FIELDWORK SEGMENT

PRM 2013-15

A Theme Paper/ Faculty Participant Collaborative Research (FPCR)

Agriculture: Risks & Challenges

Based on Studies in # 2 Villages

Village: Bhargawan; District: Satna; State: Madhya Pradesh

Village: Dewlaha; District: Satna; State: Madhya Pradesh
--------------------------------

Submitted by:
Ishant Chandra Saxena (34071)
Shobhit Mathur (34101)

Faculty Guide:
Prof. Atulan Guha

In partial fulfillment of the requirements of the FWS of the

Post Graduate Programme in Rural Management
INSTITUTE OF RURAL MANAGEMENT ANAND 2013

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The fieldwork segment at DeenDayal Research Institute at Chitrakoot (M.P.) was a great
learning experience for us. This was the first time we stayed in a village. We would like to take this
opportunity to thank all those people who helped us during our stay in village to study various
aspects of the village life.

We are extremely grateful and indebted to IRMA and our field work coordinator Prof.
Asmita Vyas who helped us in all initial preparations before our stay started in village.

We would also like to express our heartfelt gratitude to our host organization DeenDayal
Research Institute (DRI), for facilitating our stay in the village and for the valuable inputs that they
provided us throughout our study. We also thank our reporting officer Mr. Vineet Shrivastava and
Mr. Mahendra Namdeo and all the other staff of DRI for their assistance. Guidance provided by head
of the organization Mr. Bharat Pathak was invaluable.

The guidance provided by Prof. Atulan Guha for creation of this report helped us fully
articulate different aspects of the village.

We are indebted to the people of Bhargawan and Dewlaha for their co-operation and support
throughout our study. All of them helped us immensely during our surveys. Special thanks to all the
scientists of Krishi Vigyan Kendra (Majhgawan M.P.) for their invaluable inputs.

Ishant Chandra Saxena

Shobhit Mathur

ABSTRACT
This theme-paper is a result of collaborative study which we undertook in two villages of Satna
district in Madhya Pradesh. Both these villages were economically and socially backward, with
limited external developmental intervention. Predominant caste-category, in both these villages,
happens to be Tribals mainly Gond tribe.

In these villages we have attempted to explore the agricultural practices prevalent in the village
and the rationalities of the villagers behind it, in context of the continuing traditional agriculture
practices. Also our main focus as part of this theme paper was to identify and understand the
risks and challenges of agriculture which is the primary occupation of these villages. A common
observation in our study was that the villagers face a variety of risks and challenges whether it is
climatic fluctuations, drought or the attack of wild animals or be it the traditional destructive
custom of Aira/Anna pratha. We were also interested in finding out about what part of the youth
present in the village find this particular occupation interesting. But it was disheartening to find
out that the majority of the youth is not interested in this occupation and those of all who is
involved in this profession was either compelled due to lack of resources or had very minimal or
no choices for himself. Village youth is generally interested in daily wage occupations which
provide returns quickly and do not involve hidden risks and losses as attached to agriculture.
However the rural youth are not to be blamed for their low aspiration level because of the
numerous risks and challenges and marginal returns associated with agriculture in the region.

In order to get a quality output from our study we have rather concentrated our findings to only
two villages in Chitrakoot region. Hence, this report extensively deals with the problems of these
two villages only but due to similar geographical contours and climate, the results can be
extrapolated and can be generalized for the Chitrakoot region. In this report we have tried to
quantify the theme by involving case studies of certain farmers from our villages Bhargawan and
Dewlaha and provide a conclusion based on the calculations for testing the economic viability of
the farmers involved. Since the majority of the farmers of the village are practicing subsistence
farming thus the farming practices were inefficient and only for self sustenance and were not
contributing towards either for socio-economic upliftment or even for any asset creation. We
have attempted to base our inferences completely on the findings of our study tools and tried to
be entirely impartial in our approach. Since, we had very rare experience of living in such
villages thus it was easy for us to be unbiased.
The village conditions were almost similar in both the villages thus the conclusions drawn have
been combined and generalized.
ii

Table of Contents
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 1
2. Objective ................................................................................................................................................... 1
3. Scope of Study .......................................................................................................................................... 2
3.1 Village Profile ..................................................................................................................................... 2
Bhargawan ............................................................................................................................................ 2
Dewlaha ................................................................................................................................................ 3
3.2 Area of Interest ................................................................................................................................... 4
4. Methodology Adopted .............................................................................................................................. 4
4.1 Methods/Techniques ........................................................................................................................... 4
4.2 Work Plan ........................................................................................................................................... 5
4.3 Sources of Data ................................................................................................................................... 5
4.4 Data Analysis ...................................................................................................................................... 5
5. Agriculture ................................................................................................................................................ 5
5.1 Current Scenario ................................................................................................................................. 5
5.2 Risks and Challenges in Agriculture ................................................................................................. 11
5.3 Identification of Risks and Challenges with respect to the Villages ................................................. 11
5.4 Suggestions ....................................................................................................................................... 18
6. Data Presentation & Analysis ................................................................................................................. 19
6.1 Bhargawan ........................................................................................................................................ 20
6.2 Dewlaha ............................................................................................................................................ 26
7. Conclusions ............................................................................................................................................. 31
Based on the cases discussed above following inferences can be drawn with respect to the observed
risks and challenges in the villages: ........................................................................................................ 31
8. National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) .............................................................. 32
7.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 32
7.2 Objectives ......................................................................................................................................... 32
7.3 Why Bhargawan was chosen?........................................................................................................... 32
7.4 NICRA Interventions ........................................................................................................................ 33
7.4.1 Natural resource Management ................................................................................................... 33
7.4.2 Improving Soil Fertility ............................................................................................................. 33
7.4.3 Improving Crop Production ....................................................................................................... 33
iii

7.4.4 Institutional Interventions .......................................................................................................... 34

7.5 Coping Strategies suggested by KVK, NICRA ................................................................................ 35
7.6 Outcomes and Results ....................................................................................................................... 37
8. References ............................................................................................................................................... 38
9. Annexure .................................................................................................................................................... i

iv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

DRI Deendayal Research Institute

AAY - Antyodaya Anna yojana
BPL Below Poverty Line
CRIDA Central Research Institute for Dry Land Agriculture
FGD Focused Group Discussion
ICAR Indian Council of Agricultural Research
KVK Krishi Vigyan Kendra
NICRA National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture
HH House Holds
VCRMC Village Climate Risk Management Committee

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Households and Population Distribution based on poverty

Table 2: Agriculture land usage pattern
Table 3: Irrigation sources
Table 4: Irrigation equipments details
Table 5: Ground water usage details
Table 6: Agriculture production across seasons
Table 7: Cash Crops
Table 8: Historical Trends in rainfall (2008-2012)
Table 9: New varieties of crop introduced
Table 10: Custom hiring centre details
Table 11: Yield comparison before and after NICRA intervention
Table 12: Coping strategies proposed by KVK, NICRA

vi

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Population distribution based on caste

Figure 2: Land holding based distribution
Figure 3: Rainfall pattern year wise and number of rainy days
Figure 4: Crop calendar

vii

LIST OF ANNEXURES

Annexure 1: Survey Questionnaire

Annexure 2: Village Location
Annexure 3: Focused Group Discussion Details
Annexure 4: Interview Questionnaire with Dr R. S. Negi (Project Director, NICRA)

viii

1. Introduction
Agriculture has been a way of life and continues to be the single most important livelihood of the
Indian masses. Agriculture contributes about 17% to the national GDP, feeds 1 billion people
and employs nearly 50% of the population. But the growth rate of agriculture sector still does not
match the growth rate of Indian economy.
Indian agriculture is characterized by agro-ecological diversities in soil, rainfall, temperature,
and cropping system. Also Irrigation water is becoming a scarce commodity thus proper
harvesting and efficient utilization of water is of great importance. Hence there are numerous
factors influencing the agriculture and leading it to an unattractive occupation even for the
farmers. Thus the issues or the problems associated with these factors can be defined as the risks
and challenges for the agriculture and are often attached to the losses. Hence there is an urgent
need to study and address these challenges to make agriculture a viable occupation for the
farmers.
This study has been done keeping the same theme as context in background and it tries to list
various risks and challenges faced by the farmers of Bhargawan and Dewlaha villages in Satna
district of Madhya Pradesh, India. This theme paper also tries to explain the causes with the help
of quantitative techniques and illustrations with few suggestions for the problem concerned.

