New Solutions in

Fluid Sampling
Representative fluid samples are essential for
the exploration and development of oil and gas
reservoirs. High-quality samples enable the asset
team to determine pressurevolumetemperature
(PVT) properties such as density, formation volume
factor, viscosity, interfacial tension, gas/oil ratio
(GOR), or compressibility; generate relative
permeability relationships; or assess enhanced
oil recovery strategies.
In this article, Andrew Carnegie outlines the main
challenges in fluid sampling and reveals how the
latest technology has improved sampling by making
it faster, more accurate, and cost-effective.

lmost all of the technical and

economic studies conducted for
exploration and production require
a detailed understanding of
reservoir fluids. Fluid sampling
provides critical information for a
wide range of professionals.
Geologists, reservoir engineers,
completion and production
engineers, and facilities and flowassurance engineers all benefit from
accurate fluid properties.

differential vaporization, and a

multistage separation test. Fluid
samples also provide the information
needed to help with the planning and
the special treatments that may be
required for production, for example,
assessment of waxing tendency and
asphaltene content, or the removal of
hydrogen sulfide.
Hydrocarbon composition can vary
significantly within a reservoir, and
these variations must be assessed and
recorded. Compositional properties are
important in verifying the saturated

hydrocarbon concentrations that relate

to wax production. Waxes can cause
blockages in subsea pipelines and
production facilities. Asphaltenes are
tar-like solids that can come out of
suspension in crude oil when the
pressure is reduced, and they can
cause serious problems in the nearwellbore region, the production tubing,
and the surface facilities. The asset
team may also send samples for
refining trials to assess their suitability
and requirements for downstream
processing (Figure 2).

During exploration, fluid sampling

helps to answer key questions about
the reservoir. It indicates how much
hydrocarbon is actually present within
the structure, reveals reservoir
compartmentalization, and helps
reservoir engineers to establish the
fluid contacts and any hydrocarbon
compositional gradients that may
exist in a compartment. The results
from fluid analyses are key elements
in reservoir modeling and simulation
that will shape field development.
Before field development, the
reservoir engineer must determine
physical and chemical factors such
as viscosity, density, wax, emulsions,
asphaltenes, and GOR.
Once the asset team has made its
assessment of reserves, the next step
is to define the fluid properties and the
composition of the hydrocarbons. When
the team has established which kinds
of hydrocarbons are present, they can
predict potential health, safety, and
environment (HSE) concerns and plan
to avoid them. For example, when a
reservoir contains hydrogen sulfide
it is vitally important to establish the
concentration of this toxic and
corrosive substance as soon as possible
and to develop an appropriate profile
for the production facilities.
The economics of any field
development rely significantly on the
prediction of hydrocarbon-recovery
rate. The type of hydrocarbon and
the physical conditions within the
formation directly influence the
recovery factor. Fluid sampling and
analysis help the asset team to forecast
recovery and predict any problems
that might be encountered in the
reservoir, the well, or the surface
facilities. Fluid information is also of
vital importance further downstream
refinery managers need a clear
indication of crude oil composition
to ensure efficient processing and to
assess the type and the value of the
refined products (Figure 3).

Field development is an extended

period of intense activity and may take
more than a few years to complete.
During this phase, development wells
are drilled and surface facilities and
gathering systems are built and enter
service. Hydrocarbon production
climbs toward peak levels and, in
many cases, water or gas injection
starts to support reservoir pressure.
Artificial-lift methods may also be
introduced to assist flow in the well.
Throughout this period, the asset
team will have to make important
decisions about the field.
During the field development phase,
fluid sampling may help to boost
recovery (for example, by optimizing
waterflooding schemes) and aid the
asset team in designing and building

the appropriate facilities for the field.

In the early stages of development,
the operator will need to develop a
strategy to meet production targets
and sustain production levels over
the course of any supply contract.
Sampling helps reservoir and
production engineers to determine
which zones require perforation and
which (for example, those containing
heavy fluids such as tar) should
be ignored. Once production is
established in a part of the field, fluid
sampling, together with pressure
measurements, can help to identify
bypassed hydrocarbon zones in order
to increase ultimate recovery.

Sampling during production

Figure 3: Analysis of hydrocarbons is required to ensure efficient processing and to predict the type
and the value of the refined products.

Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review

Number 6, 2005

Figure 2: Crude oil is an extremely complex mixture of compounds, and refining processes must be
matched to specific compositions.

Number 6, 2005

Figure 1: Planning the next move: accurate information helps engineers to optimize production.

Checking fluids for field development

Photograph, Science Photo Library

Geologists use fluid data for

reservoir correlations, geochemical
studies, and hydrocarbon-source
analysis. Reservoir engineers need
reliable fluid information so that
they can estimate reserves, perform
material-balance calculations, simulate
the reservoir, and interpret well tests
correctly (Figure 1). Completion and
production engineers use fluids to
guide their decisions on completion
design, material specification,
artificial-lift calculations, productionlog interpretation, production-facilities
design, and production forecasts.
Facilities and flow-assurance
engineers rely on fluid data to manage
flow assurance, separation and fluid
treatments, and metering and
transport issues.
The downhole fluid sampling
process presents engineers with a
series of technical challenges. These
include selecting the correct zone for
sampling, connecting to the reservoir,
minimizing contamination, obtaining
sufficient sample volume for analysis,
maintaining samples as single phase,
and transporting unaltered samples
to surface and laboratory facilities.
In the early days of the oil and gas
industries, sampling was conducted at
surface and little effort was made to
establish fluid conditions at formation
depths. Companies that bought or
sold hydrocarbons needed to know
how much was being transferred,
and to do this they had to be able to
measure the volume and composition
of fluids. Fiscal metering of crude
oil and gas has always been a crucial
element in any field operation.
Today, the measurements performed
on a fluid sample from a reservoir will
usually include PVT relationships,
viscosity, composition, GOR, and

Sampling as an exploration tool

Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review

Chemistry and classification of

crude oil
Crude oil is a complex mixture of
hydrocarbons and heteroatomic
organic compounds of varying
molecular weights and polarities. The
chemical classification of hydrocarbons
divides these compounds into
saturated and unsaturated types.

