Department of Applied Chemistry

Division of Science and Engineering

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

ENGINEERING MATERIAL 100

Experiments 4 and 6
Mechanical Testing and Applications of Non-Metals
Name: Yasmin Ousam Shafei Mahmoud Khalil
Student ID: 7E0A7588 / 14982477
Group: B2
Due Date: May 25, 2010
Lecturer: Dr. Zeya

Lab Assignment II Experiments 4 and 6

By: Yasmin Khalil

Table of Contents
0.0. Abstract 4
1.0. Introduction ....... 4

Experiment 4: Mechanical Testing

2.0.
3.0.
4.0.
5.0.

4 - 10

Aim ..4
Introduction...4
Objective..4
Theory 5 - 6
5.1. Proof stress 5
5.2. Stress. 5
5.3. Strain. 5
5.4. Youngs Modulus of Elasticity5
5.5. Tensile Strength. 5
5.6. Yield Strength.. 5
5.7. Yield Point.. 5
5.8. 0.2% Proof Stress.. 6
5.9. Ductility 6
5.10. Elastic Deformation... 6
5.11. Plastic Deformation 6
6.0. Apparatus 7
7.0. Procedure. 7
8.0. Observations and Results. 7 - 10
8.1. Tensile test results.. 7
8.2. Elongation results... 8
8.3. Fracture Appearance. 8
8.4. Data from the curve.. 9
8.5. Calculated Values. 9
8.6. Calculations.. 9
8.7. Youngs Modulus .10
9.0. Graphs..10

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Lab Assignment II Experiments 4 and 6

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Experiment 6: Applications of Non Metals

10.0.
11.0.
12.0.
13.0.

Aim . 11
Introduction.. 11
Objective..11
Theory.11
13.1. Youngs Modulus of Elasticity. 11

Tensile Test

12 - 15

14.0. Apparatus. 12
15.0. Procedure. 12
16.0. Observations and Results.. 12 - 15
16.1. Tensile Test Results..12
16.2. Elongation Results for Nylon. 13
16.3. Failure Appearance.. 13
16.4. Data from the Curve.14
16.5. Calculated Values...14
16.6. Calculations .. 14 - 15
16.7. Youngs modulus.15
17.0. Graphs.. 15

Cantilever Bend Test

16 - 17

18.0. Apparatus16
19.0. Procedure16
20.0. Observations and Results.16
20.1. Sample and Measurements.16
20.2. Measurements..17
21.0. Graphs17

22.0. Discussions18
23.0. Conclusion....19
24.0. References.19
25.0. Declaration.19

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Lab Assignment II Experiments 4 and 6

By: Yasmin Khalil

0.0. Abstract
In experiments 4 and 6, we will be testing some mechanical properties, ex: (ductility and
tensile strength) of metals and nonmetals. Those properties define how a metal or non-metal
can resist and withstand under force or stress when a load or more are added.

1.0. Introduction
This lab report is divided into Experiments. In Experiment 4, we will be testing Carbon steel, a
metal and observing and noting down its elongation results. While, in Experiment 6, which is
divided into: Tensile test and Cantilever beam test, we will be testing Nylon, a non-metal and
using an Aluminum bar to observe the effects of increased loads and their deflections.

Experiment 4: Mechanical Testing----------------2.0. Aim

The purpose of this experiment is to investigate the tensile strength parameters and ductility
for carbon steel.

3.0. Introduction
The mechanical properties of a material, whether it is a metal or a non-metal play an
important role in construction of structures especially in material sciences and mechanical
engineering. The tensile strength of a material is the maximum amount of tensile stress that
can be subjected to before failure. On the other hand, failure can vary from material to
material. To sum up, there are 3 definitions for tensile stress:
1- Yield strength: The stress at which material strain changes from elastic
deformation to plastic deformation, causing it to deform
permanently.
2- Ultimate tensile strength: The maximum stress a material can bear before fracture
happens.
3- Breaking strength: The stress beyond the ultimate tensile strength, where
fracturing occurs upon reaching this point.