2. Objective
The objective of our study during village field segment was to observe and analyze agricultural
activities with respect to our village and the issues or problems involved.
This study facilitated us in understanding
1. The risks & challenges involved in agriculture and how these affect the viability of
agriculture as a source of income and food generation for the farmers.
2. Also to understand the economic viability of the agriculture and the returns received by
the HHs.

Risks: Risks in agricultural context refer to the problems/situations which have a probability
associated with them and cannot be controlled. There is always a level of certainty/uncertainty
associated with the problem under consideration. Risks to farmers often results in income
fluctuations and other losses.
Challenges: Challenges in agriculture can be defined as the crisis/difficulties associated with the
profession of farmers which can be minimized or eliminated by planning and implementation of
area specific techniques or methods as preventive/corrective steps.
1

3. Scope of Study
Our scope of study is confined to the two villages viz. Bhargawan and Dewlaha but can be
generalized for the region surrounding Chitrakoot in District Satna of Madhya Pradesh because
of similar climatic and economic conditions existing in the area.

3.1 Village Profile

Bhargawan
Bhargawan village is located between Satna and Chitrakoot. It is situated at an offshoot of 4 kms
from the main road. Bhargawan is divided into 5 tolas viz. Bhargawan tola, Kakadaha tola, Ahari
tola, Khadar tola and Lanka tola with a total population of 543.
Table 1
Households and Population Distribution based on poverty
Total Population

543

No. of Households
No of Houses
No of BPL card holders (households)
No of AAY card holders

85
45
54
15

*Source: - Gram Panchayat, Bhargawan.

The village population primarily consists of Gond tribe which constitutes around 70 % of the
total population as visible from the following chart. Other two castes present are the Brahmins
and Yadavs.
Figure 1
Population distribution based on caste
5%
Tribal(Gonds)
26%
Other Backward
Classes(Yadav's)
69%

General(Brahmins)

*Source- Gram Panchayat, Bhargawan.

Primary occupation of the villagers is agriculture with only 2% practicing any other occupation
like animal husbandry, carpentry and teaching. During our surveys and various interactions it
was observed that 80 % of the farmers are small or marginal and they farm for self-sustenance
i.e., can produce only for their survival. Thus in this particular village agriculture is not an
alluring profession and does not assist in asset creation for the HH. Total cultivated area
available for farming in the village is 151.56 Ha.
Figure 2
Land Holding based distribution

2%
1%
Landless(0 Ha)

17%

Marginal(<1 Ha)

34%

Small(1-3 Ha)
Medium(4-10 Ha)
Large(>10 Ha)
46%

*Source: KVK Satna

Dewlaha
Dewlaha is a village in Majhgawan Tehsil in Satna District of Madhya Pradesh State, India. It
belongs to Rewa Division. Dewalaha is located 44 KM towards North from District head
quartered in Satna, 456 KM from State capital Bhopal.
Dewalaha village is surrounded by forests on North, South and Eastern side and hills on Western
side. The hills in the west are a part of the Sahyadari mountain range which is spread across
central India. The nearest road to Dewlaha passes adjacent to the hills. This road, called Pahadi
Tola connects the District Headquarters of Satna and the popular tourist city of Khajuraho. The
eastern side is connected by a kacha road to the Majhgawan Block, under which Dewlaha is
listed.
Dewlaha has a population of 974 persons, which includes 477 men and 497 women. Hindi is the
most commonly spoken language in Dewlaha.

The economy of Dewlaha is primarily agrarian with more than 80% families involved in
agriculture.
Total Population

974

No. of Households
No of BPL card holders
No of AAY card holders

354
161
64

3.2 Area of Interest

Our area of interest in this study will focus on following questions:
a. What are the risks and challenges faced by the farmers in practicing agriculture as a
profession?
b. Can these risks and challenges be quantified?
c. How much loss does the farmer bear due to these issues?
d. Is this profession equally rewarding when compared to the efforts put?
e. The output of cost-benefit analysis for farmer.
The study of these questions will help us in identifying the issues involved and then these results
can be generalized for the particular region of study.

4. Methodology Adopted
This field work segment for writing theme paper is designed to be carried out over ten weeks
comprising 8 weeks of field work and 2 weeks of data analysis and writing. The subject matter of
concern for this study was the risks and challenges faced by the villagers in their primary
occupation i.e., agriculture and their perception of it.

4.1 Methods/Techniques
Following techniques were deployed to get a clear understanding of the topic:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Transect Walks
Informal Discussions
Focus Group Discussions
Stratified Random Sampling
Structured Questionnaire Interviews
Documents available with village panchayat, KVKs & DRI
Data Analysis

4.2 Work Plan

Weeks 1 to 4: Identification and mapping of village sites for understanding and getting knowhow of the agricultural practices prevalent in the village through unobtrusive observations,
informal discussions and transect walks.
Weeks 5 to 8: Collection of data according to a regular stratified random sampling schedule,
focus group discussions, structured interviews and data entry.
Weeks 9 & 10: Analysis of the data collected on field and documenting the inferences &
conclusions.

4.3 Sources of Data

1. Primary Source of Data:
The primary sources of data collection include questionnaire surveys, focus group
discussions, unobtrusive observation and structured interviews.
2. Secondary Source of Data/Literature Survey:
The secondary sources of data collection include gram panchayat records, KVK &
NICRA documents and Samaj Shilpi Dampati

4.4 Data Analysis

The data collected from the above sources is tabulated and analyzed to get an understanding of
the theme and the practices concerning agriculture in the region specific in context of the risks
and challenges faced by the farmers. This analysis also identifies the existing gaps and tries to
study a pattern/trend existing and to generalize these results for the masses of the village.

5. Agriculture
5.1 Current Scenario
Bhargawan
Agriculture is the primary source of occupation for 98% of village households in Bhargawan.
But agriculture in the form of subsistence farming is practiced i.e., only for sustenance and not
for profitability or asset creation for the household. Total cultivated area for farming under
Bhargawan revenue area is 151.56 Ha. Some Villagers though have cultivable land, prefer letting
their land to other farmers on agreed terms of repayment in cash or kind whereas other landless
farmers either sell their labor to other farmers or practice farming on others lands for which rent
is to be paid in kind or cash at the time of harvest. Following is the operational holding
distribution of agricultural land available in the village area.

Table 2
Agriculture land usage pattern
Agricultural land use

Area (Ha)

Culturable wasteland

18.65

Pasture Land

21.04

Rainfed area

Agricultural Land use

pattern
Culturable
wasteland

124.34

Pasture Land

Net Irrigated Area

27.22

Gross Irrigated Area

39.22

Gross Cultivated Area

132.76

5%
37%

6%
Rainfed area
34%
Net Irrigated Area

11%

7%

Total Cultivated Area 151.56

Gross Irrigated
Area

Cropping Intensity %

Gross Cultivated
Area

87.59
*Source: KVK Satna

This village has been prone to weather fluctuations and thus the rainfall also varies every year
and makes it difficult for the farmer to predict the rain and hence the outcome of his harvest
which is dependent on monsoons.
It can be observed from the following
foll
graphs that there have been serious fluctuations in past
decade.
Figure 3

Rainfall (mm)

Rainfall pattern year wise and number of rainy days for Bhargawan & Dewlaha

1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0

Rainfall (mm)

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Year

60

Rainy Days

50
40
30
20

Rainy Days

10
0
2000

01

02

03

04

05

06

07

08

09

10

Year

*Source: KVK Satna

Bhargawan being a rain fed village and affected by these fluctuations in rain also utilizes
irrigation facilities available. But only 25.87% of total irrigated land is cultivated through various
irrigation sources and equipments as can be observed.
Dewlaha agriculture being rainfed is affected by rainfall fluctuations , and hence in addition to
rainfall , watersheds , hand pumps and community wells have been constructed in the village .
Table 3
Irrigation sources
Sources of Irrigation
Tanks
Open Wells
Bore Wells
Lift Irrigation
Other Sources(River)

Number
Nil
9
3
1
0

Area

% of Irrigated Land
-15.29
25.49
59.2
0
25.87
(of total cultivable land)

-6
10
23.22
0

Total

39.22

Table 4
Irrigation equipments details
Irrigation Equipments

Description

Pump-sets(Electric Motor)
Defunct rain-water harvesting structures in the village

01
02

Drip systems

04
7

Table 5
Ground water usage details
Groundwater availability and use
Depth of Water table in bore wells

250 Feet

Decrease of water table over past 10 years

6 Feet

Quality of Water

Safe

*Source- KVK Satna

Water availability in ground water table is rare and thus the villagers are not interested in digging
bore wells or wells for irrigation because the success ratio has been very less in previously
carried out ventures. Thus they are also reluctant in availing the facility of the government
scheme which promises to pay back the cost incurred in digging well if its a success and also
after failure in digging, it renders the ground useless.
Interesting part:

How Irrigation was started?