Saturated molecules
The simplest hydrocarbon molecule
is methane (CH4), which comprises
one carbon atom and four hydrogen
atoms; the next in the series is ethane
(C2H6). A whole class of chain-like
hydrocarbons (paraffins) can be
defined according to the general
chemical formula CnH2n+2.
Paraffins can be arranged either
in straight chains (normal paraffins
such as butane) or in branched
chains (isoparaffins) (see Figure 4).
In naturally occurring crude oils,
most of the paraffin compounds are
normal paraffins, while isoparaffins
are more likely to be products from
refinery processes. Normal paraffins
do not perform well as motor fuels,
but isoparaffins have good enginecombustion characteristics.
For hydrocarbon molecules
containing more than four carbon
atoms, the carbon atoms may form
a closed-ring, known as a cyclocompound, rather than a branched
or a straight chain. Saturated cyclocompounds are called naphthenes.
Naphthenic crude oils tend to be
poor raw materials for lubricant
manufacture, but are more easily
converted into high-quality gasolines
than paraffins.

Unsaturated molecules
Olefins and aromatic compounds are
important components of many crude
oils. Both of these chemical families are
composed of unsaturated molecules.
This means that some of the valence
electrons on the carbon atom are not
bonded to separate carbon or hydrogen
atoms; instead, two or three electrons
may be taken up by a neighboring
carbon atom to make a double or a
triple carboncarbon bond.
Like saturated compounds,
unsaturated compounds can form
chain or ring molecules (see Figure 4).
Unsaturated chain molecules are
known as olefins. Only small amounts
of olefins are found in crude oils, but
large volumes are produced in refining
processes. Olefins are relatively
reactive as chemicals and can be
readily combined to form longer-chain
compounds. The other family of
unsaturated compounds is made up of
ring molecules called aromatics. The
simplest aromatic compound, benzene
(C2H6), has double bonds linking
every other carbon molecule.
The double bonds in the benzene
ring are very unstable and chemically
reactive. It is partly for this reason
that benzene is a popular building
block in the petrochemical industry.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons generally
have good combustion characteristics,
but their reactivity can lead to
instability in storage and sometimes
to environmental emission problems.
The previous description of
hydrocarbons refers to the simpler
members of each family, but crude
oils are actually complex mixtures
of very long-chain compounds, some
of which have not yet been identified.

Because such complex mixtures

cannot be readily identified by
chemical composition, refiners
customarily characterize crude oils
by the type of hydrocarbon compound
that is most prevalent in them:
paraffins, naphthenes, and aromatics.
Some crude oils, such as those in the
original Pennsylvanian oil fields,
consist mainly of paraffins. Others,
such as the heavy Mexican and
Venezuelan crude oils, are
predominantly naphthenic and are
rich in bitumen (a high-boiling-point,
semisolid material that is frequently
made into asphalt for road surfaces).
The proportions of products that
may be obtained by distillation of five
typical crude oils, ranging from heavy
Venezuelan Boscan to the light Bass
Strait oil produced in Australia, are
shown in Figure 5.

Refinery processes
Each refinery is uniquely designed to
process specific crude oils into selected
products. In order to meet the business
objectives of the refinery, the process
designer selects from an array of basic
processing units. In general, these units
perform one of three steps:
1. Separating the many types of
hydrocarbon present in crude
oils into fractions of more closely
related properties
2. Chemically converting the
separated hydrocarbons into more
desirable reaction products
3. Purifying the products to remove
unwanted elements and compounds.

A crude oil classification system

Figure 5: The proportions of products that can be distilled from five different crude oils.

Given the pattern of modern

demand (which tends to be highest for
transportation fuels such as gasoline),
the market price of a crude oil
generally rises with increasing yield of
light products. It is possible to process
heavier crude oils more intensely in
order to improve their yield of light
products, but the capital and
operating costs required to support
such high-conversion processes are
much greater than those required to
process lighter crude oils into the
same yield of products.
In addition to hydrocarbons, small
amounts of sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen
compounds are present in crude
oils. Usually, there also are traces of
vanadium, nickel, chlorine, sodium, and
arsenic. These elements may affect the
safety of oil-transport systems, the
quality of refined products, and the
effectiveness of processing units within
a refinery. Minute traces can usually be
tolerated, but crude oils with larger
amounts of these materials must be
extensively treated in order to comply
with government regulations.

The precipitation of asphaltene

aggregates can cause problems such
as near-wellbore formation plugging
and wettability reversal. The
adsorption of asphaltene aggregates
at oil/water interfaces has also been
shown to cause the steric stabilization
of petroleum emulsions. Consequently,
the oil industry needs quantitative
tools and thermodynamic data to
predict asphaltene aggregation and
precipitation as a function of crude
oil composition and reservoir
temperature and pressure.

Classification of crude oil must reflect

the type of oil generated by the
organic matter contained in the
source sediment and any alteration
that the original oil may have
undergone as a result of further
maturation or degradation.
One classification system
defines crude oil by the types of
hydrocarbons (paraffins, naphthenes,
and aromatics) that it contains:
1. Paraffinic crude oilsless than
1 % sulfur, density usually below
0.85 g/cm3
2. Paraffinicnaphthenic crude oils
less than 1 % sulfur
3. Aromaticintermediate crude oils
more than 1 % sulfur
4. Aromaticnaphthenic crude oils
less than 1 % sulfur and more than
25 % naphthenes
5. Aromaticasphaltic crude oils
more than 1 % sulfur and less than
25 % naphthenes
6. Asphaltic crude oils.
Types 4, 5 and 6 are heavy crude
oils. All six types can be displayed
on a triangular diagram with the
three principal hydrocarbon series
(Figure 6).

Problem hydrocarbons

Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review

Figure 6: Six crude oil types defined by proportion of paraffins, aromatics, and naphthenes.
Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review

Number 6, 2005

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Figure 4: Hydrocarbon molecules may be arranged in straight chains (a, b, and c), rings or branched chains (d and e), and may be saturated (a, c, and e)
or unsaturated (b and d).

Asphaltenes are high-molecularweight aggregates that occur in solid

bitumens. Asphaltenes are very
soluble in carbon tetrachloride and
aromatic hydrocarbons, but not in
light paraffinic hydrocarbons such
as heptane. They contain very little
hydrogen, and the high viscosity
of heavy oils is probably a function
of the size and the abundance of
asphaltene molecules.

