SPE 92077

Integrated Characterization of Low Permeability, Submarine Fan Reservoirs for

Waterflood Implementation, Chicontepec Fan System, Mexico
Noel Tyler, SPE, The Advanced Reservoir Characterization Group; Heron Gachuz-Muro, SPE, Pemex Exploration and
Production; Jesus Rivera-R, SPE, University of Mexico (UNAM); Juan Manual Rodriguez Dominguez, SPE, Pemex
Exploration and Production; Santiago Rivas-Gomez, Humyflo SA de CV; Roger Tyler, The Advanced Reservoir
Characterization Group; and Victor Nunez-Vegas, Independent Consultant, Caracas

Copyright 2004, Society of Petroleum Engineers Inc.

This paper was prepared for presentation at the 2004 SPE International Petroleum Conference
in Mexico held in Puebla, Mexico, 89 November 2004.
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Abstract
Through integrated characterization of highly heterogeneous
submarine fan reservoirs of the Chicontepec fan system
optimum location for a waterflood pilot was identified and
tested. Positioned in a high quality, comparatively low
heterogeneity part of the complex, results of the pilot indicate
that water flooding the Chicontepec is feasible and that the
reservoirs tested would benefit from a several pattern, longterm water injection program.
Introduction
The Chicontepec submarine fan system was deposited in the
Tampico-Misantla Basin of northeastern Mexico during the
Paleocene-Eocene and is the stratigraphic equivalent of the
Wilcox Group in Texas. The entire Chicontepec system is
considered to be prospective1, and as such, accounts for a
substantial component of Mexicos oil resource base. Primary
production has been established in several fields in the
northern and southern parts of the basin and limits to these
fields have not been defined. By-well cumulative productions
vary greatly. Like its close analog, the Spraberry Trend of
the Permian Basin, the Chicontepec is pervasively saturated,
and like the Spraberry, is considered a candidate for secondary
recovery.
There are many challenges to be overcome before
waterflooding can be initiated in the Chicontepec. The
turbidite reservoirs of the Chicontepec are both vertically and
laterally heterogeneous; reservoir quality is an issue as the
sandstones are cemented and they contain a minor but critical
amount of swelling clays; and the reservoirs are naturally
fractured. Establishing the architecture of the reservoir is a
critical element of waterflood design. Sediment architecture,

which includes sand distribution and facies composition,

controls the spatial distribution of reservoir properties and
hence the distribution of original oil and place; how the
injected fluids will move in 4-D (3-D space and time) through
the reservoir; and ultimately, how the reservoir drains. Thus
definition of reservoir architecture is the critical first step in
the waterflood deployment.
Having established the
architecture of reservoirs in the field, the next steps are the
integration of petrophysical data, construction of maps of
reservoir properties and ultimately of reservoir volumetrics,
synthesis of production data with reservoir geology to identify
production character of component facies, and where the
reservoir would best benefit from secondary recovery
operations. In this paper we discuss the characteristics of the
Chicontepec and the approach we followed to mitigate these
technical challenges in the selection of platforms as pilot test
wells for water injection in several reservoirs from the
southern Chicontepec submarine fan system.
Depositional Architecture and Reservoir Quality
Submarine fan deposits of the Chicontepec fan system in a
field located at the south central part of the Chicontepec
system were deposited under complex tectono-stratigraphic
conditions. Early deposition was widespread across the basin
and was followed by several phases of uplift and reworking
that resulted in complex stratal architectures (Figure 1).
Resolution of the stratal geometries was accomplished through
careful calibration of well log correlations and seismic
interpretation. Because of sand pinchout through changing
depositional processes and subsequent erosion the number of
reservoir sands present varies across the basin. Typically,
between 8 and 16 major reservoir intervals are present in the
Chicontepec. In the field under study, 10 of these intervals
were considered as potential candidates for waterflooding.
The multistoried reservoir system is typically composed of
channel complexes that are flanked by, and rest on, lobe
sandstones that grade into distal fan and basin floor deposits.
Between-well-scale facies variability resulting from typical
submarine fan depositional processes coupled with tectonic
instability produced a highly heterogeneous reservoir system
in this field. However, net sand and facies architectural
mapping provide predictability in sand distribution and this
predictability has allowed us to select the prime locations for