Initially Bhargawan was home to only destitute Gond tribe who was totally dependent on
farm produces and were petrified of any kind of inhabitation. They tell numerous stories of
how they used to run upon seeing any vehicle which is an indication of how late they gained
awareness about any kind of technology. They were dependent upon forests because the land
available there is rocky and barren, in sense that the soil layer present is very thin and thus
has very little water retention capacity because of which agriculture becomes a tough job to
do. They started agriculture to meet their food requirements but were heavily dependent on
rain. The villagers understood the socio-economic value of agriculture and identified the
problem as scarcity of life-saving water and unavailability of irrigation thus in 1998 they
started their search of water. They knew of a seasonal nallah nearby but the problem with the
nallah was that it was around 2kms from the village so they didnt know how to make use of
that. They pondered and came up with an idea of changing its route and thus started their
laborious work with several spades and shovels. The work was proving to be futile but the
then District Collector Lt. T. Dharmarao intervened and facilitated with his army of
engineers in setting up a complete pumping station and irrigation channels worth Rs. 6 lakhs
for which government gave 50% grant. This loan was granted to a group of 15 farmers who
spearheaded this operation. But these farmers having no stable income were unable to pay
the residual loan amount of 3 lakhs plus the interest charged thus invented a unique idea to
lease the loan to another big farmer from the same village wholl be responsible for the
repayment of loan and the maintenance of irrigation resources deployed and in return will
charge Rs. 60 per hour from the farmer utilizing the resource. This facility was made
available to each and every farmer of the village with priority given to the group of farmers
responsible for this operation. And hence began the story of successful agriculture in this
village.
8

Various integrated Watershed programs have also been implemented in collaboration with
MGNREGA which is an ongoing government scheme which provides hundred days of labor
when the member of BPL family applies for work. Under this project various watershed
structures like boulder dams, check dams have been created to preserve flowing water and water
recharge. This has lead to following outcomes

Water conservation and optimum utilization of rain water

Water holding capacity has increased
Sustainable crop production
Appropriate utilization of available resources
Availability of safe drinking water
Finally welfare of socio-economic conditions of the farmers

Bhargawan is primarily an agricultural village. Crop rotation is practiced with crops grown in
two seasons i.e., Rabi and Kharif for which major crops is paddy (rice) and wheat respectively
with certain other variety of crops.
Table 6
Agriculture production across seasons
Crops

Area (Ha)

Av. Productivity (Q/Ha)

Paddy
Pegionpea
Jowar
Wheat
Barley
Chickpea
Lentil
Sesame
Mustard

34
12.36
13.5
37.1
1.8
20.6
2.4
0.4
0.6

10.12
4.75
5.73
9.75
4.78
6.79
3.96
2.6
1.25

*Source: Surveys & KVK Satna

The production cycle of these agricultural crops can be better understood with the help of crop
calendar which highlights the sowing season, transplanting season and the harvesting season
clearly.

Figure 4
Crop calendar

Crops/month Jan
Paddy
Pegionpea
Jowar
Wheat
Chickpea
Lentil
Sesame
Mustard

Feb

Mar Apr

May Jun

Jul
S

Aug Sep
T

S
S

Oct

Nov Dec
H

S
S
S

H
H

Where, S Sowing season T Transplanting season H Harvesting season

Nowadays with the intervention of KVKs some farmers are also trying to cultivate their lands
with horticultural crops and fruits for their need fulfillment on experiment basis and sometimes
also as a cash crop.
Table 7
Cash Crops
Horticultural Crops
Potato
Onion

Av. Productivity (kg/Ha)

8350
12500

Horticultural Crops-Fruits
Mango
Guava
Mahuwa
Aonla
Others

No of Plants
52
07
21
10
54

10

5.2 Risks and Challenges in Agriculture

To understand the risk and challenges we decided to study the entire chain of events in a farming
cycle from start till end. Thus we divided our study of risks and challenges into 2 parts
a) Backward linkages Study of the backward linkages in agriculture intends to study the risks
and challenges faced by the farmer in the farming cycle from start up to the harvesting stage.
This includes the following activities:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)

Ploughing (knowledge / machinery/cost/weather etc)

Seeds purchase/preparation (market / knowledge/cost etc)
Sowing (labour/weather /instruments etc)
Fertilizers (cost/labour/market etc)
Irrigation (water availability/labour/pumps etc)
Deweeding (labour/intensity )
Pesticides/Insecticides (cost/labour/market etc)
Harvesting (instruments/labour/weather etc)

b) Forward Linkage-- This involves study of farm related activities post harvesting till market.
These activities include:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

Post harvest storage

Labour to carry the farm produce from farm to other places
Processing of farm produce (threshing/winnowing etc)
Transportation
Market access
Market rates

5.3 Identification of Risks and Challenges with respect to the Villages

1) Ploughing:
Ploughing in our villages was originally done by wooden plough driven by ox. But
gradually with lesser availability of labour, farmers were forced to start using tractors.
The irony now is that on one hand ox driven harvesting is not feasible, on other hand
tractor harvesting is ill-affordable by the farmers, thus placing the farmers in an
uncomfortable situation.
Main problems faced by farmers regarding ploughing are as follows
Time of ploughing Many farmers were not aware of the correct time to plough the
farm. Due to delayed or advanced ploughing, soil moisture content turned out to be either
higher or lower than the adequate moisture levels. The desired time for ploughing in the
village was considered to be soon after first rain, but this was not followed by many
farmers.
11

Availability of Tractor Ploughing in our villages was done through both Bullock and
Tractor.
Generally the small scale farmers used bullocks for ploughing, but the medium and small
scale farmers used tractor for ploughing. Here we observed while interviewing many
farmers that availability of tractor was a major obstacle in timely ploughing of the field.
Since most of the farmers could not afford tractors, they had to hire tractor for ploughing
their field. Since many farmers used to wait for the same tractor to plough their field, the
smaller farmers were mostly the last ones to have tractor in their fields, resulting in
delays of as long as 8-10 days from the desired date of ploughing .
High Rent of Tractor
Ploughing Rates for tractor, when taken on rent turned out to be quite high .i.e. Rs 500
per tractor hour approx. Average time taken per acre is 1.5 hr approximately, Rs 750
approx per acre. This turned out to be quite high for the medium and small scale farmer.
In order to have a good yield, at least 3 ploughing are required before sowing is done.
Due to high cost of tractor, small and medium farmers mostly did 1 or 2 ploughing only,
thus loosing potentially higher yield.