Gas and water injection schemes are

commonly used to boost or maintain
oil and gas rates in producing fields.
Regular fluid sampling can be used
to track changes in fluid composition
and fluid contacts, thus helping the
asset team to monitor and optimize
its secondary recovery strategies
(Figure 7).

Current sampling methods

Asset teams need to select the most
appropriate fluid sampling method for
any given situation or stage in field
development. The choice is influenced
by several physical factors: the volume
of sample required for analysis, the
type of reservoir fluid to be sampled,
and the degree of reservoir depletion.
Other factors to consider include
surface processes; well-completion
design, cost, and technical feasibility;
and probable environmental impact.
The team can only devise an effective
sampling strategy once these factors
have been taken into consideration.
There are a number of ways to obtain
fluid samples.

Fluid sampling also has an

important role to play in mature
reservoirs. In oil and gas fields that
have been in production for many
years, chemical and physical
parameters within the reservoir may
have changed notably and require new
PVT analyses to optimize late-stage
field performance. This is particularly
important in saturated reservoirs.

Bottomhole samples

Pressure, temperature, and phase

changes
A wide range of chemical and physical
conditions is encountered in oil and
gas reservoirs. Each oil and gas
accumulation presents its own
challenges, and the collection of
accurate fluid samples is a key step
in understanding reservoir processes
and overcoming potential problems.
Reservoirs are complex systems,
and relatively small changes in
temperature or pressure can have a
profound effect on fluid composition
and reservoir behavior.
Before a well is drilled in a new
reservoir, the fluids within the
formation are at the original reservoir
pressure. Oil at this pressure is
usually saturated with gas; that is, it
contains all the gas in solution that
it can hold under those particular
pressure and temperature conditions.
Any additional gas forms a free gas
cap above the oil column (Figure 8).
If the overburden pressure on the
reservoir fluids is reduced by erosion
or up-dip fluid migration, the oils
capacity for retaining gas in solution
is reduced, and the gas forms a
secondary gas cap (Figure 9).(This
gas cap should not to be confused
with the secondary gas cap associated
with production of oil below its
bubblepoint.) If the reverse happens
(an oil accumulation saturated with

solution gas is more deeply buried)

the gas cap vanishes as the gas goes
into solution. Eventually, the oil
becomes undersaturated with gas.
These changes can be represented

on a phase diagram that indicates

what will happen to a petroleum
mixture under various temperature
and pressure conditions.

Wellhead sampling is possible under

certain conditions, specifically in
cases where the gas saturation
pressure is less than the wellhead
pressure at wellhead temperature
(Figure 10). However, this approach
may be affected by density gradients
that result from cooling as fluids move
up inside the wellbore.
Surface sampling from the wellhead,
the separator, and the stock tank is
performed routinely during most well
tests and it is occasionally required
from production process lines.
Separator recombination samples are
often the only available representative
samples. In these circumstances,
accurate separator flow rate
measurements and stable separation
conditions are critical for the accurate
determination of reservoir phase
behavior from the recombined fluids.
Unfortunately there are errors inherent
in surface sampling: poor stability
of the separator during sampling;
variations in sampling technique;
inaccurate flow rate measurements;
and problems encountered during
the recombination process.

Figure 10: In some cases, wellhead sampling

may be possible. However, results from this
method may be unreliable.

Sampling while testing

In some fields, the operators may
consider obtaining fluid samples during
testing operations. This approach
appears to offer time savings and cost
efficiencies, but the sampling results
obtained through this method are not
high quality. Sampling while testing
increases the condensate/gas ratio and
results in loss of liquid. It also causes
commingling of the various fluids,
which makes it impossible to perform
selective tests. Sampling while testing
also carries an increased HSE risk, and
is relatively expensive.

Figure 8: Gas caps usually develop once production starts and reservoir pressure declines.

Figure 9: Up-dip oil migration (a) and erosion of overlaying rocks (b) both reduce the pressures
affecting the hydrocarbon deposits. Pressure drops can lead to significant changes in hydrocarbon
phase composition.

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10 Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review

Figure 7: Changes in temperature and pressure within the reservoir modify key physical parameters
and present a range of challenges for reservoir and production engineers.

Bottomhole sampling should always

be the first choice when reservoir and
well conditions permit. It provides
fresh, uncontaminated reservoir fluid
with the highest degree of vertical
resolution. When bottomhole sampling
is conducted correctly, the fluid is still
single phase. This technique provides
small samples (volumes typically range
from 0.25 to 4 L) and is essential when
the team needs very accurate results.

Wellhead and surface recombination

samples

Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review

11

Rapid analysis reduces costs

Traditional sampling was a relatively
slow process. A company conducted
all its fluid analysis work at a central
laboratory, away from the wellsite.
Transporting samples to the
laboratory, delays while high-priority
fluids from other wells or fields were
tested, and extended analysis times
meant that it could take a relatively
long time for the laboratory to send
results back to the field. Modern
business drivers, such as high day
rates for deepwater rigs, have
encouraged companies to devise
new techniques that provide a faster
turnaround of fluid analyses.
Operating companies must
understand the fluids in their
reservoir before they can devise
and optimize their testing programs
and completions. In deepwater
environments, delays can be costly,
but proceeding without the correct
information could pose serious HSE
problems. Today, Schlumberger can
perform accurate fluid analysis at the
wellsite and deliver the results in

around 10 h. The results can be used

to quickly update reservoir models
and so optimize field development
strategies (Figure 11).

Current challenges in sampling

The main aim of field sampling is
to collect the required volume of
representative fluid quickly and
without contamination. In general,
sampling is difficult in formations
where the fluids do not flow easily.
Low flow rates are encountered in
many reservoir types, including
tight, low-pressure, and damaged
formations. Hot reservoirs provide a
different challengephase changes
are difficult to prevent when the fluid
is brought to the lower temperature
and pressure at surface.
There are also reservoirs where
well testing is not allowed, and then
there are those that can give specific
problems with sampling methods, for
example, oil-base mud contamination
in MDT* Modular Formation
Dynamics Tester sampling of clastic
reservoirs or sanding.