implementation of a waterflood pilot. Net sand and facies

maps indicate favorable sand content and facies at several
levels at this platform.
Petrographic analyses indicate the Chicontepec sands
are lithologically immature litharenites consisting of quartz
grains, abundant carbonate fragments, and granitic fragments.
Because of the abundance of carbonate in the system, the
sediments are highly cemented by ferroan calcite and ferroan
dolomite, in addition to quartz overgrowths. The abundance
of cements is the primary control on reservoir quality as
cementation decreases porosity increases 2. Interestingly, the
sands are clean or clay deficient sands with only 1 percent
clay. However, those clays contain smectite, a swelling clay,
and in injectivity tests the swelling of the smectite in reaction
to injection of artificial brine resulted in a 40-80% loss of
permeability 3. Injection of fresh water resulted in a similar
loss of permeability (70%). Injection of KCL-bearing water
(5%) was non-damaging. As a result of these analyses it is
clear the injected water will require treatment and the addition
of an inhibitor.
Despite this intense diagenetic overprint, depositional
facies exert a strong control on reservoir quality. Conventional
core data from several wells completed at a deep zone within
this field were used to cross compare the relation between
facies and porosity and permeability. Cores intersected four
different facies types in this sand. These were: channel, lobe,
distal lobe and interlobe (or condensed section). Figure 2
shows the data fall into two populations, the distal facies
(distal lobe and interlobe deposits) and more proximal facies
(channel and their associated lobes). Maximum values of
porosity and permeability are substantially higher in the
proximal facies.
To identify areas of superior reservoir quality and to
avoid the effects of poor reservoir quality we constructed
maps of average porosity and permeability calculated from
well logs for the key potential waterflood reservoirs. These
maps showed a direct relationship to net sand trends for that
reservoir. By combining information from the net sand and
facies maps with the maps of petrophysical properties the
direction of flow of the injected fluids becomes predictable.
Natural Fractures
The Chicontepec has been cored in numerous wells across the
basin and many of these cores display vertical and sub-vertical
natural fractures. Fractures are open and partially cemented
with calcite (Figure 3a) or are oil stained (Figure 3b). Outcrop
exposures of the Chicontepec bedding planes display a
network of intersecting systematic and non-systematic
fractures (Figure 4a). The principal or systematic fractures are
fairly evenly spaced and show strike slip motion, and
subsequently offset the connectivity of the non-systematic
fractures. Microseismic analysis undertaken in the field
during drilling has shown that the systematic fractures have a
11
northeasterly orientation (Figure 4b). Lesser microseismic
events with a northwest orientation capture the effects of the
non-systematic fractures.
Selection of Candidate Wells for Injection
On the basis of this integrated study we have selected
geologically optimum locations for injection wells in each of

SPE 92077

the major reservoirs to be considered for waterflood

deployment. The geological basis for the selection of these
candidate injection wells was:
Optimum sand thickness
Minimized facies heterogeneity
Good resistivity indicating good saturation
Distance from faults
Moderate-to-good primary production (as an
indicator of optimum reservoir quality)
Engineering considerations in the selection or pilot injection
wells included:

Mechanical status of the wells

Perforations and productions history
Cumulative oil productions
Reservoir heterogeneity and continuity
Reservoir physical properties as defined from well
tests.