2) Seeds purchase/preparation :
Source: There were multiple sources for seeds in our villages, mainly the following:
- Market
- Village Farmers Society
- Seeds preserved from last year harvest
- Seeds exchanged with another farmer
- Krishi Vigyan Kendra
Most of the farmers preferred to use the seeds preserved from previous year or
exchanged seeds with other farmers, due to lower costs involved. But they did not
realize that continuous use of seeds from previous years gradually led to lower crop
yields .Hence while the input costs reduced, but the potential gains were lost.
Seeds in market were costly and most of the farmers did not buy from market.
Farmers society did not provide seeds in necessary quantity, so farmers did not buy
from the society too.
Krishi Vigyan Kendra Many farmers bought seeds from the KVK in Majhgawan.
KVK Majhgawan had a transparent policy of seed distribution. The quality of seeds
12

was also much better than other sources. Hence many farmers preferred KVK seeds
over other sources, though this was costlier than the market rates. But KVK
Majhgawan was also not able to meet the complete requirements of all the farmers of
the area.
Most common wheat seed variety bought by the farmers GPW, which was available
in the market at Rs 3000/quintal.
Quality/Type/Breed
Most of the farmers were unaware of the quality, type and breed of the seed. Their
main focus used to be around per acre yield from the given quantity of seeds .While
they preferred higher productivity seeds, farmers were not aware/were not told that
each variety of seed needed different amount of water and has a different time for
harvest. This led to under/over irrigation and early/delayed harvest thus affecting the
quality and quantity of output.
Seed Treatment To prevent problems of pests and to increase yields, its generally
recommended to treat the seeds of each crop i.e. paddy, wheat etc. Seed treatment
involves soaking the seeds in different chemicals depending on the type of seed. This
preventive measure was not followed by the farmers.
Reduced Subsidy: Due to the recent reductions in subsidy for seeds by the
governments, farmers have to pay much higher price for purchasing seeds from the
market. Hence the prefer to use the older seeds from previous harvest.
3) Sowing
Time of sowing: Many farmers did not focus on the seed specifications including the
right time to sow the seed. This they sowed the seeds earlier/ later than the desired time
and harvested earlier/later than the desired time, which again affected the quality and
quantity of output.
Method of sowing:
Seed Density: Most of the farmers sowed more seeds per acre than required and at a very
close distance due to the fear of seed failure. This close sowing led to competition among
roots for soil nutrients and led to poorer growth of the plants.
Seed Drill: To ensure proper moisture cover and nutrient supply, depth of sowing is also
essential. This crucial factor is generally ignored by the farmers. To facilitate correct and
fast depth of sowing, Seed Drill Tractor is available for rent, but due to the high costs
involved, farmers avoid seed drill in these villages .
13

4) Wild Animals
Geographical location of the villages is such that the villages boundary the hills of
adjacent Sahayadri Mountain range. As a result there is a regular incursion by wild
animals in the farmlands, thus causing significant damage to standing or intermediate
crops.
5) Rainfall & Irrigation
The villages under consideration fall in drought declared district of Satna. Hence, clearly
water scarcity due to inconsistent and limited rainfall is a major challenge for all farmers.
Over past 4-5 years, rainfall in these areas was very limited, which affected the crops
negatively. This year when the rainfall was in excess, on one hand it increased the
productivity of main crops wheat and paddy while on the other hand it also caused
destruction of other crops like sesame seeds, soybean, etc.
Table 8
Historical Trends in rainfall (2008-2012)
Historical Trend

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

Dry spell during Kharif > 10

days
Dry spell during Kharif > 15
days
Dry spell during Kharif > 20
days
Intensive spell > 60 mm a
day

NA

NA

*Source- KVK Satna

The above table gives a clear picture of the irregularities and the variations of the rain
over past few years.
Water requirement of seed: Many high yielding seeds of paddy and wheat specifically
required more than normal water. Farmers did not focus on this aspect while buying the
high yielding seeds. As a result the seeds were left under irrigated, and the crop was
much lesser in quantity and quality than needed.
Water availability was reported to be the main challenge in the survey of farmers. The
district Satna, where our villages were located was declared drought hit last year. While
14

many crops needed 3-4 irrigations. They were provided only 1-2 irrigations due to high
cost of pumping (diesel rates were Rs 50 per litre) and lesser availability of water.
Due to rocky soil of the area, the water retention capacity of the soil was very less, as a
result most of the rain water ran off the farm and soil moisture was less .
Groundwater level in the area was not high (farmers did not know the exact depth). But it
was told that multiple futile attempts had been made to dig borewells in the villages and
now farmers not interested in further attempts.
Motor issues while pumping water from the water source to the farm were reported by
few villagers. The motors were provided with subsidy to the farmers, but the original
copper wiring in the motors was replaced by the silver aluminium wiring which was
damaged very frequently due to long motor runtimes. The repair costs affected many
farmers and they were ready to buy slightly costlier but sturdier motors in place of the
current motors.
Watershed programs had been successfully constructed in the village .Since the
construction of watersheds many families had benefitted from, but still following were
the main problems faced with watershed structures:
a) Nearness to some farms and excess distance from other farms resulting disputes with
other farmers and water stealing.
b) Lack of water in watershed structures post January due to long dry spell and
evaporation.
6) Small Land Holdings-Due to small land holdings, the net output of the farmers is very low, which does not
enable them to bargain in the market and thus reinvest significantly in farming.
7) Fertilizers
The use of fertilizer in our villages is very limited. Only Urea and DAP are used here.
Rates of Urea: Rs. 300 per sack of 50kg
Rate of DAP is Rs 1250 per quintal.
Lack of awareness of benefits of fertilizer resulted in their limited use.
Cost of fertilizer was the main reason for lower use of fertilizer in the area.
Farmers did not have the correct idea about the dose of fertilizer per acre; this led the
farmer to apply fertilizer in both excess and limited quantity.

15

8) Pesticides/Insecticides
These were used in very limited quantity. Pesticide sprays were not done as a preventive
measure, but only in case of offset of any plant disease.
Average rate of pesticides was Rs 125 per acre including labour.
9) Harvesting
Time of Harvest: Most crucial aspect of harvesting is the time of harvesting. Many
farmers were not aware of the correct time of harvesting their crop and as a result
harvested the crop pre maturely. The identification of correct harvest time is done by
observing the colour of top edge of the paddy/wheat. The right shade of yellow indicates
time to harvest the crop, but due to hurry of taking the product to market and lack of
knowledge, farmers harvested the crop prematurely.
Means of Harvesting: There were no machines available for harvesting in our villages.
Since most of the farmers were small scale or medium scale farmers, and had small land
holdings, they could not afford to buy machinery for harvesting and practically a
harvesting machine did not make sense due to small land holdings. Most of the farmers
harvested their crops themselves or by hiring labour for harvesting. Manual harvesting
generally took 1-2 mandays per acre in our areas.
Labour: Labour requirement before harvest is at multiple stages, including
(a) Ploughing
(b) Deweeding
(c) Sowing
(d) Transplanting (in case of paddy)
(e) applying fertilizer and pesticide
(f) monitoring the crop against damage from animals
(g) irrigation
(h) Harvesting
Due to high labour charges i.e. Rs 150 to 200 per manday, many farmers try to do
their labour work themselves.
Aira Pratha (Open Grazing problem): Villages of Satna District including ours were
severely affected due to open grazing practice followed by the farmers of the area. As
per this practice, cows and bulls were left loose from June to December of each year
to graze. This resulted in loss of standing or intermediate crop. Farmers reported
possible gains of 10-15% in absence of Aira pratha .
Main reasons observed for this practice were:

16

(a) Since this practice is started with the onset of Naga Panchami, a religious
occasion, its difficult to convince the farmers not to promote open grazing due to
involvement of religious sentiments
(b) Low yielding livestock: Since the livestock does not yield much output i.e. at
maximum 1-2 litres per cow/and 3 litres per buffalo, the villagers did not find any
incentive of investing in the feed for the livestock.
(c) Self interest and Lack of cooperation among neighboring villages: The cows of
neighboring villages also used to enter the fields of our villages.
Forward Linkage
This involves study of farm related activities post harvesting till market. These activities
include:
1) Post harvest storage
Losses post harvest was mostly in the lowest layer of the stocked grain due to
moisture in earth surface. To overcome this farmers generally coat the earth surface
with cow dung and straw. Still post harvest losses accounted for 2-3 % of the
harvested crop.
2) Labour to carry the farm produce from farm to other places
Harvested farm produce is first kept in the farm in form of bundles and then carried to
a safe place where a heap of the bundles is made. Further labour is required to load
and unload the produce while taking it for threshing, and to market. Due to high cost
of labour (approx. 150 per manday), most farmers preferred to do as much labour
work themselves or with their family members.
Medium or large scale farmers preffered to hire labour for these work.
3) Processing of farm produce (threshing/winnowing etc)
Farm produce is processed at 2 stages.
Separation of straw Straw is separated by running tractor over the harvested crop.
Tractors charges Rs 500 per hour. This turns out to be costly for farmers. To lower
the cost for this operation, farmers sometimes use bullock driven straw separator also.
But this leads to longer time to market and higher losses.
Threshing Threshing is mostly done by taking the farm produce to the thresher,
mostly within the village. The thresher operator charges 10 kg per quintal of the
threshed produce. Small farmers try to reduce threshing cost by winnowing the
produce when wind blows at a reasonable speed. But this operation is time consuming
and weather dependant.
17

4) Transportation
Transportation of the crops was a major problem in the villages we stayed. Most of
the farmers did not own a vehicle to carry their farm produce to the market and hence
had to pay at least Rs 200-500 for transporting their produce to the market. Due to
this, only those farmers chose to carry their produce to the market that had
sufficiently bulk produce to sell in market. Vegetable growing farmers rarely sold
their vegetable beyond their village boundary for the very reason of high cost of
transportation to the nearby market.
5) Market access
Farmers of Dewlaha and Bhargawan mostly sold their produce in Majhgawan or
Kothi mandis. This was because of the proximity of these mandis to the villages. The
next closest mandi was in Satna, but farmers rarely went to Satna Mandi due to lack
of transportation and less quantity of produce. Farmers were moreover not aware of
the rates of these mandis in advance; as a result they went to the mandi and sold the
produce at the rates desired by the buyers in mandi. Less produce made put them in
weaker bargaining position.
6) Market rates
Market Rates of the mandis were not as per the expectation of the farmers. Following
were the rates in the Majhgawan mandi .