12 Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review

Deep water

Tight or hot reservoirs present

the major challenges for onshore
sampling operations. For oil and
gas fields located close to built-up
areas, there are often operational
restrictions; for example, well testing
may be prohibited.
In tight formations, the fundamental
challenge for sampling techniques is
collecting enough fluid from the
formation to constitute a representative
sample. Tight formations may have
good oil or gas saturation values but
low permeability, which prevents the
hydrocarbons from flowing freely into
the wellbore. Stimulation techniques
such as fracturing may help.

Operations conducted in deep water

present a range of special challenges.
Tasks usually cost significantly more
than comparable work on shallowshelf or onshore locations. Rig rates
for deepwater operations are very
high. Logistical requirements are
more demanding, and there is
additional commercial pressure on
the sampling team to collect the right
volume of sample at the first attempt
and then to conduct an accurate
analysis in the shortest possible time.
Real-time, downhole analysis using
the MDT wireline tool is an extremely
effective way to obtain accurate fluid
data in a very short time frame. The
MDT tool consists of individual modules
that can be configured to meet almost
any testing and sampling need. A highaccuracy, high-resolution quartz gauge
with a fast dynamic response provides
formation and hydrostatic pressure
measurements. Sensors mounted in
the flowline provide measurements
of formation fluid resistivity and
temperature while fluid flow is
controlled from the surface.

Offshore
There are also restrictions on testing
operations in the offshore environment.
Concerns about wildlife and HSE issues
mean that sampling must be conducted
in a way that eliminates discharges and
environmental contamination without
compromising the safe operation of
the facility.
When samples are taken offshore,
the field operators must either send
the samples to an onshore facility or
perform the analysis on the platform.
Offshore, space is often limited, so
any analytical equipment deployed on
the platform will have to be compact
and easy to maintain.

Heavy oil
Heavy crude oils are those with API
gravity of 22 dAPI or below. API
gravity is an arbitrary scale that
expresses the gravity or density of

liquid petroleum products. The higher

the API gravity, the lighter the
compound. Intermediate crude oils
fall in the range 22 to 38 dAPI. Light
crude oils generally exceed 38 dAPI.
The most significant problems
encountered when attempting to
sample heavy oil are sanding and the
formation of emulsions. Heavy oils
are difficult to produce and require
special production techniques, such
as steam injection or steam soak, to
extract them from the reservoir.
Low-energy reservoirs and low
ambient temperatures make the
recovery and transport of heavy
crude oils complex and demanding
issues. Flow assurance during the
transportation of high-viscosity crude
oils is a major challenge for heavy-oil
developments. Some heavy crude oils
have high total-organic-acid contents
that can lead to naphthenate
precipitation in offshore processing
facilities and problems during
refining operations.
Accurate fluid-property data are
vital for reservoir modeling and
facilities design. For offshore heavy-oil
systems that are to be produced in
colder waters, it may be necessary to
measure PVT phase-behavior data at
the cooler flowline conditions as well
as at the reservoir conditions. These
lower-temperature data help the asset

team to define the compositional

equations of state that they require for
offshore facilities design calculations.
Hydrogen sulfide
Sweetening is the process of removing
hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, and
other impurities from sour gas.
Hydrogen sulfide can cause severe
problems at every stage of oil and
gas operations, from downhole well
completions through production
facilities and transport system
(pipelines, terminals, tankers, etc.)
to refining and end use. For oil and
gas operators, the major problems
with hydrogen sulfide are
corrosion, including sudden,
potentially catastrophic plant
failure as a result of sulfide stress
cracking (SSC)
toxicity to personnel
unpleasant smells at 10 ppm or less
in air, which can lead to complaints
from individuals or businesses
located close to any plant
reduced value for oil and gas
products. In some cases, the
operator may be unable to sell the
gas. Customer limits for hydrogen
sulfide may be 3 ppm or less, a level
dictated by the need to prevent SSC
in pipelines.
increased capital expenditure on
sweetening processes and/or
introducing SSC-resistant materials
to the production chain (Figure 12)
increased operating expenditure
on sweetening chemicals, corrosion
inhibitors, scale dissolvers, and
biocides.

Figure 12: Gas treatment to remove hydrogen sulfide is a complex process that requires high levels
of capital investment. Accurate fluid samples help field operations to determine if treatment will be
required for a particular crude oil.

Number 6, 2005

Number 6, 2005

Figure 11: High-quality samples and wellsite analysis enable field operators to update their reservoir
models in a matter of hours.

Onshore

Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review

13

Carbon dioxide
The carbon dioxide content of a
crude oil also has implications for
the economic viability of any field
development project and the asset
teams plans for facilities design and
production. Carbon dioxide is very
soluble in oil and gas, and can be used
in miscible tertiary-recovery schemes
in depleted oil fields. However, when
carbon dioxide occurs naturally within
the reservoir it can cause significant
problems for field development.

Accurate fluid samples and precise

pressure data
The introduction of the MDT tool
revolutionized downhole fluid sampling
and pressure measurements. This tool
was designed to identify and collect
high-quality reservoir fluid samples and
bring them to surface for detailed
laboratory analysis. Flowline resistivity
measurements taken using the probe
module helped to discriminate between
formation fluids and filtrate from waterand oil-base muds. Formation fluid

could be excluded from the sample

chamber, using real-time surface
monitoring, until an uncontaminated
sample was recovered. This saved time
at the wellsite and helped to avoid the
costs of sending low-quality samples for
analysis. For example, in oil-base mud
samples, contamination levels fell to
less than 1 % when using the MDT tool.
The MDT tool also provided fast and
accurate pressure data, and could be
used to measure permeability tensor.
For the first time, reservoir engineers
could assess these vital reservoir
characteristics in a single trip and gain
a wealth of information about pressure,
permeability and fluid PVT properties
on which to base key decisions.