Water injection Pilot Test

In order to test the feasibility of conducting water injection
projects in complex reservoirs such as those located in the
Chicontepec system, a short-term pilot injection test was
carried out in a selected area of one reservoir from the
Chicontepec submarine fan system. This pilot water injection
area was basically an incomplete inverted seven-spot pattern;
it was composed of 4 producer wells (wells B, C, D, and E),
and one injector (well A). It was implemented to test the
reservoir response to water injection in two sand bodies that
will be denoted as S1 and S2. The pilot was located in a
channel complex in one of the reservoirs and in submarine fan
lobe facies of the second reservoir. Total sand thickness was
between 128 to 253 ft, while depth to the top of shallower
sand body was between 4675 to 5022 ft. Figure 5 shows a
sketch of well distribution within the pilot 4. Table 1 shows
distances and calculated areas between injector and offset
wells. This pattern is not confined.
Initial conditions of this field were slightly
undersaturated oil with a reservoir pressure of 3195 psig (225
kg/cm2) and a formation volume factor of 1.1621 bbl/STB.
Reservoir temperature is 158F (70C). At the time the pilot
was conducted, there were 77 wells drilled at the field; 65 of
them were under gas-lift. Field oil production at this time was
2,400 BOPD. Figure 6 shows monthly oil, gas and water
production from this field. The pilot test was conducted from
March 6, 1999 through March 31, 2000. Partial results of this
short-term pilot test were reported earlier in reference 5.
Well Testing Program during the Pilot Test
A multiple rate injection test was carried out at the beginning
of water injection 4,5. Six different increasing flow rates were
injected at well A during this test, ranging from 240 to 4000
bbl/day, with a final stable injection rate of 2600 bbl/day. It
should be mentioned that a mixture of separated produced
water coming from several fields in the area, with a minimum
treatment, was used as injection water. Pressure fall-off tests
were carried out at the end of each one of the injection periods
in order to estimate any possible formation permeability

SPE 92077

change due to the water injected. An interference test between

the injector (well A) and two producers (wells B and C) was
conducted at the end of the pilot test to calculate main
reservoir properties within the pilot area. Figure 7 shows the
observed pressure response at the offset wells.
Tracer Tests Conducted at the Pilot Area
A tracer injection program was carried out from the beginning
of injection. Three chemical tracers and one radioactive tracer
were injected during the test. The injected chemical tracers
were fluorinated benzoic acid tracers (FBA) with low
detection limits (down to 50 ppt). Chemical tracers were
injected at different stages of the multiple-rate injection test,
as small slugs, with the main objective of sensing the presence
of pressure sensitive natural fractures within S1 and S2
formations. It should be mentioned that chemical tracers were
injected as short volume slugs, while the radioactive tracer
was injected as a continuous stream. As mentioned before,
main objectives of this tracer program were to investigate the
presence of pressure sensitive natural fractures within S1
and S2, as well as the presence of reservoir heterogeneities in
these formations that could adversely affect injected water
sweep, such as potential flow barriers, flow trends and
potential water channeling problems.
None of the FBA tracers were detected in early
produced water samples; this was taken as an indication that
no major natural fracturing connecting the injector with the
offset wells was evident in the S1 and S2 intervals of the Pilot
Area. However, as it was mentioned before in this paper, the
presence of natural fractures has been observed from both core
analyses and well tests conducted in several fields from the
Chicontepec Channel 9,10. Chemical tracers were only detected
at wells B and C. Observed response from chemical tracers is
shown in Table 2 and Figures 8 and 9.
A beta emitter- low energy level radioactive, water
phase tracer (tritiated water, HTO), with low detection limits
(around 1 pCi/ml) was injected at the final step of the multiple
rate test, once the injection flow rate was maintained at a
nearly constant level 5,6,7. The main objective of this tracer was
to evaluate the presence of reservoir heterogeneities, such as
flow trends, barriers and potential channeling problems (not
related to natural fractures). Table 3 shows the breakthrough
times of the HTO tracer at the offset wells.
As it can be seen from Figure 10, HTO tracer arrived
at all four offset producing wells. Breakthrough times ranges
from 77 to 238 days after injection. It can be seen from Tables
2 and 3, that the length of time to initial tracer breakthrough at
all four offset wells indicates no significant channeling
occurred during the pilot test. After breakthrough, HTO
production was continuous from the four offset observation
wells (Figure 10), indicating uniform movement of the
injected water through the producing formation.
Unfortunately, sampling was interrupted before complete
tracer profiles could be established at all observation wells,
since at the end of the sample collection period tracers were
still arriving at three of the four offset producing wells. Tracer
mass balance calculations suggests that the observed tracer
response represents fluid movement through only a limited
reservoir volume, which could correspond to a one or a few
thin high permeability layer(s) in the reservoir 4,6.