Paddy/Rice Rs 1000 per quintal,

Desired rate by farmers Rs 1500 per quintal
Wheat Rs 1200 per quintal
Mustard Rs 2700 per quintal,
For these crops, the rates in District Satna mandi were told to be at least 25% higher, but
due to lesser quantities of produce farmers chose not to carry the produce to Satna and
sell at Majhgawan or Kothi mandi.

5.4 Suggestions
Based on above mentioned challenges, following solutions have been proposed keeping in mind
the geographical region and local conditions of the villages in consideration:
1) Farmers Cooperative
Group Ownership of machinery for timely operations

18

 Taking bulk produce in the market to gain bargaining power and reduce
transportation cost per unit of output.
Bargaining rates in Mandis for selling harvest as well as purchasing seeds,
fertilisers and other required inputs.
2) Strengthening Krishi Gyan Doot Concept
To fill the extension services gap
Selection criteria Progressive farmer , social acceptability , preferably youth
Creating and training a small team of 2-3 krishi doots per village at KVK
Incentivising krishi gyan doot cash/kind seeds/crop sharing based on %
improvement observed
Performance monitoring of krishi gyan doot
3) Kisan Consultancy Software
Software used to consult farmers on crop selection, use of fertilizers and
pesticides and other technical inputs customised for each farmer .
To be used by krishi gyan doot
MP state government computers to be used
Software to be installed on these systems
Operator can be a Krishi Gyan Doot or a trained person

6. Data Presentation & Analysis

Assumptions & Limitations:
Though risks have a probability attached to them, but for the duration concerned we do
not have a time series or cross-section data to analyze or calculate the probabilities of the
risks mentioned.
Risks and uncertainties are considered same in this study due to the unavailability of the
required data.
In addition to the direct costs, we have also added the opportunity cost for each activity
which the farmer could have got completed from others, but instead chose to do himself
to save direct costs. The activities where opportunity costs of self/family labour are used
are :
- Sowing
- Transplanting
- Loading/Unloading

19

 Due to limited availability of farmers owing to harvesting season , limited amount of data
is available for off season crops like Wheat and supplementary crops
Since the data for crops other than Paddy and Wheat was not exact and based on rough
recollections and approximations, we decided to assess viability of Paddy only in Kharif
season and , Wheat ,other crops in Rabi season .
In Dewlaha village, livestock rearing does exist , but does not account for significant
portion of income and expenses , hence livestock related income and expenses are not
included in following cost benefit analysis of agriculture in Dewlaha

The studies with their quantitative representations tries to explain the subsistence farming
practice prevalent for self-sustenance, producing just the sufficient output with normal or no
economic returns. Thus making agriculture unattractive and unviable for the farmers as a
profession. This analysis has been presented in form of case studies with respect to both the
villages so that the results can be extrapolated and generalized for the masses of the Chitrakoot
region in Satna district having similar geographical as well as socio-economic features.

6.1 Bhargawan
To understand the theme of agriculture along with the risks and challenges attached a detailed
study considering various costs and revenues was conducted for individual farmers. The losses
occurring due to various challenges and the opportunity costs involved have also been taken into
consideration to get a clear idea of the economic viability of agriculture for the farmers of the
area. Revenue sources for the farmers include sales from agriculture harvest of crops and milk
from animal husbandry. Various costs involved are due to agricultural inputs during production
cycle and the rearing costs for the cattle.
Following are the cases for 3 farmers from Bhargawan village

20

Case Study 01
Farmer 01

Kharif
Crop
Rice
Til
Moong
Urad
Arahar
Soyabean

Kharif
Crop
Rice
Til
Moong
Urad
Arahar
Soyabean

Cost-Benefit Analysis (Kharif season)

Acreage
(in
Acre)

Seeds
required
(in Kg)

Actual
Harvest
(in
Quintal)

2.5
5
2.5
1
1
1

7.5
10
15
6
3
40

40
1
4
2
-

Cost of fertilizer &

Pesticides (in Rs.)
1500
3000
1500
600
600
600

Loss in
produce
(in Quintal)

Loss
(in Rs.)

Self
Consumption
(in Quintal)

Net
Saving
(in Rs.)

Harvest
to sell
(in
Quintal)

10
2
1
1
Total Loss

10
100000
0.25
10600
0.5
600
0
1
2800
0
114000 Total Savings

12000
2500
2650
0
4000
0

30
0.75
3.5
1
-

Cost of
Tractor/Machine Hired Misc Costs (in
(in Rs.)
Rs.)
1250
1000
2500
1000
1250
1000
500
1000
500
1000
500
1000
Total

21

21150

Total Cost (in

Rs.)
3750
6500
3750
2100
2100
2100

Net Profit (in

Rs.)
32250
1000
14800
-2100
1900
-2100
45750

Market Rate
(in
Rs./Quintal)

Income
from Sales
(in Rs.)

1200
10000
5300
600
4000

36000
7500
18550
0
4000

2800

Storage Losses (in Rs.)

Opportunity Cost of Labour (in
Rs.)

Ox
Bull
(Male
Buffalo)
Goats

Nos
2
20

Milking
Cattle

1372.5

Rs. 150 per day per unit

67500

Total Net Profit+ Net SavingsStorage Loss- Opportunity Cost

Deficit from Farming (in Rs.)

Type of
Animal
Buffalo
Cows

2-3 %

-1972.5

Milk Yield
per
Yield per
cattle
day
Milk
Cost
(ltr/day)
(ltrs)
consumed incurred Revenue Remarks
2
5
10
2
0
14400 Cattle feed from harvest residual and forests
5
1
5
2
0
5400 Cattle feed from harvest residual and forests

4 -

489

1 2

0
0

0.5

Revenue

Revenue from Animal Husbandry

Thus, Net Surplus from Agriculture

Rs. 19311
Rs. 17338.5

22

Ox used for ploughing in Kharif season thus

given jowar of Rs. 12/day and Rs. 4.5 of
-489 khari /day to increase productivity

0 Cattle feed from harvest residual and forests

0 Cattle feed from harvest residual and forests
19311

Case Study 2
Farmer 02

Cost-Benefit Analysis (Kharif season)

Kharif
Crop

Acreage
(in
Acre)

Seeds
required
(in Kg)

Rice
Til
Moong

3
0.6
1.4

45
2
2.8

Actual
Harvest
(in
Quintal)
30
0
0.35

Loss in
produce
(in
Quintal)
0
1.2
3
Total Loss

Kharif Crop
Rice
Til
Moong

Cost of fertilizer &

Pesticides (in Rs.)
1800
360
840

Storage Losses (in Rs.)

Opportunity Cost of Labor (in
Rs.)

Net Surplus from Agriculture

Loss (in
Rs.)
12000
15900
27900

Cost of Tractor/Machine
Hired
(in Rs.)
1500
300
700
Net Profit

Self
Consumption
(in Quintal)

Net
Saving
(in Rs.)