Single-phase sampling
Accurate compositional and PVT
analysis of formation samples requires
the recovered sample to remain at
formation conditions. This often
involves maintaining samples in

a single phase. Many sampling

chambers work on the principle of
trapping a fixed volume of singlephase fluid at reservoir conditions.
However, as the sample is brought to
the surface, the temperature in the
chamber decreases. This cooling
leads to a pressure drop within the
chamber and, in most cases, results
in the sample passing through the
bubblepoint and becoming a
gasliquid mixture. As the pressure
approaches the bubblepoint,
asphaltenes and paraffins may
be precipitated. Recombining
precipitated asphaltenes in the
sample chamber calls for a long
repressuring process. Unfortunately,
some of the changes that may have
occurred during sample retrieval may
not be fully reversible. Compositional
changes will also alter other critical
production parameters such as GOR,
viscosity, and API gravity.

Figure 13: Downstream facilities perform regular checks on the hydrocarbons arriving from the
field. Hydrocarbons with components such as hydrogen sulfide or carbon dioxide require special
arrangements for transport and treatment.

High levels of carbon dioxide are

uncommon in the worlds reservoirs.
Fewer than 1 in a 100 gas
accumulations will have carbon dioxide
concentrations greater than 20 %.
However, where the carbon dioxide
content of a reservoir exceeds 20 %,
the mean concentration is 50 % carbon
dioxide. In other words, when carbon
dioxide is abundant, it is frequently so
abundant that it can kill the prospects
economics. High carbon dioxide
concentrations are encountered in
several key Asian oil and gas fields,
including in the South China Sea, the
Gulf of Thailand, and Australia.

Fluid-sampling technology
By the mid-1990s, wireline formationtesting tools were well established in
the industry. But, when it came to
recovering reservoir fluids, these tools
had a major limitation: the flow samples
they collected were often contaminated
with drilling mud filtrate. These
contaminated samples could be used
to prove the presence of hydrocarbons

within a specific zone, but were

unsuitable for rigorous PVT analysis.
Even when they were uncontaminated,
the bottomhole samples often had the
wrong bubblepoint or had lost pressure
as the sample was being retrieved.
Consequently, when operators had both
surface and bottomhole samples, they
usually relied on the surface sample to
provide the data they were seeking.
However, as the industry started
to operate in fields with more and
more complex fluid systems it became
apparent that bottomhole sampling
was vital. Fluid samples, like pressure
readings, are best taken close to the
reservoir. By the late 1990s, engineers
were working to improve bottomhole
sampling and to develop tools that
would enable fluid analysis to be
conducted downhole. Their long-term
objectives were to
 develop a downhole fluid analysis
technique that would minimize
sample contamination and determine
in situ hydrocarbon properties

Figure 14: Rapid sample analysis means results that once took weeks can now be obtained in a few hours. This delivers dramatic savings in costly
developments such as deepwater fields without compromising safety.

Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review

Number 6, 2005

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14 Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review

establish a new sampling technique

that would reduce pressure shock
to the formation fluid
 conduct fluid-flow modeling studies
that would lead to improved
sampling techniques, thus shortening
sample time while reducing ultimate
contamination levels
 bring samples to the surface without
changing their initial phase
(Figure 14).


Photograph, Science Photo Library

Each of these potential problems

can be avoided if the design stage of
any new field or facility is undertaken
correctly. Operators must obtain
representative samples and accurate
analyses of reservoir fluids, aquifer
water, and other fluids such as
injection water.
Correct sampling and analysis
require very specialized techniques,
especially in situations with low
concentrations of hydrogen sulfide
or in the presence of nutrient
precursors (such as carboxylic acids)
for the anaerobic bacterial
generation of hydrogen sulfide.
Without specialized techniques,
these chemicals may not be
accounted for during analysis. For
example, bacterial nutrients may
disappear through aerobic bacterial
action in samples that have been
exposed to air, and hydrogen sulfide
may disappear by oxidation reaction
with iron in the well tubulars, or
even the stainless steel in sample
bottles. If the facilities design team
fails to identify the risk of hydrogen
sulfide generation, the resulting
problems could prove very costly.
Reliable prediction and monitoring
of changes to field waters and oil
and gas phases during field life and
production and transport operations
are major issues (Figure 13).
Operators must be aware of issues
such as reservoir souring following
water injection; bacterial generation
of hydrogen sulfide in flowlines and
tanks; corrosion predictions; the
effects of pressure and temperature
changes, and exposure in open tanks;
and the use of chemicals to control
bacteria or remove hydrogen sulfide.

15

Maintain reservoir conditions

One solution for maintaining samples
at reservoir conditions involves
overpressuring the samples once they
have been collected. To achieve this,
sample chambers are pressurized
across two pistons with a nitrogen gas
chamber, thereby compensating for
the temperature-induced pressure
drop as the samples are returned to
surface. The single-phase multisample
chamber (SPMC) is designed for use
with the MDT multisample module
(Figure 15). The nitrogen is isolated
from the sample chamber and acts on
the sample through a piston floating
on a synthetic oil buffer. The
pressurized gas charge maintains
pressure in the sample chamber and
ensures that the sample remains
above the bubblepoint line and the
asphaltene precipitation threshold
(Figure 16).
Single-phase sampling saves time at
the wellsite because there is no need
to recombine samples in the field. In
addition, the SPMC provides a customdesigned transfer system that can
transport samples to the laboratory
quickly and safely. Single-phase
sampling has encouraged analysts to
explore new aspects of fluid behavior
and made it easier for them to conduct
studies into asphaltene precipitation
and deposition, aquifers, and
corrosion.

In well interventions, where the

main priority is recovering a highquality sample, single-phase samplers
are the most effective tools. They are
particularly useful in situations where
analysts want to avoid sample
recombination in the field, for
example, when dealing with heavy
crude oil or gas condensate.
Low-contamination samples
PVT-quality, single-phase fluid
samples can be used to establish the
presence of producible hydrocarbons.
In one field, the test was conducted in
a fault block where the formation was
partially consolidated; there had been
miscible drilling-fluid invasion, and
water saturations were in the range
40 to 50 %.
The MDT tool, which was run
in conjunction with the SPMC,
recovered two low-contamination
single-phase samples. Analysis
of these enabled the operator to
estimate the recoverable reserves
accurately. Moreover, single-phase
PVT analysis revealed the critical
parameters for optimal completion
and production design. All of this
was achieved without the additional
expense, delay, and environmental
issues of drillstem tests.

Figure 15: Pressurization using the SPMC

counteracts temperature-related pressure
drops that occur as fluid samples are brought
to surface.

