2036
NC and 541 NO switches), 12 substations, and 92 feeders.
System 4 (S4): 30,880 buses, 4256 sectors, 5166 switches (4072
NC and 1094 NO switches), 24 substations, and 184 feeders.
The approaches MEAN, MEAN-DE and MOEA/D-NDE were run
using a Core 2 Quad 2.4 GHz, 8G RAM, with Linux Operating System Ubuntu 10.04 version, and the language compiler C gcc-4.4.
Parameters of MEAN and MEAN-DE are the subpopulation table
sizes, which were all setup to ST i 5. MEAN, MEAN-DE and MOEA/
D-NDE used dynamic probability of PAO and CAO applications. We
evaluated different values of parameters U and H of MOEA/D-NDE
in order to keep the total number of evaluations closest to the
number used in MEAN and MEAN-DE. Some sets of values did
not found feasible solutions in all runs, thus, they were discarded.
Among the sets of values U and H that found feasible solutions in
all runs, we chose the set that corresponded to the smallest number of switching operations, returning U 30 and H 10.
All the tests refers to a fault at the largest feeder in Systems 1, 2,
3 and 4, interrupting the service for the whole feeder. The experiments with these DSs evaluated the approaches according to: (a)
the performance of them for the SR problem; and (b) the relative
performance of those MOEAs concerning HV. MEAN, MEAN-DE

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D.S. Sanches et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 62 (2014) 700711

and MOEA/D-NDE were run 50 times (with different seeds for the
used random number generator) for each test case. Each run evaluated 100,000 solutions. In this paper the MEAN, MEAN-DE and
MOEA/D-NDE approaches will be search for SR plans which restore
the entire out-of-service area (full restoration cases) respecting
radiality and all the operational constraints (voltage drop, substation and network loading).
Table 1 enables a comparison of MEAN, MEAN-DE and MOEA/DNDE for S1 according to the number of switching operations for SR
plans (the most critical aspect for the SR problem). Those results
concern only the feasible solutions with the smallest number of
switching operations found by each approach in each run. Clearly,
MEAN-DE and MEAN outperform MOEA/D-NDE according to the
number of switching operations for SR plans. The Wilcoxon ranksum test (Experimental statistical analyses) conrmed the significance of such difference (p-value equal to 0.001).
Table 2 presents results concerning other electrical aspects.
Some aspects in the solutions from MOEA/D-NDE are improved
in relation to solutions from MEAN and MEAN-DE, nevertheless,
such benets costed higher number of switching operations.
The next experiments focus on comparing MEAN and MEAN-DE,
since they outperform MOEA/D-NDE according to the number of
switching operations for SR plans. First it was evaluated how the
MEAN and MEAN-DE approaches behave with the increase in the
DS size for the SR problem. Results for MEAN from Table 3 show
that it cannot nd the same solutions with the increase in the DS
size (note that the system SN is composed of N systems S1). Such
behavior indicates that nding adequate congurations for very
large networks is hard, since the space of feasible congurations
is huge.
On the other hand, Table 3 also shows that MEAN-DE can deal
with relatively complex networks nding lower number or switching operations and reaching the smallest number (seven) found for
S1. It is important to highlight that initially were required three
switching operations to isolated the faulted areas at the largest feeder in S1, S2, S3 and S4.
Tables 46 synthesize other electrical aspects of the best solutions found by both MEAN and MEAN-DE for each objective and
constraint. Basically, they emphasize that the found solutions are
all feasible and do not signicantly differ from each other according to those aspects, thus, the critical aspect is the number of
switching operations, as shown by Table 3.

Table 2
Simulations with single fault in System 1.

Results using HV metric

Table 5
Simulations with single fault in System 3.

The analysis of the results, according to the HV metric used to

compare MOEAs, shows that MEAN-DE outperforms MEAN in the
four test problems (Systems 1, 2, 3 and 4) preserving a diverse
set of nondominated solutions (see Figs. 1518).
The distribution of HV values for Systems 1, 2, 3 and 4 are
shown in Figs. 1922. MEAN-DE found in average larger HV for
all systems, indicating that in general it obtains fronts more diverse
and uniformly distributed when compared with MEAN.

Table 1
Simulations with single fault in System 1.

MEAN-DE

Power losses (kW)

Voltage ratio (%)
Network load (%)
Substation load (%)
Running time (s)

S1
Minimum
Average
Maximum
Standard deviation

7
9
11
1.46

MOEA/D-NDE

Av.

Std

Av.

Std.

Av.

Std.

377.2
4.1
77.7
53.9
13.6

29.8
0.8
7.7
2.1
0.2

353.8
3.8
74.4
53.3
12.8

36.1
0.7
8.4
1.5
1.2

370.19
3.3
86.3
53.1
5.7

28.6
0.07
6.9
2.9
0.2

Table 3
Simulations with single fault in Systems 2, 3 and 4.
Switching operations
MEAN-DE

MEAN

S2
Minimum
Average
Maximum
Standard deviation

7
16
69
10.73

9
17
47
7.51

S3
Minimum
Average
Maximum
Standard deviation

7
20
77
14.07

11
25
107
20.11

S4
Minimum
Average
Maximum
Standard deviation

7
24
79
20.08

11
36
181
36.81

Table 4
Simulations with single in System 2.
MEAN-DE

Power losses (kW)

Voltage ratio (%)
Network load (%)
Substation load (%)
Running time (s)

MEAN

Av.

Std.

Av.

Std.