14
0
0.35
Total
Savings

16800
0
1855

Misc Costs (in

Rs.)
1000
1000
1000

2-3 %

Total Cost (in

Rs.)
4300
1660
2540

27000

Total Net Profit+ Net SavingsStorage Loss- Opportunity Cost

Rs. 2034

23

Market Rate
(in
Rs./Quintal)
1200
10000
5300

18655

321

Rs. 150 per day per unit

Harvest
to sell
(in
Quintal)
16
0
0

Net Profit (in

Rs.)
14900
-1660
-2540
10700

Income
from Sales
(in Rs.)
19200
0
0

Case Study 3
Farmer 03

Kharif
Crop
Rice
Til
Moong
Soyabean

Kharif Crop
Rice
Til
Moong
Soyabean

Cost-Benefit Analysis (Kharif season)

Acrea
ge
(in
Acre)

Seeds
required
(in Kg)

Actual
Harvest
(in
Quintal)

Loss in
produce
(in
Quintal)

1.25
0.4
0.2
0.4

16
1
1
20

14
0
0.03
0

0.8
0.4
0.4

8000
2120
1120

7
0
0.03
0

8400
0

Total
Loss

11240

Total Savings

8559

Cost of fertilizer
& Pesticides (in
Rs.)
750
240
120
240

Loss
Self Consumption
(in Rs.)
(in Quintal)

Cost of Tractor/Machine Hired (in

Rs.)
625
200
100
200
Surplus
24

Net Saving
(in Rs.)

Harvest to Market Rate Income

sell
(in
from Sales
(in Quintal) Rs./Quintal) (in Rs.)
7
0
0
0

159
0

Misc Costs
(in Rs.)
1000
600
500

Total Cost
(in Rs.)
2375
1040
720

500

940

1200
10000
5300
2800

Net Profit
(in Rs.)
6025
-1040
-720
-940
3325

8400
0
0
0

Storage Losses (in Rs.)

Opportunity Cost of Labor
(in Rs.)
Deficit from Farming (in
Rs.)

99.75

Rs. 150 per day per unit

Total Net Profit+ Net SavingsStorage Loss- Opportunity Cost

27000

Milk Yield
per
Milkin cattle
g Cattle (ltr/day)

Type
of
Animal Nos
Buffalo

2-3 %

Yield per
day
(ltrs)
5

-15215.75

Milk
consume
d
5

2
Revenue

Revenue from Animal Husbandry (in Rs.)

Net Deficit or Loss from Agriculture (in Rs.)

5400
-9815.75

25

Cost
incurre
d
0

Revenue (in
Rs.)

Remarks
Cattle feed from harvest residual
5400 and forests
5400

6.2 Dewlaha
To understand the economic viability of agriculture in Dewlaha, following data was collected
from 6 farmers of the village. For both Kharif and Rabi, seasons total cost of inputs for the
farmer is compared with the total returns from the respective crops and based on the net
positive or negative result, financial viability of agriculture is discussed.
Calculations for market rates :
Ploughing: Rs 400-500 per tractor hour,
Rs 350 approx per acre,
Average time taken per acre is equal to 1.5 hr
Seeds: Old Used from previous harvest
Sowing: Self Self labour, opportunity cost of Rs 300 for 2 family labourers added at
@150 per person per day
Transplanting manually: Rs 350/acre
Irrigation Rs 300 per acre per irrigation (20-22 litres diesel for 3 acres, diesel rate Rs 50/l)
Urea: Rs 300/acre (generally urea used @ 0.5 q/acre Rs. 600 per quintal)
DAP: Rs 1250/acre (1 quintal @ Rs1250 used per acre)
Pesticide Spray (including labour): Rs 125/acre
Harvesting manually Rs 1350/ acre (Approx 9 mandays per acre at Rs 150 per manday)
Straw separation manually Rs 150/quintal (Rs 300 per acre, 2 quintal per acre )
Threshing 10kg/quintal
Transport Rs 200-500 per trip to nearest mandi
Loading/Unloading - Self-Opportunity cost of Rs 300 for 2 family labourers added at
@150 per person per day
Paddy Market rate: Rs 1000/quintal
Wheat Market Rate: Rs 1200
Mustard Market Rate: Rs 2700
Following table analyses the Cost & Benefit Analysis for 6 farmers in Dewlaha

26

Cost Benefit Analysis (Farmers 1 to 3)

Farmer 1

Acreage
Ploughing
Seeds
Sowing
Transplanting
Irrigation
Urea+DAP
Pesticide spray
Harvesting
Net Output
harvested(quintals)
Straw separation
Threshing
Losses
Value of Losses
Transport
Other Labour
Cost(loading/unloading etc)
Total input cost(Actual +
Opportunity Cost)

Kharif
Paddy
3 acre
3050
Old
300
1050
2700
900
375
4050

Farmer 2

Rabi
Wheat
Other
8 acres
8000
300
900
600
2500
1950
900
1500

Kharif
Paddy
2 acres
800
Nil
900
3500
Rain
600
Nil
1900

Rabi
Wheat Others

Farmer 3
Kharif
Paddy
5 acre
1800
free
300
1750
3000
180
nil
1150

22.5q
900
2.25q(2250)
2q
2000
100

45q
2500
4.5q(5400)
1q
6000
500

25q
1000
2.5q(2500)
3.75q
2300
300

16q
750
1.6q(1600)
.8q
800
200

600

2000

400

300

18275

33100

13800

10230

27

Rabi
Wheat Others

Farmer 1

Net value of stored O/P

Net o/p sold
Net value of Sold O/P
Net o/p shared with owner
Net value of shared o/p
Net value of O/P sold +
saved
Surplus/Deficit per crop
Net Annual Surplus/Deficit

Kharif
Paddy
14000
8q
8000
Nil
Nil

Farmer 2

Rabi
Wheat
Other
18000
25q
30000
nil
nil

22000
48000
500
11900
Rs 12400 Surplus

Kharif
Paddy
11000
10.5q
10500
Nil
Nil

Rabi
Wheat Others

21500
7700
Rs 7700 Surplus

28

Farmer 3
Kharif
Paddy
10000
4q
4000
nil
nil

Rabi
Wheat Others

14000
3770
Rs 3770 Surplus

Cost Benefit Analysis (Farmers 4 to 6)

Farmer 4

Acreage
Ploughing
Seeds
Sowing
Transplanting
Irrigation
Urea+DAP
Pesticide spray
Harvesting
Net Output
harvested(quintals)
Straw separation
Threshing
Losses
Value of Losses
Transport
Other Labour
Cost(loading/unloading etc)
Total input cost(Actual +
Opportunity Cost) (A)

Kharif
Paddy
1.5
600

Farmer 5

Rabi
Kharif
Wheat Others
Paddy
1
na
0.25
400
na
300

Farmer 6

Rabi
Kharif
Wheat
Others
Paddy
1.5acre
1.25acre
1200
750

old
1500
1000
rain
300
400
1500

old
300
na
2000
75
nil
600

na
na
na
na
na
na
na

300
1200
300
rain
500
350
200

4500
1200
na
rain
1550
150

15q
2000
1.5q(1500)
2.5q
2500
400

10q
400
1q(1200)
1.5q
1500
0

1q
na
na
na
na
na

5q
500
.5q(500)
.5q
500
nil

18q
1500
1.8q(2160)
3q
3600
na

300

300

na

150

300

300

300

10500

5575

1000

4800

16660

13500

5960

29

Old
300
6000
Rain
750
300
600

Rabi
Wheat Others
.5acre
750
land
lord
300
na
1200
750
nil
600

35q
8q
2000
800
3.5q(3500) .8q(960)
1q
.25q
1000
300
nil
nil

Farmer 4

Net value of stored O/P

Net o/p sold
Net value of Sold O/P
Net o/p shared with owner
Net value of shared o/p
Net value of O/P sold +
saved(B)
Surplus/Deficit per crop (B)(A)
Net Annual Surplus/Deficit

Kharif
Paddy
10000
5q
5000
nil
nil
15000

Farmer 5

Rabi
Kharif
Wheat Others
Paddy
7500
1000
4000
0q
0q
0
0
0
0
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
7500

5300

4000

4500
1925
4300
Rs 10725 Surplus

-800

30

Farmer 6

Rabi
Kharif
Wheat
Others
Paddy
15600
13000
0
0q
0
0
0
17q
0
17000
15600
-1060
Rs 1860 deficit