The traditional approach to fluid

analysis involves transferring all
samples to a central laboratory for
any analytical work. Onsite analysis
has improved significantly over recent
years, but some tests still have to be
conducted in a laboratory environment.
To ensure quality and accuracy,
operators require an integrated process
that covers the provision of suitable
uncontaminated sample transfer
bottles, tracking of the samples, and
their delivery to the central facility.
Reservoir fluid sampling and
flow-assurance studies
Laboratory PVT tests provide the
data necessary to assess the flowassurance risk. Laboratory testing
defines the phase behavior and
physical properties of the waxes,
asphaltenes, and hydrates that are
the principal causes of flow problems.
Flow assurance is a multidisciplinary
process that involves sampling,
laboratory analysis, production, and
facilities engineering working together
to ensure uninterrupted optimum
productivity. To meet this challenge,
Schlumberger uses a dedicated flowassurance team. This team combines
products, services, and technologies
from the Schlumberger business
groups to provide fully integrated
solutions that help operators to
minimize costs and meet their
production objectives.
The best laboratories usually have a
full range of PVT facilities and set-ups
to characterize fluid samples, both
visually and quantitatively, at realistic
thermophysical conditions. For
example, the Oilphase-DBR* fluid
sampling and analysis services provide
comprehensive flow-assurance studies
that help to prevent or reduce the flow
impairment caused by deposition of
organic solids. The Schlumberger PVT
Expert* system processes all laboratory
measurements and instantly provides
the final PVT report (Figure 17).

Figure 16: The phase envelope diagram explains how the nitrogen overpressure and
compressibility enable the SPMC to keep the sample above not just the saturation pressure but
also the reservoir pressure. This is extremely important because many asphaltenes deposit at
pressures far in excess of the saturation pressure.

Condensates and the sampling

process
Condensates are low-density, highAPI-gravity, liquid hydrocarbons that
are usually found in association with
natural gas. Gas produced in
association with condensate is called
wet gas. The gas/liquid distribution
depends on the temperature and
pressure conditions in the reservoir
and whether these will allow the
transformation from vapor to liquid.
The presence of pressure-sensitive
condensates can complicate production
because liquid will condense out of the
gas if the reservoir pressure drops
below the dewpoint. This is usually
undesirable and reduces well
productivity considerably.
Subsurface sampling tools help to
ensure that fluid is sampled above the
dewpoint. The major problem with
these tools is the high probability of
sample contamination. Even a small
amount of contamination can cause
significant errors in PVT analysis.
Contamination from oil-base mud is
particularly difficult to detect.
The MDT tool allows fluid to be
pumped through it and uses opticaland density-related techniques for
determining the nature of the fluid
collected (Figure 18). Surface
readouts of these data should be
carefully monitored to try to ensure
that the fluid composition is stable
(see Figure 14).

Testing cased wells

Well conditioning before PVT
sampling is extremely important.
Well clean-up times should be
carefully planned to ensure that
all contaminants are removed.
Hydrocarbon withdrawal must be
minimized before sampling, and
production must be stable before
and during the sampling process.
The sampling team should monitor
wellhead pressure and temperature,
and may choose to track other
compositional indicators such as
carbon dioxide content and water
composition. Effective well
conditioning may take days, even
in high-permeability reservoirs.
Hydrocarbon columns have
compositional variations with depth,
so for ideal subsurface or surface PVT
sampling, it is best to have small
perforation intervals. Short intervals
enable the sampling team to capture
the compositional variations. If the
perforations are over a large pay
interval, the fluid samples will
represent the most mobile fluid.
Unfortunately, there are often
conflicts between the requirements for
PVT sampling and the requirements
for productivity testing during a well
test. Productivity testing requires large
tubing, high drawdowns, and large
perforation intervals. PVT sampling
requires exactly the opposite.

The openhole approach

Openhole sampling does not disturb
the pressure within a formation, so
the engineer can sample saturated
and near-critical fluids with
confidence. The method provides
early PVT data without a well test,
which reduces both costs and
environmental exposure, and makes
it easy to evaluate several formation
intervals and examine different zones
and even fluid variations with depth
within a zone. However, with
openhole methods, samples will
always be contaminated to some
extent and the volume of fluid that
can be recovered is limited.

Figure 18: The MDT tool can determine the

nature of the fluid collected and ensure that
every sample is free of contaminant.

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16 Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review

Laboratory-based analysis

17

Wellsite analysis
The time between exploration or
appraisal drilling and the manufacture
of production process plant is
decreasing. Oil companies are
working towards rapid development
and early exploitation of their assets.
However, before operators can select
materials for plant completion and
process design, they require a
complete understanding of reservoir
fluid composition and phase behavior.
For example, trace concentrations of
chemicals such as hydrogen sulfide
and mercury are difficult to detect
and, if overlooked at the time of
process design, can have a profound
impact on cost during production.
Operators can save time and ensure
early warning of problem chemicals
by using a comprehensive wellsite
analytical service that provides quality
samples and fluid characterization.
This should also include traceelement analysis and monitoring for
potential environmental hazards.
Oilphase-DBR services can include
wellsite tests to provide PVT
estimates and levels of oil-base mud
contamination, and analysis of the
amount of hydrogen sulfide in liquids
and gases, and of radon and mercury
in gases and water.
Mercury levels are assessed using
an atomic fluorescence technique.
Atomic fluorescence spectroscopy
(AFS) is the optical emission from
gas-phase atoms that have been
excited to higher energy levels by
absorption of electromagnetic
radiation. The main advantage of
fluorescence detection compared
with absorption measurements is
the greater sensitivity that can be
achieved because the fluorescence
signal has a very low background. The
resonant excitation provides selective
excitation of the sample to avoid
interference. AFS can be used to
make quantitative measurements.
Analytical applications include flame
and plasma diagnostics, and enhanced
sensitivity in atomic analysis.

comprehensive fluid analysis data

for black oil or condensate samples
(Figure 19) without HSE risks. This
enables operators to make rapid and
informed decisions about the need for
additional wireline formation or
drillstem testing.
The PVT Express system offers
many advantages over traditional PVT
equipment and services. Mercury-free
technology eliminates the risks
associated with the use and
transportation of mercury. And the
tool has a modular, rugged construction
that facilitates transportation to any
location, including the wellsite; this
means that accurate results can be
delivered in hours rather than in weeks
or months.

