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Corrosion
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ChemWiki: The Dynamic Chemistry E-textbook > Analytical Chemistry > Electrochemistry > Case Studies > Corrosion

Corrosion
Table of Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

1. Why Study Corrosion?

2. Conditions for Corrosion of Metals
3. How Corrosion Occurs
4. Understanding Corrosion as an Electrochemical Process (a Voltaic Cell)
5. Galvanic Corrosion
6. Corrosion prevention
7. Outside links
8. References
9. Problems

10.
11.

10. Suggested Solutions

11. Contributors

Corrosion is a process through which metals in manufactured states return to their natural oxidation states. This
process is a reduction-oxidation reaction in which the metal is being oxidized by its surroundings, often the
oxygen in air. This reaction is both spontaneous and electrochemically favored. Corrosion is essentially the
creation of voltaic, or galvanic, cells where the metal in question acts as an anode and generally deteriorates or
loses functional stability.

Why Study Corrosion?

Corrosion is a commonplace occurrence, like the rusting and flaking of an old iron yard piece. Here we will explore the
process by which corrosion takes place and the different ways unwanted corrosion can be controlled. Energy, often large
amounts, are poured into winning the desired metals from their natural ores; manufacturing some metal products can be very
costly. Corrosion causes deterioration of manufactured products, damaging their structure and ultimately rendering the
product useless. Allowing corrosion is not cost efficient and can inhibit productivity; understanding and preventing corrosion
is important for maintaining infrastructures and machinery or any products that face corrosion.

Conditions for Corrosion of Metals

There are three main components necessary for corrosion to occur:
1.
2.
3.

Metal (example: iron)

Oxygen (usually from the atmosphere)
An electrolyte (usually water)
Many metals used in production occur naturally in an ore and therefore must be separated out, leading to
reduced stability. These metals, such as iron, will spontaneously return to their natural states. The products of
corrosion often reflect the metal's natural state, both physically and in accordance to oxidation states. The
placement of the metal in the Galvanic Series will contribute to its likelihood of corrosion; the higher a metal in the
Galvanic Series the less likely it is to corrode. This effect is amplified when two metals at opposite ends of the
Galvanic Series are in contact: the higher metal will increase its resistance while the lower will corrode more, as
seen in sacrificial anodes. Particular areas of stress along the metal's surface area will face corrosion more
quickly because that metal is more active than the rest of the unstrained metal. Other environmental factors
contribute to corrosion such as pH, salt concentration, and oxygen concentration, along with the velocity of the
water and temperature.

How Corrosion Occurs

Corrosion can occur in two general ways; over the entire surface of the metal (Generalized Corrosion), or in local
spots or areas (Localized Corrosion).

Generalized Corrosion: Typically never happens, aside from in acidic conditions. This uniform corrosion

over the entire surface of the metal is rare and leads to overall thinning which has little effect outside of fatigue
and stress conditions.
Localized Corrosion: The most common, and most detrimental, form of localized corrosion is pitting.
Pitting is when the attack happens in one single location on the surface and creates a pit, or small cavity, in the
metal. This type of corrosion attack is hard to prevent, engineer against, and often times difficult to detect
before structural failure is met due to cracking. Pipes are often compromised due to pitting.

Understanding Corrosion as an
Electrochemical Process (aVoltaic Cell )
Corrosion happens through a series of reduction-oxidation reactions, similar to those of a battery. The metal
being corroded acts as the anode; the metal is oxidized, forming metal ions and free electrons. The free electrons
reduce the oxygen, often times forming hydroxide, and providing a complimentary cathodic reaction. The
dissolution of the metal at the anode has two possible outcomes; the metal ions can go into solution, becoming
hydrated, or the metal ions can form a solid compound that collects on the surface. In the former case, further
oxidation of the metal ions can occur and an open pit can form. In the latter case, a protective barrier may be
formed and the collection of solid metal ions will inhibit further corrosion.

Reaction:

Fe2+(aq)+2OH(aq)Fe(OH)2;(s)
4Fe(OH)2(s)+O2(g)+2H2O(l)Fe(OH)3(s)

Galvanic Corrosion
Galvanic corrosion involves two metals that are electrochemically dissimilar and an electrolyte to carry an
electrical current. The subsequent reactions model a galvanic cell; reduction-oxidation reactions occur in a way
similar to those of batteries. Typically, the metal that is lower on the Galvanic Series will act as the anode and
corrode faster than without the presence of the second metal, while the second metal gains a stronger resistance
to corrosion. These reactions and their directions can change or be altered due to the environment.

Corrosion prevention
Corrosion can be prevented through using multiple products and techniques including painting, sacrificial anodes,
cathodic protection (electroplating), and natural products of corrosion itself.

Painting: The paint forms a barrier between the metal and the environment, namely moisture.
Sacrificial anodes: Utilization of a metal lower on the Galvanic Series to be attacked first, instead of the

metal in use. The sacrificial anode can be replaced as needed.

Passivation: Some corrosion processes will create solid metal compounds that will coat the initial site of

corrosion and prevent further corrosion at that site.

Cathodic Protection: In the illustration below the iron is coated with a thin layer of zinc which is acting as
a sacrificial layer for the iron. Instead of the the iron corroding, the Zn acts as the sacrificial anode in the cell
and protects the iron.