13000

Rabi
Wheat Others
8400
0q
0
0q
0
8400

-500
2440
Rs 1940 deficit

7. Conclusions
Based on the cases discussed above following inferences can be drawn with respect to the
observed risks and challenges in the villages:
Based on the analysis we can infer that majority of the farmers are earning super normal
profits but it is due to inclusion of opportunity savings (savings in form of stock for selfconsumption).
But when opportunity savings are ignored and only opportunity costs are considered then
the venture incur net losses and agriculture as an occupation becomes economically
unviable.
We can conclude that by including all implicit costs and savings, the majority of farmers
are able to meet only their household consumption needs and are able to generate either
marginal or no profits from agriculture.
When farmers were asked about their interest in farming as an occupation, most of the
farmers showed a clear aversion towards farming due to several risks and low returns.
Due to low-yielding varieties of livestock, animal husbandry does not contribute
significantly to the income of the household and as a result the farmers are not interested
in making considerable investments in the maintenance and upkeep of the livestock. This
has lead to destructive practice of Aira/Anna pratha (open grazing) which results in losses
up to 15% of the potential harvest.
Because of the geographical locations of the village at the foothills, wild animal attacks
are rampant and lead to considerable losses.
The key challenge for the farmers continues to be water scarcity due to inconsistent and
very limited rainfall. Even in farmers opinion, if this issue can be addressed then their
returns from agriculture would increase significantly. Even excess rainfall this year has
resulted in 100% losses for certain crops eg. Sesame seeds, soybean.
Due to fragmented land holdings, per unit investment increases and the returns are also
very limited as a result reinvestment in agriculture reduces creating a vicious cycle of low
output and low investments.
Technical ignorance of the farmers at various stages of the farming cycle results in
inefficiencies and low productivity from farming.
Also as observed when challenges are high then the farmers are more vulnerable to risks.
Thus these conclusions explain the unviable nature of agriculture in the villages concerned. But
due to limited or no available choices, these farmers are forced to continue subsistence farming
for their self-sustenance.

31

8. National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA)

7.1 Introduction
National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture was launched in February 2011 by Indian
Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) across 100 vulnerable districts of India with funding
from Ministry of Agriculture, GOI and is coordinated by Central Research Institute for Dryland
Agriculture (CRIDA), Hyderabad and Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK), Satna. This project has
three major objectives of strategic research, technology demonstrations and capacity building. It
focuses on evolving climate resilient agricultural technologies that would increase farm
production and productivity vis-a-vis continuous management of natural and manmade resources
constitute an integral part of sustaining agriculture in the era of climate change and are aimed at
making farmers self-reliant.

7.2 Objectives
This project has two major objectives:
To enhance the resilience of Indian agriculture including crops and livestock to climate
change and fluctuations through development and application of improved production
and risk management technologies.
To demonstrate site specific technology to farmers' by demonstrating them on their fields
for adapting to current climate risks.

7.3 Why Bhargawan was chosen?

Bhargawan under Majhgawan block of Satna district has been selected for the implementation of
this project because of the following reasons
1) Agriculture in the village is highly vulnerable to climate change. The productivity of the
crops in the village is very less.
2) The rainfall as well as rainy days during the last 11 years has been highly erratic and
unpredictable in the village resulting in moisture stress and terminal drought during crop
growth period of kharif crops.
3) The water table in the village has lowered by 5-6 feet during the decade.
4) The rabi crops in the village re affected by sudden rise in the temperature during
February-March.
5) Level of risk is upto 60% due to climate change.
6) The rain fed area in the village is 82.18% as compared to district average of 67%

32

7.4 NICRA Interventions

The interventions and the work done under NICRA project according to the action plan of KVK
Satna can be listed as follows
7.4.1 Natural resource Management
Rain Water Harvesting
1) Contour trenching was done at sloppy lands under this project so that rain water does not
flow off and ground water level can be increased through ground water recharging and
storing.
2) Loose boulder check dams were also created in the village from the funds provided under
the scheme.
3) Farm bundling techniques were utilized.
Better agronomic practices suggested under NICRA
1) Furrow sowing technique: Furrowing can place seed in or close to moist sand without
making the seed depth too great.
2) Contour tilling to reduce soil erosion.

7.4.2 Improving Soil Fertility

1) Around 20 community based vermi-compost pit were created under this project.
2) Also Nadip compost pit were created for production of organic manure.

7.4.3 Improving Crop Production

Table 9
New varieties of crop introduced
Crop

Variety

Advantage over normal variety

Paddy

JR 201

Utilizes residual moisture, shorter duration

variety 90 days

Pegion pea (arhar)

Wheat

ICPL 88039
Raj -3077

Minimizes loss when drought

ChickPea

JG -14

Heat tolerant variety

33

Strip intercropping system to cope with drought/frost

1) Jowar | Pigeon pea (4:2)
2) Maize | Pigeon pea (4:2)
The planting techniques suggested were:
1) Ridge and Furrow sowing for pigeon pea, vegetables and spices.
2) Spraying of urea or DAP (Di-ammonium phosphate) in standing crop to manage pest
attacks due to climatic variability.
3) In-situ moisture conservation techniques.
4) Submerged pitcher and pit depression system of planting.

7.4.4 Institutional Interventions

1) Setting up of farm machinery custom hiring centre: This would help in timeliness and
precisions in field operations. Also resources will be timely available for operations. This
custom hiring centre is not yet ready but below table gives the details of the plan
Table 10
Custom hiring centre details
Farm implement
Tractor drawn leveler
Multi crop thresher
Small Weather station
Computer
GPS

Units
1
1
1
1
1

Cost (Rs.)
20,000
90,000
50,000
35,000
15,000

Hiring charges (Rs/hr)

100
100

2) Formation of farmers group for managing:

a) Seed Bank (Participatory Seed Production at village level).
b) Visits to CRIDA Hyderabad.
3) Formation of VCRMC (village climate risk management committee):
This would act as an extension agency for spreading awareness amongst the villagers
about the activities suggested by the KVKs. There will be a Krishi Gyaan Doot in the

34

village that will be heading this committee and will help in disseminating knowledge to
the farmers.
Since all farmers did not agree to use methods and crops proposed, these technologies
were demonstrated in fields of selected farmers who agreed. Below table shows the initial
yield before intervention and output productivity after the intervention of few kharif and
Rabi crops
Table 11
Yield comparison before and after NICRA intervention
S
No.

Crop

Variet
y

Paddy

Pigeon
pea
Black
gram
Wheat

3
4

Type

Farmers
(nos.)

Area
(ha)

Demonstration
(q/ha)
Highest Average

JR-201 Kharif

17

4.4

27.8

24

yield % increase
in yield
Prev.
year
13.11 84%

ICPL88039
IPU94-1
Jw-17

Kharif

11

5.8

5.4

4.75

13%

Kharif

18

4.8

3.9

2.88

37%

Rabi

16

30

25

16

50%

*Source- KVK Satna, NICRA

From the above table we can see that the productivity has increased considerably after the
NICRA interventions.

7.5 Coping Strategies suggested by KVK, NICRA

Table 12
Coping strategies proposed by KVK, NICRA
Technologies demonstrated by KVK,
NICRA

Adverse Situation

Coping Strategy

Early season drought

(delayed onset)

Substitution of paddy with

pegionpea and kodo

Normal onset followed

by 15-20 days
dry spell

Nil
35

Substitution of paddy with green gram,

black gram and sesame
Sowing of paddy, green gram, black gram,
soybean and spraying of either urea or
DAP
2% besides application of life saving
irrigation

Mid season drought

(long dry spell,
consecutive 2 weeks
rainless)

Provide life saving

irrigation

Terminal drought

Nil

Insufficient ground
water recharge due
to low rainfall/overexploitation

Scarcity of feed, fodder

and water for
animals during drought

Nil
Feed the herbs/weeds and
forest
produced leaves to the
animals,
shifting of animals near
perennial
water bodies

Feeding/reproductive
management
of livestock during
hea/cold wave

Thatching

Feed and fodder and

water for animals
during heat/cold wave

Open grazing

*Source-KVK Satna, NICRA

36

Thinning out plant population and

spraying
of either urea or DAP 2% can be repeated
in
case dry spell prolong besides application
of
life saving irrigation
Spraying of either urea or DAP 2%
besides
application of life saving irrigation
Recharging of wells and deepening of
water
harvesting structure already available in
the
village, construction of percolation tanks
Plantation of perennial kachnar, drum
stick on
farm bunds, community and private land
to
feed the animals in scarcity of feed and
fodder
Awareness among the farmers for
construction
of shed in North-South direction with
proper
ventillation facility
Dry Fodder: 3-4 kg
Green Fodder: 20-30 kg
Concentrate: 1.5-2.0 kg
Mineral Mix: 20-40 g
Additional feeding 500 & 400 g
concentrate per litre
milk production to milch buffalos and
cows respectively
cool and clean water 4-5 times in a day