4.0. Objective
The main idea of this experiment is to measure the mechanical properties of metal (Carbon
Steel) by performing a tensile test and getting to know the elongation and 0.2 % proof load.

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Lab Assignment II Experiments 4 and 6

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5.0. Theory
5.1. Proof stress is a stress that causes a system to be in a specified small, permanent
deformation and may result in the extension of a tensile test piece or material. It can
also be defined as the stress used to demonstrate the materials ability to persist
service loads. The proof stress will produce 0.2 % extension for steel quoted in N/mm 2.
This value is close to the yield stress in materials which dont exhibit a definite yield
point.

5.2. Stress is the measure of the average force that acts perpendicularly to the surface of
the body per unit area in a body. It has the SI unit of Pascal (symbol Pa or N/m 2).

5.3. Strain is the deformation unit under a load. In other words, it is the measure of the
change in length of a body divided by its original length when a there is a force acting
on the body which causes the changes. It has no units.

5.4. Youngs Modulus of Elasticity is equal to stress ( ) over strain ( ). It is the measure of
the stiffness of slope of the graph strain versus stress. Youngs Modulus ( ) has the
unit of Pascal (symbol Pa or N/m2). A low modulus means that the specimen or
structure will be flexible while stiff and inflexible will occurred in a high modulus.

5.5. Tensile Strength is the maximum force of load applied to the specimen before it
fractures divided by the original cross sectional area. The ultimate tensile strength of a
material represents the maximum stress that a material can withstand before its
deformation when a force is applied on it.

5.6. Yield Strength is the stress at the yield point which is defined as the stress required to
start a particular amount of plastic deformation when the material is loaded. The
material is elastic below the yield strength and is viscous above the yield strength.
5.7. Yield Point is the point indicated when the permanent deformation of a stressed
material will occur; it is the end of the elastic region. Yield Point is also known as the
elastic limit from the stress-strain curve which can represent the initial progress from
linearity of the curve.

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Lab Assignment II Experiments 4 and 6

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5.8. 0.2% Proof Stress is calculated using formula below. It is basically a line that is parallel
to another straight line of the graph. It is drawn based on the calculated value until the
line cuts the curve. Below is a graph that describes Proof stress in more detail.

Graph of Load against Elongation

Number of kN read off
here. This gives the total
force acting on the CSA

Load or Force - kN

Line drawn parallel

to straight part of
curve from 0.2% of
original gauge
length

Elongation (mm)
Calculate value

5.9. Ductility is a measure of the degree of plastic deformation that the matter can resist
before fracture. A material is to be ductile when it can be permanently stretched
without fracture by tensile force. But on the other hand, a material that can only
withstand little or zero plastic deformation is said to be brittle. Ductility can also be
defined as percent elongation (%Elongation) or percent reduction area (% R of Area).

5.10. Elastic deformation happens when stress and strain is proportional to each other. It is
the change in the dimensions of a specimen under loading. But the effects of
deformation fade away during the removal of the stress applied and then the material
returns to its original position.
5.11. Plastic deformation occurs during the situation when the Hookes law is no longer
being obeyed when the stress is not proportional to the strain anymore. A material will
undergo irreversible deformation during the plastic deformation which means that the
material will not recover to its original position upon the removal of the stress applied.

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Lab Assignment II Experiments 4 and 6

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6.0. Apparatus

Carbon Steel and Caliper

Computer

Universal Testing Machine

7.0. Procedure
1234-

Use the Caliper to measure the diameter of carbon steel.

Measure the gauge length.
Insert the carbon steel rod in the Universal Testing Machine.
Tension the cross arm of the machine and reset the machine settings in a way that it
will be equal to zero.
5- Observe and record the elongation data from the graph in the computer screen and
take 10 points from elongation data and graph them in a graph paper.

8.0. Observations and Results

8.1.