Arrival times of the HTO tracer to the four offset

wells (Table 3), suggests that movement of the injected water
from the injector occurs in a generally radial pattern. Taking
into consideration this flow pattern, an index can be
calculated, as the ratio of the distance from the injector to the
time it takes the tracer front to arrive at a given observation
well (called apparent superficial velocity, vsapp). As shown
in Table 5, it appears to be a higher effective reservoir
permeability in a northern direction from the injector, since
vsapp calculated values are higher in this direction (4.16 and
4.27 m/day towards wells C and B, respectively, compared
with 1.52 and 2.24 m/day towards wells D and E,
respectively).
As it can be seen from Table 5, calculated fluid flow
apparent velocities from tracer response at two of the offset
wells are lower than the highest velocity direction by a factor
of 2 to 3. This is a clear indication of strong variations of
formation permeability in different directions within the pilot
area. It should be mentioned that results obtained from tracer
testing, agreed well with fluid flow directions inferred from
net sand trends correlations and log facies maps developed for
the formations within the tested area, as well as for other sand
bodies from the reservoir. These correlations show that sand
distributions within the sand bodies tested in the pilot, were
affected by depositional as well as erosional processes. Sand
bodies show bifurcations and pinch outs typical of
channel/lobe systems. For the pilot area, it was observed that
sand continuity and reservoir rock quality are good in a
northern direction from the injector, decreasing in east and
southeast directions, which as mentioned before agrees with
the results obtained from the observed tracer response. Further
discussion on reservoir facies is provided elsewhere in this
paper.
As can be seen from Table 4 and Figures 8 through
10, breakthrough times and times of arrival of peak tracer
concentration at observation well B are not the same for
different tracers. It is observed that breakthrough of tracers at
this observation well followed an inverse order from that at
which they were injected; HTO tracer (the last one injected)
arrived first, followed by the third in injection order, then the
second one injected, and at last, the first injected tracer
(FBA1). This is an indication that different flow paths through
the reservoir were available for each one of the tracers at the
time they were injected. A behavior similar to the one
previously described, in which the latest injected tracer arrived
faster at observation wells than the first one injected, has been
reported for tracer tests conducted at Ekofisk 7.
Since the main variables that have changed at reservoir
conditions at times when the different tracers were flowing
through the producing formations were pressure and fluid
distributions through the reservoir, it is believed that rockfluid interactions (such as imbibition), as well as local pore
geometry conditions (such as pore size and pore throat
distributions), and wide variations in petrophysical properties
between adjacent layers, among other possible factors, have
produced the apparent effect of decreasing breakthrough times
as tracers were injected at times when cumulative water
injected volumes were higher. This hypothesis requires
confirmation through laboratory experiments, using rock and
fluids samples from the reservoir, conducted at reservoir

SPE 92077

conditions. It is appropriate to mention that available

wettability measurements performed on cores from different
parts of the field suggest that rock wettability from this
formation could vary from slightly oil wet to neutral
wettability 8.
Response to water injection
As a clear response to water injection, reservoir pressure
increases and modest gas/oil ratios decrements were measured
at the offset wells; however, no clear increments in oil flow
rates were detected at the end of the pilot test. It is believed
that this may be due to the short duration of the test. Bottomhole flowing pressure at well B changed from 720 psig at the
beginning of injection to 975 psig at the end of the test; while
at well C it varied from 426 to 720 psig. At the injector well
A, bottom hole pressure changed from 1800 psig at the
beginning to a shut in pressure of 3601 psig at the end of the
test. Table 6 shows the cumulative volumes of water injected
at breakthrough of the displacement front in the offset wells,
as well as calculated swept areas, and reservoir mean
properties at the pilot area. Figure 11 shows calculated
water/oil displacement fronts at breakthrough in the offset
wells. Since the pilot area was a non-confined, incomplete
inverted 7 spot pattern, a portion of injected water migrated
outside of the pilot area. It is estimated that at the time of
water breakthrough in well B, about 1.5 % of injected water
migrated outside the pilot area, afterwards increasing with
time, until it reached an estimated 53 % of total volume of
injected water by the time of water breakthrough at well E.
It should be mentioned that from the results obtained
from the short-term pilot water injection test, preliminary
indications seem to indicate that some of the offset producers
were just beginning to show increase in reservoir pressure and
oil production at the time water injection was stopped.
Therefore, it is concluded that numerous Chicontepec
reservoir sandstones should benefit from a several pattern,
long-term water injection program.
Conclusions
Based upon the information provided in this paper, the
following conclusions can be established.
Reservoirs of the Chicontepec are vertically and
laterally heterogenous and are naturally fractured.
Integrated characterization of this complex submarine
fan system facilitated the identification of optimum
locations for a pilot waterflood test.
As a result of the characterization program, the pilot
test was located in high quality reservoir facies
wherein the impact of the pervasive heterogeneity
was minimized.
The feasibility of conducting water injection projects
in the Chicontepec system has been established,
provided that a careful selection process is
undertaken, following the guidelines provided in this
paper.
A separated water mixture from several fields can be
used as source water for injection at this field,
provided a proper chemical treatment is design to