7.6 Outcomes and Results

Water conservation and optimum utilization of rain water

Enhancement in soil fertility and productivity
Water holding capacity has increased
Sustainable crop production
Improvement in use efficiencies viz. water, nutrient, etc.
Appropriate utilization of available resources
Seed bank will ensure timely quality supply of seed to the villagers
Migration of the villagers will be minimized
Custom hiring centre can minimize the cost of cultivation and timely operations
Availability of safe drinking water
Nutritional kitchen gardens have a great impact on reducing malnutrition
Finally welfare in socio-economic conditions of the farmers

37

8. References
NICRA-ICAR. URL: http://www.nicra-icar.in/nicrarevised/ (accessed 14 December
2013.)
NICRA, Annual Progress Report (April, 11 to March 2013) by Krishi Vigyan Kendra,
Majhgawan, Satna
Pandey, MM (2009) Indian Agriculture An Introduction paper presented at Fourth
Session of the Technical Committee of APCAEM, Chiang Rai, Thailand at a seminar
held by APCAEM, 10-12 February 2009
Abdul Kalam, APJ and Srijan Pal Singh. (2011) Target 3 Billion. New Delhi: Penguin

Books India.

38

9. Annexure
Annexure 1: Survey Questionnaire
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

NameAgeMarital StatusOccupationNo. of Family MembersHad any family member migrated- Yes/No

6.1 If yes, then how many6.2 For what reason6.3 Does it affect your family income7. How many members involved in farming8. Does women participate in farming activities- Yes/No
8.1 if yes, then what activities9. Children participation in farming- Yes/No
9.1 if yes, then do they go to school/college9.2 Age of Children9.3 Do they help whole yr9.4 How they manage10. Land ownership(in acres)11. Do you give land for farming12. Do you farm on others land too- Yes/No
12.1 if yes, then as a hired labor/take land on some terms
12.2 How much land12.3 What is the mode of return- Cash/Sharing Harvest/Other(Please mention)
12.4 What amount is returned13. Do you hire labor for farming- employed/hired
13.1 How many13.2 What is the mode of payment- Cash/Sharing Harvest/Other(Please mention)
13.3 What amount is paid14. Is there any loan required- Yes/No
14.1 Starting/In between/End
14.2 Loan Taken from- Bank/MFIs/local Sahukars/Sahyog from neighbor or
relatives/Any other(please mention)
14.3 Approximately how much loan required14.4 Rate of Interest14.5 Time period14.6 For what activity loan is required- Buying seeds/Digging wells/Buying
fertilizers or pesticides/organizing family functions/other(please mention)
14.7 What if default15. Where do you buy seeds15.1 Seed Market Location15.2 How much seeds required15.3 Cost of seedsi

15.4 Do you preserve/ produce seeds by yourself15.5 Kind of seeds preferred- Hybrid/native/recommended seeds(by KVK/from
people)
16. Is there any funding- Yes/No
16.1 In what form- Rebate/Cash/Loan waiver/Any other(please mention)
16.2 Under what scheme/project(if applicable)16.3 Funding provided for16.4 Funding from16.5 How much funds received17. Details for Pesticides and Fertilizers
Type(Chemical/Organic/Traditional) Source
Crop on which Cost
used

17.1 If organic fertilizers used, then

17.1.1 Is it, self manufactured-Yes/No
17.1.2 Knowledge gathered from- KVK/other(please mention)
17.1.3 Funds managed from- Self/DRI/NICRA/Others(please mention)
18. Details of CropsCrop Acreag Sowin Transplantin Harvestin Seed
Harvest
s
e
g
g Month
g Month
Require Expecte
Month
d
d

Before KVK intervention

Crop Acreag Sowin
s
e
g
Month

Transplantin
g Month

Harvestin
g Month

Seed
Require
d

Harvest
Produce
d

18.1 How much price variation observed(crop-wise) in last 5 yrs.19. Do you also have kitchen garden- Yes/No
Area
Vegetable Sowing
Harvesting Seed
Harvest
Grown
Month
Month
Required Produced

Price
Offere
d

Price
Offere
d

Remarks

19.1 Is harvest enough(i.e., do not need to buy from market)- Yes/No

19.2 Do you sell access produce- Yes/No
20. Other costs involved in farming- Ploughing/Sowing/Harvesting/Other(please mention)
20.1 Cost(approx.)21. What all farming equipments/Machinery required21.1 what equipments are owned by youii

21.2 If not, then how do you arrange it- Rented/Other(please mention)

21.3 Rate at which rented21.4 Is there any waiting period- Yes/No
21.5 If yes, then how much time wasted22. Irrigation Source- Monsoon/Canals/Tube wells/Wells/Lakes/Nallas/Other(please
mention)
22.1 Do you own well/tube well/other- Yes/No
22.2 If no, then how do you manage- Rented/Other(please mention)
22.3 If rented, then at what rate23. Is storage facility available- Yes/No
23.1 What
facility
is
utilized
for
storing
produceHouse
Barns/Warehouses/Open/Others
23.2 Cost Involved23.3 Is there any damage while storing- Yes/No
23.4 If yes, then how much23.5 Reason of damage24. How do you sell your produce- Directly to the Mandi/Market/To
Middlemen/Other(please mention)
24.1 Nearest market available24.2 Do you own any kind of transportation(please mention)24.3 Cost of transportation24.4 What kind of transportation preferred24.5 Any loss imagined due to middlemen/transportation24.6 If yes, then why not sell directly to market25. Is there any insurance available to secure your produce26. Do you process your harvest before selling- Yes/No
26.1 If yes, then how26.2 Is it required/done to gain more price
27. Livestock in Agriculture
Cattle
Purpose
Quantity
Milk
Income
Expense
Remarks
Type
Yield
generated Incurred

27.1 Why livestock production is not preferred28. Any other source of Income29. Do you own savings account- Yes/No
29.1 Savings Account in- Bank/Post Office/Other(please mention)
29.2 How often is it used30. Do you think KVK intervention has benefitted you30.1 Please explain in brief, How30.2 What other services does KVK offers31. What government/private schemes have you utilized31.1 Has it assisted you in agriculture31.2 Amount utilized under the scheme32. What kind of natural hazards have you gone through- Drought/Flood/No or Less
Rainfall/Excess Rainfall/Earthquake/other(please mention)
iii

32.1 How much damage was done32.2 Does government provide monetary help/relief in such cases- Yes/No
32.3 If yes, then how much33. What other risks/challenges/problems are involved in agriculture33.1 How much damage is caused33.2 According to you what can be the solution34. What health problems do you suffer from34.1 Are they related to your profession34.2 Do you prefer to go to nearest PHC- Yes/No
35. Why do you choose this profession-

Annexure 2: Village Location

iv

Annexure 3: Focused Group Discussion Details

Agenda/Theme/FPCR Topic- Risks & Challenges involved in agriculture

ParticipantsShri Lal Bahadur Yadav (Gond, Medium Farmer)
Shri Pooran Yadav (Gond, Small Farmer)
Shri Ramashray Yadav (Gond, Medium Farmer)
Shri Lalman Singh (Gond, Marginal Farmer)
Shri Guman Singh (Gond, Marginal Farmer)
Shri Brajesh Singh (Gond, Marginal Farmer)
Shri Gyanendra Bahadur Singh (Gond, Small Farmer)
Shri Dadu Lal Singh (Gond, Large Farmer)
Shri Gulab Singh (Gond, Carpenter & Small Farmer)

Annexure 4: Structured Interview Questionnaire for Dr. R.S. Negi (Project Director, NICRA)

1. What is NICRA project?

2. Why was this project started?
3. Which Agencies were involved in project?
4. What was the role of agencies involved?
5. What was the budget of the project?
6. Why was Bhargawan chosen for the project?
7. What are the problems you have seen in Bhargawan w.r.t climate?
8. What are the major climates affected crops in village?
9. What was the action plan for various affected crops?
10. What was the overall action plan?
11. Did the interventions succeed?
12. How did you convince the villagers are using the new technology and crops?
13. How will this model be replicated in the country?

vi