Task 2

This task involves using laboratory equipment to carry out one destructive and one nondestructive test on a metal and a non-metal. The type of tests carried out will depend on
the equipment that you have to hand.

1) Destructive test: Tensile Test

Set up the equipment and take a photograph of it.

 Carry out the test and make a record of results taken and
observations made.
In following graph X-axis is the stress value and Y-axis are the strain value.

Put together the results so that you have a permanent record that
can be used for future analysis
Area = 7.065 Sq.mm
Length = 30.00 mm
S.N
Load

Displacement

Stress
Kn/mm2

Strain

Youngs
Modulus

0.11

0.06

5.2 x 10-03

1.66 x 10-03

3.13 x 10-06

0.13

0.06

6.57 x 10-03

2 x 10-03

3.28 x 10-06

2.33 x 10-03

3.38 x 10-06

3
0.14
0.07
7.89 x 10-03
Average Youngs modulus = E1 + E2 + E3 / 3
Answer = 3.26 x 10-06

Make a transcript of any discussion you may have had with your tutor
about conducting the test.
I talked to my tutor and asked that what is Elastic Deformation?
My tutor replied: The Engineered structures and components are subjected to
various loads and displacements during service. When the applied forces (or
displacements) are relatively low, unloading causes the structure to return to its original
size and shape. This type of mechanical response is described as elastic (elastic
deformation).

2) Non-Destructive test: Dye Penetrant Inspection

Set up the equipment and take a photograph of it.

Carry out the test and make a record of results taken and observations
made
Below are the main steps of Liquid Penetrant Inspection:
1) Pre-cleaning:
2) Application of Penetrant:
3) Excess Penetrant Removal:
4) Application of Developer:
5) Inspection:
6) Post Cleaning:

Put together the results so that you have a permanent record that can
be used for future analysis
Dye Penetrant Inspection - Typical Minimum Penetration Times
Material

Form

Type of Discontinuity

Water-Washable Penetration Time*

Aluminium

Castings

Porosity, Cold Shuts

5 to 15 min

Aluminium

Extrusions, Forgings

Laps

NR**

Aluminium

Welds

Lack of Fusion, Porosity

30

Aluminium

All

Cracks, Fatigue Cracks

30, not recommended for fatigue crack

Magnesium

Castings

Porosity, Cold Shuts

15

Magnesium

Extrusions, Forgings

Laps

not recommended

Magnesium

Welds

Lack of Fusion, Porosity

30

Magnesium

All

Cracks, Fatigue Cracks

30, not recommended for fatigue crack

Steel

Castings

Porosity, Cold Shuts

30

http://www.i/nspection-for-industry.com/dye-penetrant inspection.html#sthash.ZHXwjF8a.dpuf
(Accessed: 8/12/14)

Make a transcript of any discussion you may have had with your tutor
about conducting the test.
I talked to my tutor and asked that What are advantages and disadvantages of Dye
penetrant inspection?
My tutor replied: The main advantages of DPI (Dye Penetrate Inspection) are the
speed of the test and the low cost. Disadvantages include the detection of only surface
flaws, skin irritation, and the inspection should be on a smooth clean surface where
excessive penetrant can be removed prior to being developed. Conducting the test on
rough surfaces, such-as "as-welded" welds, will make it difficult to remove any
excessive penetrant and could result in false indications. Water-washable penetrant
should be considered here if no other option is available. Also, on certain surfaces a
great enough color contrast cannot be achieved or the dye will stain the work piece.

Task 3
Describe a different process of degradation associated with
each of metals, polymers and ceramics
Metal Oxidation process:
According to encylopeadia.com: Oxidation is one of the main constituents in the
atmosphere at low earth orbit. The atomic oxygen oxidation of metals has been the
topic of several studies.
The relatively high capture efficiency for atomic oxygen of silver makes it a suitable
detector for direct measurements in the upper atmosphere. These detectors depend on
the formation of silver-oxide and an increase in the resistance is observed. Although the
formation of A90 is essential in this practice, its effect on silver when used for example
as a structural or electrical item is undesirable, since it results in losses in both electrical
conductivity and mechanical strength. The major use of silver, exposed in the LEO
environment, is as interconnector material in solar arrays. These interconnectors serve
as the conductive path between cells forming the array.

As a result of the differences in thermal expansion coefficients of the several components

of the solar array, high stresses are found in the interconnectors. If the performance of
these interconnectors deteriorate by some action, loss of electrical power is observed. In
this investigation the effect of LEO exposure on silver was examined and several different
coatings were applied to the silver to examine their protective effect, also an alternative
interconnector material was tested.