avoid clay swelling and incompatibility problems

with formation connate water.
Tracer breakthrough at all four offset wells indicates
no significant channeling occurred during the pilot
test. After breakthrough, HTO production was
continuous from the four offset observation wells,
indicating uniform movement of the injected water
through the producing formation.
Tracer mass balance calculations suggests that the
observed tracer response represents fluid movement
through only a limited reservoir volume
Tracer response at offset wells suggests the existence
of higher effective reservoir permeability in a
northern direction, up the channel, from the injector.
It was observed that sand continuity and reservoir
rock quality for the pilot area are good in a northern
direction from the injector, decreasing in east and
southeast directions, which as mentioned before
agrees with the results obtained from the observed
tracer response.
Length of the pilot waterflood test was too short,
since preliminary indications seem to indicate that
some of the offset producers were just beginning to
show increase in reservoir pressure and oil
production at the time water injection was stopped.
On the other hand, tracers were still arriving at three
of the four offset producing wells at the end of the
sample collection period.
From the results obtained from the pilot test, it is
believed that numerous reservoir sandstones should
benefit from the long-term water injection program.

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the authorities of Pemex
Exploration and Production for permission to publish the data
presented in this paper. Special recognition goes to the Pemex
engineering and geologic teams working on the Chicontepec
Project for their collaboration.
References
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Busch, D.A. and Govela, A., 1978, Stratigraphy and structure

of Chicontepec turbidites, southeastern Tampico-Misantla
Basin, Mexico; American Association of Petroleum Geologists
Bulletin, v.62, No. 2, 235-246.
Japan National Oil Corporation (JNOC), Technology Research
Center and PEMEX Exploracin y Produccin, 2001,
Geostatistical Modeling of Chicontepec Reservoir: Agua Fria,
Coapechaca and Tajin Areas, unpublished report.
Davies and Associates, 1996, Formation damage study, AGUA
FRIA NO. 801, AGUA FRIA NO. 836 and ANTARES NO. 1
wells, Agua Fria Field, Chicontepec Basin, Mexico,
unpublished report.
Informe Final de la Prueba Piloto del Campo Agua Fra,
Internal Report, PEMEX Exploracin Produccin, Regin
Norte, Proyecto Chicontepec, (2000)
Rodriguez D., M.: Prueba Piloto y Perspectivas de Inyeccin de
Agua Congenita en el Campo Agua Fria, Ingenieria Petrolera,
Vol. XLI No. 10, (Oct., 2001).
Interwell Tracer Program Initial Summary Report Agua Fria
Field, Prueba Waterflood Pilot Area, ProTechnics, March,
2000.

SPE 92077

7.

8.

Skilbrei, O. B., Hallenbeck, J. E., y Sylte, J. E.: Comparison

and Analysis of Radioactive Tracer Injection Response with
Chemical Water Analysis into the Ekofisk Formation Pilot
Waterflood, Paper SPE 20776, presented at the 65th
Conferencia Tcnica y Exhibicin Annual de la SPE, New
Orleans, LA, (Sept, 1990).
Rivera, R., J.: Mojabilidad de las rocas de Tajin y Agua Fria,
Internal Report, Chicontepec Project, Pemex, Exploracion
Produccion, (Nov., 2003).

9.

Caracterizacin Esttica-Dinmica, Ingeniera de PozosYacimientos, y Simulacin Numrica de Campos de

Chicontepec, COMESA/PEP Internal Report (2002).
10. Actualizacin del Modelo Geolgico e Ingeniera de
Yacimientos, Campo Soledad-Soledad Norte, COMESA/PEP
Internal Report (2003).
11. Monitoreo Microsismico de Fracturas Hidrulicas en el Campo
Chicontepec, Createch/PEP Internal Report (2003).