639.9
3.9
79.4
55.1
14.7

40.8
0.7
8.3
1.9
0.2

636.3
3.7
75.2
54.4
13.7

45.7
0.7
10.4
1.7
1.6

MEAN-DE

Power losses (kW)

Voltage ratio (%)
Network load (%)
Substation load (%)
Running time (s)

MEAN

Av.

Std.

Av.

Std.

1195.6
3.7
80.7
55.2
16.3

50.8
0.6
10.1
1.9
0.6

1191.6
3.9
83.1
57.1
14.9

69.5
0.8
9.5
4.8
0.4

Table 6
Simulations with Single Fault in System 4.

Switching operations
MEAN-DE

MEAN

MEAN
7
13
29
5.48

MEAN-DE
MOEA/D-NDE
9
19
73
13.41

Power losses (kW)

Voltage ratio (%)
Network load (%)
Substation load (%)
Running time (s)

MEAN

Av.

Std.

Av.

Std.

2321.4
3.4
85.2
55.8
17.1

54.3
0.3
8.6
3.1
0.9

2301.2
3.7
84.6
56.8
15.5

90.91
0.7
10.5
5.2
0.5

D.S. Sanches et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 62 (2014) 700711

709

MEAN
MEAN DE

Fig. 15. Pareto front obtained from System 1.

Fig. 18. Pareto front obtained from System 4.

Fig. 19. Box plots of HV values obtained from System 1.

Fig. 16. Pareto front obtained from System 2.

Fig. 20. Box plots of HV values obtained from System 2.

Fig. 17. Pareto front obtained from System 3.

Experimental statistical analyses

The HV values obtained for MEAN and MEAN-DE (Results using
HV metric) are not normally distributed, moreover, the variance is
noticeably different for different MOEAs [42]. This data may not

satisfy necessary assumptions for parametric mean comparisons

[48]. Thus, the use of a non-parametric statistical technique for
comparing results (HV) from both MOEAs is interesting.
In this sense, Wilcoxon rank-sum test can compare those results
to determine the MOEA that achieved better performance. This test
assumes the sample of differences is randomly selected and the

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D.S. Sanches et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 62 (2014) 700711

Conclusions

Fig. 21. Box plots of HV values obtained from System 3.

Fig. 22. Box plots of HV values obtained from System 4.

Table 7
Analyses with Wilcoxon rank-sum test.
System test

p-value

System
System
System
System

0.001
0.002
0.001
0.001

1
2
3
4

probability distributions (from which the sample of paired differences is drawn) is continuous [49]. The found HV values meet
these criteria, then the following hypotheses were tested:
 HV 0 : The probability distributions of HV values obtained by
MEAN-DE and MEAN from the tests with the four DSs are
identical.
 HV 1 : Distributions of the HV values differ between MEAN-DE
and MEAN.
The Wilcoxon rank-sum test results are termed p-values, also
called observed signicance levels. We reject the null hypothesis
whenever p-values 6 a. Using a signicance level a 0:05 applied
to HV results from the four systems, all p-values obtained are equal
or less than 0.02 (see Table 7). Thus, there is enough evidence to
support the alternative hypothesis and conclude that these tests
show a signicant statistical difference between the MEAN-DE
and MEAN for HV metric.

This paper presented a new MOEA using NDE with a powerful

differential mutation operator to solve the SR problem in largescale DSs (i.e., DSs with thousands of buses and switches).
The proposed approach, called MEAN-DE, combines the main
characteristics of MEAN, EHR operator and list of movements of
the DDELM proposed in [46]. MEAN and MEAN-DE are both based
on the strategy of subpopulation tables to deal with multiobjective
optimization involving more than two objectives. The MEAN-DE
uses a new differential mutation operator structured from the
EHR operator, providing computational efciency in order to deal
with relatively large DSs.
In addition, a MOEA using subproblem Decomposition and NDE
(MOEA/D-NDE) was investigated.
In the experiments, the approaches MEAN, MOEA/D-NDE and
MEAN-DE were applied to DS called S1, with 3860 buses. Results
indicated that MOEA/D-NDE requires in general more switching
operations for SR plans than MEAN and MEAN-DE, what is critical
since the number of switching operations must be reduced for SR.
MEAN and MEAN-DE presented similar results for S1.
Performances of MEAN and MEAN-DE were also evaluated for
other three larger Systems: S2 (7720 buses), S3 (15,440 buses)
and S4 (30,880 buses). The results show that they enabled SR in
large-scale DSs and solutions were found where: energy was
restored to the entire out-of-service area after a feeder-fault in
the largest feeder of each DS, the operational constraints were satised and a reduced number of switching operations was obtained.
Moreover, armed with the relatively low running time required by
restoration plans for all the tested systems, we can conclude that
those approaches can generate appropriately SR plans for largescale DSs.
A statistical analysis performed using 50 experiments for each
approach shows MEAN-DE performs better than MEAN for the
tested DSs. MEAN-DE has obtained the best average results for
lower switching operations while preserving the diversity of
solutions.
To measure the quality of obtained solutions of MEAN and
MEAN-DE, the HV metric was used. According to the simulation
results, MEAN-DE showed a better performance in terms of HV in
relation to MEAN. The nonparametric statistical analysis, the Wilcoxon rank-sum test, showed MEAN-DE is better than MEAN when
applied to the four DSs tested.
Finally, this work provided interesting basis for combining
promising aspects of different EA approaches into a new approach
that shows relevant performance on all tested DSs.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge CAPES, CNPq, FAPEMIG
and FAPESP for the nancial support given to this research. The
authors would like to acknowledge especially Professor Oriane
M. Neto by numerous contributions given to the paper. In memoriam prof. Oriane Magela Neto.
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