Polymer ageing process:

According to encyclopeadia.com: The irreversible change in the properties of polymers
under the action of, among other factors, heat, oxygen, sunlight, ozone, and ionizing
radiation. Depending on the factor, the aging will be of the thermal, oxidative, light, ozone,
or radiation type. Aging occurs during the storage and treatment of polymers, as well as
during the storage and use of articles made from polymers. Under actual conditions,
several factors act on polymers concurrently; for example, in atmospheric aging, oxygen,
light, ozone, and moisture all affect the polymer. An important factor accelerating aging
is mechanical stress that develops during the treatment of polymers and under certain
operating conditions of polymer articles.
Aging is caused by chemical transformations of macromolecules, which lead to the
degradation of the macromolecules and the formation of branched or three-dimensional
structures (cross-linking). There are various mechanisms of aging. For example,
degradation in oxidative aging is related to a chain oxidation reaction of the polymer
accompanied by the formation and decomposition of hydro peroxides. The rate of aging
depends on the sensitivity of the polymer to the factors mentioned above, on the intensity
of these factors, and on the composition of the polymer material. Carbon-chain polymers
whose macromolecules contain unsaturated bonds, in particular, certain rubbers (natural
rubber, synthetic isoprene rubbers), are most susceptible to aging.

Aging manifests itself in a deterioration of the mechanical characteristics of polymers, in

the appearance and growth of cracks on the surface that sometimes result in destruction
of the polymer, and in a change in color. The resistance of polymers to aging in many
cases determines the storage period and, sometimes, the service life of polymer articles.
Stabilization is an effective method for preventing aging in polymers.

Ceramic thermal shocking process:

According to www.its-inc.com: Conventional ceramics, including bricks and tiles, are well
known for their ability to withstand high temperatures. Nonetheless, Fine Ceramics (also
known as advanced ceramics) are more heat resistant than these materials by far. While
aluminum begins to melt at approximately 660oC (approx. 1,220oF), alumina Fine
Ceramics only begin to melt or decompose at temperatures above 2,000oC (approx.
3,632oF).The heat resistant properties of Fine Ceramics are measured by the
temperatures at which they begin to melt, and by their levels of thermal shock resistance.

http://its-inc.com/upload/Photos/Service/Coatings/FCT%20Blade%20at%20Temp.jpg
(Accessed: 8/12/14)
Thermal shock resistance refers to a material's ability to withstand rapid changes in
temperature. Silicon nitride, a particularly heat tolerant material, displays superior
resistance to thermal shock, as tested by heating the material to 550oC (1,022oF) and
then rapidly cooling it by dropping it into water. Silicon nitride is thus suitable for
applications involving extreme temperature variations, and in high-temperature industries
such as metal manufacturing and energy generation.

Task 4
This task builds on Task 2 you now need to explain how test procedures
produce results of use to an engineer. Think about what sort of information
they will want if they are going to use the results of the tests to inform the
design of a product, e.g. in the case of a tensile test, the final breaking load
is only one of at least five other pieces of data that can found if the test
procedure is correct. Write an explanation (about 500 words) of how one
destructive and one non-destructive test procedure can be carried out so that
they produce results that are useful to an engineer.
Non-destructive Test: DPI (Dye Penetrant Inspection)
According to ndt-ed.org: The principle of DPI is DPI is based upon capillary action, where
surface tension fluid low penetrates into clean and dry surface-breaking discontinuities.
Penetrant may be applied to the test component by dipping, spraying, or brushing. After
adequate penetration time has been allowed, the excess penetrant is removed and a
developer is applied. The developer helps to draw penetrant out of the flaw so that an
invisible indication becomes visible to the inspector. Inspection is performed under
ultraviolet or white light, depending on the type of dye used - fluorescent or nonfluorescent (visible).

Evaluation for DPI:

Test objects are coated with visible or fluorescent dye solution. Excess dye is then
removed from the surface, and a developer is applied. The developer acts as blotter,
drawing trapped penetrant out of imperfections open to the surface. With visible dyes,
vivid color contrasts between the penetrant and developer make "bleed out" easy to see.
With fluorescent dyes, ultraviolet light is used to make the bleed out fluoresce brightly,
thus allowing imperfections to be readily seen.

Destructive test: Tensile Test

Procedure:
The following procedure should be adopted in ensuring that the data recorded from tensile
test specimens will be taken in an organized and consistent manner.
1. Choose specimen. Care is to be taken to ensure that the specimens did not have any
notching or cracks from manufacturing or any surface defects that would adversely affect
the tensile tests.
2. Before loading the specimens in the Tensometer, the computer system connected to
the machine should be set up by inputting the necessary information of gauge length and

width of the specimen. The computer system will then be prepared to record data and
output necessary load-deflection graphs.
3. The specimens then be loaded into the Tensometer, and a tensile test will be
performed. The data which will be recorded electronically in text files and the loaddeflection curve will be shown on the computer screen as a visual representation.