Tensile test results

Sample
Measurements

Carbon Steel Bar

Gauge Length Diameter (mm)

12.5

Minimum Diameter , after testing (mm)

0.75

Gauge Length, Lo (mm)

300 200 = 100

Gauge Length, Ll (mm)

337- 200 = 137

Table 1: The Tensile test results for Carbon Steel

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8.2. Elongation Result for Carbon Steel

Elongation
Load (kN)
(mm)
3.3
0.2
4.2
0.5
4.7
0.6
15.4
2.9
24.0
4.4
25.2
5.0
25.0
5.5
24.9
6.3
29.9
11.1
35.0
19.6
37.2
34.9
37.1
37.5
35.8
40.0
30.0
42.5
Table 2: Elongation result for
carbon steel

Stress (MPa)
Strain
26890.82
0.002
34146.34
0.005
38211.38
0.006
125203.25
0.029
195121.95
0.044
204878.05
0.050
203252.03
0.055
202439.02
0.063
243089.43
0.111
284552.85
0.196
302439.02
0.349
301626.02
0.375
291056.91
0.400
243902.44
0.420
Table 3: Stress and Strain for
the Elongation of carbon steel

8.3. Fracture Appearance

Sample

Picture

Sketch

Carbon Steel Rod

Description
The carbon steel rod has
a relatively strong
resistance to the tensile
force applied to it. It
broke two parts, where
the upper section forms
a cup at the breaking
region and the bottom
section forms a cone.

Table 4: Fracture Appearance of carbon steel

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Lab Assignment II Experiments 4 and 6

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8.4. Data from the curve

Yield Point Load (kN)

24.9

0.2% Proof Load (kN)

25

Maximum Load (kN)

37.2

Table 5: Data of Carbon steels curve

8.5.

Calculated values
0.2% proof stress or Y.P Stress (MPa)

2.02*10 ^14 MPa

Tensile Strength (MPa)

3.02*10^14 MPa

% elongation
% R of Area

8.6.

99.64 %

37 %
Table 6: Calculated values of Carbon steel

Calculations

Cross Sectional Area (A0) =

= (.0125/2) ^2 * Pi
= 1.23*10 ^-4 m^2

Final Cross Sectional Area (Af) =

= ((7.5*10^-4)/2)^2 * Pi
= 4.42*10^-7 m^2

0.2% Proof Stress or Y.P. Stress (MPa) =

= (24.9 *10^3) N/ (1.23*10 ^-4) m^2
= 2.02*10 ^14 MPa

Tensile Strength (MPa) =

= (37.2 *10^3) N/ (1.23*10 ^-4) m^2

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Lab Assignment II Experiments 4 and 6

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= 3.02*10^14 MPa

% Elongation =

100 %

= ((137 100)/100) * 100

= 37 %

% R of A =

100 %

= [(1.23*10 ^-4 m^2) (4.42*10^-7 m^2)/ (1.23*10 ^-4 m^2)]* 100

= 99.64 %

Stress =
= 24.9*10^3 / 1.23*10 ^-4
= 202439.02 MPa

Strain =
= (6.3*10^-3 / 0.1)
= 0.063

Youngs Modulus =

= 202439.02 MPa/0.063
= 3213.32 GPa

8.7.

Youngs Modulus
Load at Yield Point (kN)

24.9

Extension at Yield Point (mm)

Stress (MPa)

6.3
202439.02 MPa

Strain (m/m)

0.063

Youngs Modulus (GPa)

3213.32 GPa

Table 7: Carbon Steels Youngs Modulus

9.0. Graphs
Please refer to the attached graph papers. [Graphs 1 and 2]. Thank you.

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Lab Assignment II Experiments 4 and 6

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Experiment 6: Applications of Non Metals

10.0. Aim
The purpose of this report is to demonstrate the mechanical properties of the non-metal
(Nylon); and to use the simple cantilever equipment to demonstrate the flexural
properties.

11.0. Introduction
Non-metals have their own mechanical properties, such as: tensile strength, toughness
and hardness. These mechanical properties play an important role in determining the
usage of a material for construction purposes. In this lab session, the tensile test is being
carried out to get to know the tensile strength and ductility of Nylon. A Cantilever bend
test is also performed to develop the relationship between deflection and load.

