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1808 Dalton published A New System of Chemical Philosophy; his theory of atoms
1. Each element is made up of tiny particles called atoms
2. The atoms of a given element are identical; the atoms of different elements are different in some
fundamental way(s)
3. Chemical compounds are formed when atoms combine with each other. A given compound always
has the same relative numbers and types of atoms.
4. Chemical reactions involve reorganization of the atoms-changes in the way they are bound
together. The atoms themselves are not changed in a chemical reaction.
Assumed nature would be as simple as possible
Formula for water OH; H mass of 1, O mass of 8
First table of atomic masses (many of Daltons masses were later proved wrong)
Joseph Gay-Lussac (1778-1850; French) experimentally found key to determining absolute formulas
1809 measured volumes of gasses (under same temperature and pressure conditions) that reacted with
each other.
Found that 2 volumes of H react w/ 1 volume of O to form 2 volumes of gaseous water
Amedeo Avogadro (1776-1856; Italian) hypothesized how to find absolute formulas
Avogadros Hypothesis: (1811) at the same temperature and pressure, equal volumes of different
gasses contain the same number of particles.
Under these conditions, volume of gas is determined by number of molecules present, not by
the size of the individual particles.
Gaseous hydrogen, oxygen and chlorine are all composed of diatomic (2 atom) molecules H2,
O2, and Cl2
Other chemists didnt believe elements could attract each other to form molecules.
Lacked a standard; in one textbook there were 19 different formulas for acetic acid
2.4 Cannizzaros Interpretation
1. Compounds contained whole numbers of atoms as Dalton postulated.
2. Avogadros hypothesis was correct-equal volumes of gasses under the same conditions contain the
same number of molecules.
Arbitrarily assigned the relative molecular mass of H2 to be 2, then set out to assign other masses
Mass of 1.0 L O2 = 16 = 32
Mass of 1.0 L H2 1
2
Since both contain 2 atoms, the relative atomic masses for H2 and O2 are 1 and 16
Consistency of large quantities of information convinced everyone he was correct; approx. values
2.5 Early Experiments to Characterize the Atom
The Electron
J.J. Thomson (1856-1940; English) studied electrical discharges in partially evacuated tubes
Cathode Ray Tubes
When high voltage was applied to the tube a cathode ray (from -, or cathode) was produced
Produced at negative side and repelled b negative pole of an applied electric field, postulated that
ray was a stream of negatively charged particles now called electrons.
Charge to mass ratio e/m= -1.76 x108 C/g
All atoms must contain electrons since electrons could be produced from electrodes made of various
types of metals
All atoms must contain some positive charge since atoms were known to be electrically neutral
Plumb Pudding Model: an atom consisted of a diffuse cloud of positive charge with negative
electrons embedded randomly in it.
1909 Robert Millikan did oil drop experiments and calculated mass of an electron as 9.11x10-31 Kg
Radioactivity
1896 image of a piece of mineral w/ uranium in it could be produced on photographic plate in the
absence of light; Marie Curie called this radioactivity.
Three types:
1. Gamma ray: high-energy light.
2. Beta particles: high-speed electron
3. Alpha particles: 2+ charge (twice an electron; opposite charge; mass 7300 times greater).
The Nuclear Atom
1911 Earnest Rutherford carried out experiment to test plum pudding model
Directed alpha particles at a thin sheet of metal foil.
Most went through; many deflected at large angles; some were reflected
Plum pudding model incorrect
Results meant there was a center of concentrated positive charge that contains most of atoms mass
Most passed through because atom is mostly open space
Nuclear atom: atom w/ a dense center of positive charge (nucleus) w/ electrons moving around the
nucleus at a distance that is large relative to the nuclear radius.
2.6 The Modern view of Atomic Structure: An Introduction
Atom has a nucleus w/ a diameter of 10-13 cm; electrons move about it at an average distance of 10-8 cm
Nucleus contains protons positive charge equal in magnitude to electrons negative charge
Neutrons have same mass as protons (1.67x10-27 kg), but no charge
Nucleus has high density and accounts or almost all of the atoms mass
A
X
A = Mass number (total of protons and neutrons)
Z
Z= Atomic number (protons)
X= Element
Isotopes: atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons
2.7 Molecules and Ions
Electrons are what participate in bonding
Chemical Bonds: forces that hold atoms together in compounds.
Covalent Bonds: forms bonds by sharing electrons
Resulting collection of atoms is called a molecule.
Examples: H2, H20, O2, NH3, CH4
Ways molecules can be represented:
Chemical formula: (simplest) the symbols of the elements are used to indicate the types of atoms
present, and subscripts are used to indicate the relative numbers of atoms.
Structural formula: individual bonds are indicated by lines; may or may not indicate shape.
Space-filling model: shows the relative sizes of atoms and relative orientation in the molecule.
Ball-and-stick model: 3D model
Ion: atom or group of atoms that has a net positive or negative charge.
Ex: Table salt/Sodium Chloride
Na Na+ +eCl + e- ClCation: positive ion.
Anion: ion with a negative charge.
Ionic Bonds: force of attraction between oppositely charged ions.
Ionic Solid/Salt: a solid consisting of oppositely charge ions.
2.8: An Introduction to the Periodic Table
4. The prefix mono- is never used for naming the first element.
Compound
Systematic Name
Common Name
N2O
dinitrogen monoxide nitrous oxide
NO
nitrogen monoxide nitric oxide
NO2
nitrogen dioxide
N2O5
dinitrogen pentoxide
Formulas From Names
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2
Ca2+, OHAcids
Certain molecules that when dissolved in water, produce a solution containing free H+ ions (protons)
If the anion does not contain oxygen, the acid is named with the prefix hydro- and suffix ic
If the anion does contain oxygen, the acid named is fomed from the ron name of the anion with a suffix
of ic, or ous
If the anion name ends in ate, the acid name ends with ic (or sometimes) ric.
Ex. H2SO4 contains the sulfate anion (SO4 2-) so its called sulfuric acid
If the anion has an ite ending, the acid name ends with ous
Ex. HNO2 which contains (NO2)- is named nitrous acid
Acid
Anion
Name
HClO4
Perchlorate Perchloric acid
HClO3
Chlorate
Chloric acid
HClO2
Chlorite
Chlorous acid
HClO
Hypochlorite Hypochlorous acid