The PVT Express service uses

measurement techniques based on
proven PVT laboratory procedures
and delivers results that match those
from the laboratory (Figure 20). The
PVT Express requires a very small
volume of sample (less than 50 cm3)
to conduct a full PVT study. It
includes a fiber-optic sensor to
measure the saturation pressure of
gas condensates, and volatile and
black oils. A helium ionization
detector is used in dual gas
chromatograph to perform C12+ gas
and C36+ liquid analyses. The PVT
Express service also provides
accurate testing methods for oil-base
mud contamination in samples that
have been collected for wireline
formation tests.

Analysis at the wellsite reduces the

amount of testing and saves money. It
means that reservoir and production
engineers can have PVT results within
10 h and that operators can make
informed decisions during logging and
well-testing operations.
Optimizing samples in Oman

Figure 19: Comparison of PVT Express data with laboratory results for black oil characteristics (top)
and for gas condensate characteristics (bottom).

In Oman, an operator wanted to

collect representative gas-condensate
bottomhole samples during a well test
and to monitor surface gas and liquid
composition to achieve stabilized flow.
The first set of samples analyzed in
the PVT Express onsite laboratory
had a measured dewpoint pressure
close to the flowing bottomhole
pressure, which indicated that the
samples were unrepresentative.
Consequently, the well was produced
on a lower choke, and a second set of
bottomhole samples was collected. The
dewpoint measured on this set was
well below the flowing bottomhole
pressure. This indicated that the well
was producing monophasically into
the wellbore and that the bottomhole
samples being recovered were
representative. Two gas condensate
constant-volume-depletion PVT studies
and 15 surface sample compositional
studies were completed at the wellsite
using the PVT Express system. This
efficient and accurate sampling
procedure enabled the field operator to
plan the next stage of production with
greater confidence.

The PVT Express* service

18 Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review

Figure 17 Analytical flow diagram for the PVT Express service. The report combines measurements
and test results from a number of sources to present a comprehensive picture of key fluid properties.
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As the pace of field development

increases, operators want to
accelerate the analytical processes so
that the results that guide their
decisions are available within hours.
The PVT Express onsite well fluid
analysis service can deliver

Figure 20: PVT Express-predicted formulation volume factor (FVF) compared with laboratory results (top)
and comparison of PVT-predicted oil viscosities and laboratory results (bottom).
Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review

19

Spectroscopic analysis
Spectroscopy is a well-established
analytical technique that can
characterize complex mixtures. It
relies on observing how different types
of molecule behave when exposed to
electromagnetic (EM) radiation. Every
molecular structure interacts with
EM radiation in a different way.
These differences are invaluable in
identifying the structures and the
proportions of the molecular types
present in a sample, and so
determining the sample composition.
The data obtained from
spectroscopic analysis are presented
as spectra; plots of the levels of
absorption (optical density) versus
the wavelength (or mass, momentum,
or frequency, etc.) of the energy.
Spectra can be used to identify the
components of a sample (qualitative
analysis) or to measure the amount
of a specific material in a sample
(quantitative analysis).

Optical properties of
wellbore fluids
Light passing through a fluid
sample is affected by two distinct
processesscattering and
absorption. The absorption spectrum
of crude oil exhibits a series of
absorption peaks with diminishing
intensity at shorter wavelengths
(Figure 22). These peaks indicate
the presence of various fluid types.
The largest oil peak that can be seen
using the OFA* Optical Fluid Analyzer
spectrometer is at 1,725 nm. This peak
corresponds to molecular vibrations
that involve hydrogencarbon bonds.

Locate
The first challenge in successful fluid
sampling is to choose an appropriate
location along the sandface of the well.
The selection process must take into
account factors such as the geological
sequence and structure, so that the
sampling tool avoids tight zones or
faulted areas within the formation.
Having selected the best location, the
reservoir engineer must ensure that
the sample chamber reaches this spot.
Position

Photograph, Science Photo Library

Infrared (IR) spectroscopy

Absorption of IR radiation can cause
the various bonds within a molecule
to vibrate differently, as they absorb
the radiation at differing frequencies
within the infrared region. This
frequency depends on the type of
bond (its strength) and the atoms
involved (their masses). Bonds of
the same type (for example, an
oxygenhydrogen bond) tend to
absorb at around the same frequency,
even if they are in different molecules.

Typical sample history

Such vibrational peaks, which are

located at discrete wavelengths, or
energies, are analogous to the resonant
frequencies exhibited by mechanical
springs or tuning forks. As the
hydrogencarbon chemical groups of
all oils and asphaltenes are similar,
these vibrational peaks are comparable
for most oils. Materials that are black,
such as tar, absorb the entire spectrum
of visible light through many different
molecular vibrational and electronic
excitations. In these cases, the
absorbed energy is converted into heat.
Water exhibits strong vibrational
absorption peaks observed in the
spectrometer at 1,445 and 1,930 nm.

Figure 21: NMR spectroscopy helps scientists to determine molecular structures in complex hydrocarbons.

When a sampling device is collecting

fluids, it should be sealed from the
wellbore and have full and continuous
contact with the formation. This
helps to reduce sampling time and
minimize contamination from
wellbore fluids. Schlumberger has
developed a range of techniques to
establish and maintain good contact
with the borehole wall. For example,
the MDT tool has a retractable,
hydraulically operated probe,
embedded in a circular rubber
packet, that is forced through the
mudcake to make a seal with the
formation. Two opposing backup
pistons on the opposite side of the
tool help to push the probe against
the formation and thus maintain a
good seal.

reduction in temperature and

pressure, and the accompanying
phase changes can be counteracted
by increasing pressure within the
chamber before retrieval.
Analyze
There are now several options for
sample analysis. Advanced studies are
still conducted in a central laboratory,
but, over the past few years, wellsite
systems have accelerated the
analytical process and enabled the
provision of answers in hours rather
than in days or weeks. Since 2002,
there has been the option to use the
CFA analyzer to perform detailed
analysis in the wellbore. This module
represents a significant new
opportunity, as it can perform
sophisticated analysis and
characterization of reservoir fluids
without having to bring samples to
the surface.