12.0. Objective
The main idea of this experiment is: 1) to measure the mechanical properties of the nonmetal (Nylon) by performing a tensile test and getting to know the elongation, tensile
strength, etc. and 2) to observe the effects of increased load on the Aluminum bar using
the simple cantilever equipment.

13.0. Theory
13.1.

Youngs Modulus of Elasticity is defined as the ratio of stress and strain in the
region where the material obeys Hookes law. Stress is denoted by ( ) and is
proportional to strain which is denoted by ( ).
E = / (Pa or Nm-2)

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Lab Assignment II Experiments 4 and 6

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Tensile Test
14.0. Apparatus

15.0.
16.0.
17.0.
18.0.
19.0.
Cantilever and Nylon

Computer Screen

Universal testing Machine

15.0. Procedure
1- Use the Caliper to measure the length, thickness and width of the Nylon piece.
2- Insert the Nylon piece in the Universal Testing Machine.
4- Tension the cross arm of the machine and reset the machine settings in a way that it
will be equal to zero.
5- Observe and record the elongation data from the graph in the computer screen and
take 10 points from elongation data and graph them in a graph paper.

16.0. Observations and Results

16.1. Tensile Test Results
Sample
Measurements

Nylon

Gauge Length (mm)

134.92

Original Length (mm)

179.88

Final Length (mm)

209.81

Gauge Thickness (mm)

3.04

Final Thickness (mm)

1.1

Gauge Width (mm)

11.48

Final Width (mm)

7.4

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Reduction in Width (mm)

11.48 7.4 = 4.08

Reduction in Thickness (mm)

3.04 1.1 = 1.94

Table 8: The Tensile test results for Nylon

16.2. Elongation Data for Nylon

Machine
Load (N)
Extension (mm)
300
0.1
302
1.2
601
2.9
838
6.9
900
11.4
902
11.5
902
12.8
902
13.6
902
14.4
904
15.6
898
15.4
828
28.5
733
40.2
578
47.1
535
52.5
255
58.1
Table 9: Elongation result for Nylon

16.3. Failure Appearance

Sample

Picture

Sketch

Description
The nylon stick broke
into two parts in a
ductile mode. There is a
necking part at the
breaking of each part,
with curves in upward
and downward
directions.

Nylon

Table 10: Fracture Appearance of Nylon

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16.4. Data from Curve

Yield Point Load (kN)

838

Tensile strength (MPa)

34.9

Maximum Load (kN)

11.4

Table 11: Data of Carbon steels curve

16.5. Calculated Values

% elongation

16.64

% R of Area

76.68
Table 12: Calculated values of Carbon steel

16.6. Calculations

Tensile Strength = Width x Height

= 0.01148 * 0.00304
= 3.45 x 10^-5 m
= 34.8992 = 34.9 MPa

% Elongation

x 100 %

= ((209.81 - 179.88)/ 179.88) x 100

= 16.64 %

% R of A

x 100 %

= ((3.04 x 11.48) (1.1 x 7.4)/(3.04 x 11.48)) x 100

= 76.68 %

Stress =
= (838/(0.0034 x 0.01148)
= 21.47 MPa

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Lab Assignment II Experiments 4 and 6

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Strain =
= (6.9/179.88)
= 0.0384

Youngs Modulus =
= (21.47 MPa /0.0384)
= 0.56 GPa

16.7. Youngs modulus

Load at Yield Point (kN)

838

Extension at Yield Point (mm)

6.9

Stress (MPa)

21.47

Strain (mm/mm)

0.0384

Youngs Modulus (GPa)

0.56

Table 13: Carbon Steels Youngs Modulus

17.0. Graphs
Please refer to the graph papers attached. [Graph 3].Thank you.

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Lab Assignment II Experiments 4 and 6

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Cantilever Bend Test

Aluminum Bar

Hanger with loads

18.0. Apparatus

Digital meter

Loads

Cantilever beam test machine

19.0. Procedure
1234-

Measure the thickness, width and length of the cantilever beam.

Apply a 10g load to the free end of the cantilever beam.
Measure the bending/deflection by the digital meter.
Add 10g loads until you have noted down 15 loads vs. deflection readings.