Figure 1. Stratigraphic architecture in a field of the south-central Chicontepec reservoir fan system, showing the interaction
between tectonism and sedimentation.

Figure 2. Relation between facies attributes and reservoir quality, Chicontepec reservoir fan system.

SPE 92077

Figure 3. Partially calcite-cemented (A) and oil stained (B) natural fractures are common in cored Chicontepec sandstones.

Figure 4. Chicontepec sandstones displaying a complex network of systematic and non-system natural fractures in outcrop
(courtesy of Francisco Espinosa, Pemex E&P) and subsurface core orientations, as determined from microseismic
tests 10 (inset).

Figure 5. Distribution of production and injection wells within the pilot area.

SPE 92077

32.8

Oil recovery(%)

32.6
32.4
32.2
32
Fd=50
Fd=35
Fd=25
Fd=15
Fd=5

31.8
31.6
31.4
31.2
0

0.1

0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Penetration rate of fracture

0.6

Figure 6. Monthly oil, water and gas production.

Figure 7. Observed pressure response at observation wells B and C from shut-in of injector well A

SPE 92077

Figure 8. Concentration profiles of chemical tracers captured at observation well B 4,6.

Figure 9. Concentration profiles of chemical tracers captured at observation well C4,6.

SPE 92077

Figure 10. Concentration profiles of the tritiated water tracer captured at the four offset wells 4,6.

10

SPE 92077

Well C
Well B

Well A
Well D

Well F

B reakthrough B and C wells

Breakthrough wells B
and
W el
ls C
breakthrough wellD
B reakthrough wellE

Well E

R eservoirlim it

Figure 11. Calculated swept areas at breakthrough at the offset wells.

SPE 92077

11

Observation

Distance from

Calculated area,

well

injector, ft (m)

acres

1,175 (360)

12.3

1,250 (381)

12.5

1,483 (452)

13.2

1,840 (561)

13.6

Table 1. Distances and calculated areas between injector and offset wells at the pilot.

Observation

Tracers

Breakthrough

well

detected

time, days

FBA1

162

FBA2

139

FBA3

117

FBA2

139

FBA3

117

None

----

None

----

Table 2. Chemical tracers breakthrough time at the producer wells 5 .

Observation

Breakthrough

Distance from

well

time,days

injector, ft (m)

77

1,175 (360)

77

1,250 (381)

144

1,483 (452)

238

1,840 (561)

Table 3. HTO radioactive tracer breakthrough times at the four offset wells 5 .

12

SPE 92077

Time elapsed

Time of arrival of

Tracer peak

Length of

since beginning

tracer peak

concentration,

tracer pulse,

of tracer

Breakthrough

concentration,

injection, days

Time, days

days

Tracer

days
(FBA) ppb
(HTO) pCi/ml

FBA1

162

167

FBA2

16

139

144

20

14

FBA3

38

117

126

30

14

25

203*

2 peaks

Tritiated
74

Water

77

84 and 168

(HTO)

* Incomplete tracer profile. Sampling was ended before reaching cero tracer concentration in samples.
Table 4. Main characteristics of tracers captured by observation well B. Distance to injector: 1079 ft (329 m).

Observation

Apparent superficial velocities for chemical (FBA), and radioactive

wells

(HTO) tracers, m/d

FBA1

FBA2

FBA3

HTO

2.06

2.40

2.83

4.27

ND*

2.33

2.78

4.16

ND*

ND*

ND*

2.24

ND*

ND*

ND*

1.52

* ND= Tracer was not detected

Table 5. Calculated apparent superficial velocities based upon breakthrough times and distance to injector from the
four offset wells, for radioactive (HTO) and chemical (FBA) tracers.

Offset

Average

well

Thickness,

k, (md)

Cumulative water

Calculated swept

kh,

injected at

area at

(md-m)

breakthrough, STB

breakthrough, m2

137.8

1.2

50.4

298,207

35,472

157.4

1.4

67.2

309,047

36,401

131.2

3.5

140.0

596,338

39,373

116.4

3.2

113.6

389,447

38,180

Table 6. Cumulative water injected at breakthrough and calculated swept area of the displacement front at offset
well, and reservoir mean properties at the pilot area 5.