Outside links

For more quick information on corrosion, visit the Wikipedia site on

corrosion. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosion
Muller, Bodo. "Corrosion Inhibitors for Aluminum: Student Experiments." J. Chem. Educ. 1995, 72, 350.
http://www.chem1.com/acad/webtext/elchem/EC-images/corrosion_iron.gif
http://www.corrosionist.com/Corrosion_Fundamental.htm
http://corrosion-doctors.org/Forms-pitting/Pitting.htm
http://library.kcc.hawaii.edu/external/chemistry/everyday_corrosion.html

References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

8.

Landolt, Dieter. Corrosion and Surface Chemistry of Metals. EPFL Press, 2007.
Perez, Nestor. Electrochemistry and Corrosion Science . Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2004.
Petrucci, Ralph H., William S. Harwood, F G. Herring, and Jeffry D. Madura. General Chemistry
Principles and Modern Applications. 9th ed. New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc, 2007.
U. R. Evans, M. Tchorabdji Simnad. The Mechanism of Corrosion Fatigue of Mild Steel. The Royal
Society.
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences, Vol. 188,
No. 1014 (Feb. 11, 1947), pp. 372-392
G. Butler, H. C. K. Ison. Corrosion, Design and Materials: General and Pitting. The Royal Society.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical
Sciences, Vol. 282, No. 1307, Rosenhain Centenary Conference: The Contribution of Physical Metallurgy to
Engineering Practice (Jul. 8, 1976), pp. 225-234
Carl Behrens. New Light on Corrosion. Society for Science & the Public. Science News, Vol. 93, No. 7
(Feb. 17, 1968), pp. 164-165

Problems
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Observe an example of corrosion and identify the conditions that allowed the attack and why it is a
problem.
Explain under what conditions general corrosion would be problematic.
What type of corrosion is pitting and why is it often more detrimental to functionality than general
corrosion?
What is the smallest number of electrochemical reactions needed to describe corrosion?
When iron and magnesium are in contact with an electrolyte, which will corrode and which will have
reduced susceptibility to corrosion?
Consider the oxidation of zinc in acidic solution

Mg(s)+2H+(aq)Mg2+(aq)+H2(g)
1.
2.
3.

Write the half cell reactions and mark which reaction occurs at the anode and cathode.
What is the standard cell potential for and electrochemical cell based on this reaction?
How many electrons move in the reaction?

Suggested Solutions
1.

2.

Continuing on the "rusting and flaking of an old iron yard piece" example: there is no paint to protect the
iron from the damp environment incurred outside so the iron corrodes. This is a problem because it decreases
the overall iron mass and, under stress, will be weaker.
General corrosion is problematic when the metal product is under great amounts of stress.

3.
4.
5.

Pitting is an example of localized corrosion. It is problematic because it often goes undetected and will
often lead to cracks which will reduce the functionality of the product.
There will be a minimum of two reactions, the anodic and cathodic reactions required for corrosion to
occur.
The magnesium will corrode at a faster rate than it would on its own and the iron will have reduced
susceptibility to corrosion. Check the Galvanic Series to solve these types of problems.

Contributors

Kain Escobar, Laura A Cantu

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Corrosion Theory

Humans have most likely been trying to understand and control corrosion for as long as they have
been using metal objects.The most important periods of prerecorded history are named for the metals that were
used for tools and weapons (Iron Age, Bronze Age). With a few exceptions, metals are unstable in ordinary
aqueous environments. Metals are usually extracted from ores through the application of a considerable amount
of energy. Learning the processes that take place to make even the smallest corrosion reactions and how in turn
it relates to human health are fascinating. Certain environments offer opportunities for these metals to combine
chemically with elements to form compounds and return to their lower energy levels. A modern and
comprehensive document on the subject is the second edition of the classic CORROSION BASICS textbook.
Some excerpts of that document are used here.
Corrosion is the primary means by which metals deteriorate. Most

metals corrode on contact with water (and moisture in the air), acids, bases, salts, oils, aggressive metal
polishes, and other solid and liquid chemicals. Metals will also corrode when exposed to gaseous materials like
acid vapors, formaldehyde gas, ammonia gas, and sulfur containing gases. Corrosion specifically refers to any
process involving the deterioration or degradation of metal components. The best known case is that of
the rusting of steel. Corrosion processes are usually electrochemical in nature, having the essential features of
a battery.

When metal atoms are exposed to an environment containing water molecules they can give up electrons,
becoming themselves positively charged ions, provided an electrical circuit can be completed. This effect can be
concentrated locally to form a pit or,sometimes a crack, or it can extend across a wide area to produce general
wastage.Localized corrosion that leads to pitting may provide sites for fatigue initiation and, additionally, corrosive
agents like seawater may lead to greatly enhanced growth of the fatigue crack. Pitting corrosion also occurs
much faster in areas where microstructural changes have occurred due to welding operations.
The corrosion process (anodic reaction) of the metal dissolving as ions generates some electrons, as shown in
the simple model on the left, that are consumed by a secondary process (cathodic reaction). These two
processes have to balance their charges. The sites hosting these two processes can be located close to each
other on the metal's surface, or far apart depending on the circumstances. This simple observation has a major
impact in many aspects of corrosion prevention and control, for designing new corrosionmonitoring techniques to
avoiding the most insidious or localized forms of corrosion.