Downhole fluid characterization

Schlumberger introduced downhole
fluid analysis in 2002. This represented
a major advance on previous analytical
systems and enabled reservoir
engineers to obtain accurate, reliable
measurements of reservoir fluids at
reservoir conditions. The development

of downhole techniques has come

in response to oil industry demands
for rapid, detailed compositional
information and greater reliability
in sample selection.
At present, the information
available from downhole techniques
includes GOR, composition, API
gravity, pH, water cut, saturation
pressure, and contamination levels.

Fluid composition from optical

absorption spectrometry data
The CFA module contains an optical
absorption spectrometer that uses
visible and near-IR light to quantify a
fluids composition as it flows through
the tool (Figure 23). Light is
transmitted through the fluid to an
array of detectors tuned to selected
wavelengths. The amount of light
absorbed by the fluid depends on
its composition. The measured
absorption spectrum is represented
as a linear combination of the unique
absorption spectra for C1, C2C5,
C6+, carbon dioxide, and water, and
enables determination of the weight
percent of each molecular group.
In gas reservoirs, oil vaporized
in the gas will precipitate as liquid
condensate at surface temperature
and pressure conditions. The CFA

Minimize contamination
The next challenge is to collect
the sample with little or no
contamination. The basic MDT probe
module contains a variable-rate and
volume pretest chamber; a flowline
fluid resistivity measurement sensor;
a temperature sensor; and two
pressure gauges, including a fast,
high-precision CQG* Crystal Quartz
Gauge instrument that enables
sensitive monitoring of drawdown
pressures during the sampling
process. Sample fluids and
contamination levels are monitored in
the flowline by the OFA or the CFA*
Composition Fluid Analyzer module.

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)

spectroscopy
Nuclear magnetic resonance
spectroscopy relies on the absorption
and emission of radio-frequency
radiation by the nuclei of certain
atoms when they are placed in a
magnetic field, and can be used to
determine both the structure and
relative amounts of the analyzed
samples (Figure 21).

Retrieve
Optical

The sample chamber must be

recovered to the surface with the
minimum disturbance to the phase
composition of the fluid. The natural

density is log 10 (I0/I1), where I0 is input light

energy and I1 is transmitted light energy.

Figure 23: An optical absorption spectrometer in the CFA module quantifies fluid composition as it
passes through the tool.

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20 Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review

Figure 22: The key components of oilfield samples. Spectroscopic analysis can be used to identify
sample composition.

21

module measures the composition of

the condensate while it is still in the
gas phase. This vaporized composition
is the C6+ fraction. From the ratio
of the C6+ fraction to the C1C5
fraction, the condensate/gas ratio
(CGR) is determined. The CGR
indicates the condensate yield at
standard temperature and pressure
conditions.
The CFA module ensures that
reservoir engineers can obtain
representative fluid samples that
have acceptably low levels of
contamination and also minimizes the
time required for sample acquisition
(Figure 24). It also enables early
determination of GOR or CGR for
reservoir valuation purposes.
Sampling gas above its dewpoint
The CFA module measures
fluorescence emission using a narrowspectrum light source, a blue-lightemitting diode. The fluorescence
emission spectrum varies with the
amount of condensate vaporized in
the gas; the spectrum changes
whenever the pressure of a
condensate falls below its dewpoint
pressure. Fluid sampling engineers
can, therefore, monitor the spectrum
to ensure that the reservoir fluid is
sampled above its dewpoint.

Figure 24: In this example, the CFA data indicate a drop in contamination over time. Representative
samples can be taken after just 7 minutes.

The introduction of the LFA module

has greatly increased sampling
efficiency, as it analyzes fluids as they
flow through the MDT tool. The
analyzer detects and measures
dissolved methane in live fluids,
which are pressurized reservoir fluid
samples that remain in single phase.
Engineers can identify downhole
fluids and make informed decisions on
sample acquisition. This has increased
and optimized sampling efficiency,
thus saving valuable rig time. Tool

operators can discriminate between

reservoir hydrocarbons and monitor
oil-base-mud filtrate contamination
while sampling.
Real-time, quantitative
contamination monitoring is achieved
by tracking sample color and methane
content. The LFA module also
provides a predictable cleanup period
for quality sample collection and
reliable discrimination between water,
oil, and gas. Free gas is identified
using two independent detectors.

Figure 25: The CFA module shows that these reservoir layers, just 5 m apart, are unconnected.

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22 Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review

LFA* Live Fluid Analyzer

Even using logs and seismic data, it

can be difficult to determine which
layers are connected in layered gas
reservoirs. An accurate determination
of connectivity is fundamentally
important to reservoir development
planning (Figure 25). The
commingling of gases of different
composition can be very undesirable
particularly if some gases have
unacceptably high percentages of
carbon dioxide. Gas samples can be
acquired and analyzed at the surface
in a relatively brief time frame if there
are not many layers. If a multilayered
well needs to be cased and perforated
in a matter of days, then using the
CFA tool to measure gas composition
can be a fast and accurate solution.
The CFA module can be used to
monitor gas-injection patterns in
secondary recovery development
projects (Figure 26). In a gas-injected
field in the Middle East, the operator
had trouble modeling and monitoring
the injection in the layers being
produced. The solution involved
running a CFA module to track gas
injection in real time.

Figure 26: The CFA module helped geoscientists analyze injected gas sweep at four depths. In
this case, the tool proved that there was no communication between zones A and B.

Depth-related variation in fluid

composition
Fluid scanning is the evaluation of
reservoir fluids in a large number
of zones using a combination of
downhole analysis and the short
pumpout period available with the
MDT sampling string. No fluid
sampling is required. In a thick gas
reservoir, CFA fluid scanning can be
used to measure the compositional
gradient of the reservoir fluid. The
CFA module can provide productionoptimizing information such as fluid
scanning for a compositional gradient
in a thick reservoir; identification of
layers with different fluids; downhole
evaluation of carbon dioxide levels;
downhole determination of dewpoint;
secondary recovery monitoring; and
oil-base mud sampling. All of these
data can be fed back into the
reservoir simulation model and so
help to optimize production.

Reservoir architecture and fluid changes

Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review

23