20.0. Observations and Results

20.1. Sample and Measurements
Sample and Measurements
Load (g)

Deflection
(mm)

Load (g)

Deflection
(mm)

Load (g)

Deflection
(mm)

10

0.0

60

1.11

110

1.85

20

0.37

70

1.19

120

2.18

30

0.54

80

1.30

130

2.35

40

0.74

90

1.50

140

2.55

50

0.78

100

1.63

150

2.71

Table 14: Cantilever beam load vs. Deflection points

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20.2. Measurements (m)

Measurement (m)
Thickness of Specimen

0.006

Width of Specimen

0.019

Effective Length of specimen

0.600

Table 15: Cantilever beam specification

The formula below is used to find the youngs modulus of a material.

4Mgt 3 4 gt 3 M
E

dwt 3
wt 3 d
M
Here d is the inverse of the deflection versus load graph

Slope = (1.74 1.18)/ (100 70) = (.56/30) = .0187

M
d = 1/.0187 =53.476
E = [(4 x 9.81 x .006^3)/ (0.019 x .0600^3)] x 53.476 = GPa

21.0. Graphs
Please refer to the attached graph papers. [ GRAPH 4 ]. Thank you.

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Lab Assignment II Experiments 4 and 6

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22.0. Discussions
1. Why does carbon steel has formed cup and cone shape after fracture?
I have observed that the carbon steel has formed a cup and a cone shape after fracture.
Which is due to the time when the carbon steel rod started to neck, small cavities formed in
the middle of the cross section. And then those cavities grew in a direction perpendicular to
the applied load as the deformation continued. Fracture was caused by the rapid creation of
a crack around the outer perimeter of the neck, at an angle of around 45o. Therefore, the
two broken pieces formed were in a shape of a cup and a cone.

2. Explain why carbon steel has broken after Ultimate tensile strength.
After ultimate tensile strength, carbon steel broke as a result of the external force applied
on it. Carbon steel has exceeded its ability to withstand force and its maximum resistance to
fracture.

3. Why does 0.2% proof stress is important for your material selection?
The metal will deform as soon as forces are applied on it. This deformation is known as
elastic deformation when it is up until the 0.2% proof stress. 0.2% proof stress determines
the point of permanent damage. When the forces are applied on the material is more than
the 0.2% proof stress, it will be permanently deformed and practically unusable. Therefore,
0.2% proof stress is important for material selection in order to know how much force a
material can withstand.

4. Compare the stress and strain graphs for non metal (Acetal, Nylon,
polycarbonate)
In general, fibers have the highest tensile moduli, and elastomers have the lowest, and
plastics have tensile moduli somewhere in between fibers and elastomers. Acetal has an
UTS of 60, Elongation of 45% and Tensile modulus of 2.7, while Nylon has an UTS of 60,
Elongation of 90% and Tensile modulus of 1.8 and PVC has an UTS of 70, Elongation of 100%
and Tensile modulus of 2.6.

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23.0. Conclusion
Finally, I conclude that the tensile test provides information on: proof stress, yield point,
tensile strength parameter, elongation and reduction of area. Other than that, the graphs
obtained can be used to identify the elastic properties, plastic deformation, fracture points,
and deflection of the materials with reference to the applied load.
Even if there were some errors done during the experiment; the experimental value of
youngs modulus proved that the aluminum bar is tough and strong. Aluminums
withstand to a high deflection at the end of the beam proves that it is strong. And
according to the graph and youngs modulus value of carbon steel, I can wrap up by saying
that it has a higher youngs modulus than aluminum and can able to withstand a large
amount of forces before fracture, as shown in the graph. In addition, the curve of graph
sketched is large which symbolizes the strength of a material.

24.0. References
Callister, W.D. 2007. Mechanical Properties. In Materials Science and Engineering: An
Introduction, 7th Edition, 132-160. John Wiley & Sons ,Inc., NY.

25.0. Declaration
I, Yasmin Khalil hereby declare that this report is the result of my own efforts and that all
the photos were taken by me on Tuesday (May 18 10). The calculations and graphs are
based on the results and data gathered by group B2.

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