Evaluation:
Selection of material is performed by matching its mechanical properties to the required
service conditions. Once the required properties are known, the material selection can be
made. Obtaining the physical properties through an experiment reflective of the
application is one of the key steps that must be done before a selection can be made,
since properties from idealized tests do not necessarily reflect the application
environment of the material.
Tensile tests help characterize the strength, stiffness, and plasticity of a polymer. By
obtaining the stress-strain curve of a polymer the yield strength, necking point, nonlinear
elastic deformation, linear elastic deformation, plastic deformation, and tensile strength
can be identified.
The tested specimens were of an amorphous structure, also known as glassy polymers.
Plastic deformation in amorphous polymers occurs inhomogeneously in two main forms:
crazing, and shear banding.
Crazing consists of narrow zones of highly deformed polymer containing voids. The zones
are oriented perpendicular to the stress axis. In the crazed zone, the molecular chains
get aligned along the stress axis, but are interspersed with voids. The typical craze
thickness in glassy polymers is in the order of 5m or less. Since the lateral surface
contraction associated with the craze is negligible by comparison, the density of the craze
decreases. Generally, crazing occurs in brittle glassy polymers such as the specimens
tested.
Shear bands form at 45 to the largest principle stress. The polymer molecular chains get
oriented within the shear bands without any accompanying change in volume. Shear
yielding can take two forms: diffuse shear yielding and localized shear band formation. In
localized shear, the shear is concentrated in thin planar regions, and the process involves
a cooperative movement of molecular chains, resulting in a band formation of about 45
to the stress axis. Shear yielding is usually the dominant mode of deformation in ductile
amorphous thermoplastics. Since Acrylic and Lexan are brittle amorphous
thermoplastics, shear yielding was not the dominant form of deformation.

Task 5
In Task 3 you described how materials degrade over a period of time. From
the list choose two degradation processes and explain how they affect the
behaviour of engineering materials. Include in your answer reference to
specific materials and give examples of where they are used in service and
how their behaviour is affected by the degradation. Write around 600 words
and include images, diagrams and web links to examples of products that
have suffered as a result of the degradation process.
Oxidation process: How does it affects the engineering materials and how
its properties are affected by degradation process?
To explain oxidation process of engineering materials I have taken an example of iron.
According to physicsforums.com: In oxidation of iron when impure (cast) iron is in
contact with water, oxygen, other strong oxidants, or acids, it rusts. If salt is present, for
example in seawater or salt spray, the iron tends to rust more quickly, as a result of
electrochemical reactions. Iron metal is relatively unaffected by pure water or by dry
oxygen. As with other metals, like aluminium, a tightly adhering oxide coating, a
passivation layer, protects the bulk iron from further oxidation. The conversion of the
passivating ferrous oxide layer to rust results from the combined action of two agents,
usually oxygen and water.
Other degrading solutions are sulphur dioxide in water and carbon dioxide in water.
Under these corrosive conditions, iron hydroxide species are formed. Unlike ferrous
oxides, the hydroxides do not adhere to the bulk metal. As they form and flake off from
the surface, fresh iron is exposed, and the corrosion process continues until either all of
the iron is consumed or all of the oxygen, water, carbon dioxide, or sulfur dioxide in the
system are removed or consumed
When iron rusts, the oxides take up more volume than the original metal; this expansion
can generate enormous forces, damaging structures made with iron.

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Rust_wedge.jpg
Outdoors Rust Wedge display at the Exploratorium shows the enormous expansive
force of rusting iron. (Accessed 8/9/14)

Ageing Process: How does it affects engineering material and how its
properties are affected by degradation process?
To explain Ageing process of engineering materials I have taken an example of polymer.
According to encyclopeadia2.com: The polymer ageing is a irreversible change in the
properties of polymers under the action of, among other factors, heat, oxygen, sunlight,
ozone, and ionizing radiation. Depending on the factor, the aging will be of the thermal,
oxidative, light, ozone, or radiation type. Aging occurs during the storage and treatment
of polymers, as well as during the storage and use of articles made from polymers. Under
actual conditions, several factors act on polymers concurrently; for example, in
atmospheric aging, oxygen, light, ozone, and moisture all affect the polymer. An important
factor accelerating aging is mechanical stress that develops during the treatment of
polymers and under certain operating conditions of polymer articles.

http://biofinagroup./com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/peter1.jpg Degrading Polymer by

ageing. (Accessed: 8/12/14)
Aging is caused by chemical transformations of macromolecules, which lead to the
degradation of the macromolecules and the formation of branched or three-dimensional
structures (cross-linking). There are various mechanisms of aging. For example,
degradation in oxidative aging is related to a chain oxidation reaction of the polymer
accompanied by the formation and decomposition of hydro peroxides. The rate of aging
depends on the sensitivity of the polymer to the factors mentioned above, on the intensity
of these factors, and on the composition of the polymer material. Carbon-chain polymers
whose macromolecules contain unsaturated bonds, in particular, certain rubbers (natural
rubber, synthetic isoprene rubbers), are most susceptible to aging.
Aging manifests itself in a deterioration of the mechanical characteristics of polymers, in
the appearance and growth of cracks on the surface that sometimes result in destruction
of the polymer, and in a change in colour. The resistance of polymers to aging in many
cases determines the storage period and, sometimes, the service life of polymer articles.
Stabilization is an effective method for preventing aging in polymers.

Task 6
This task builds on the work that you carried out for Tasks 2 and 4. Choose
either the destructive test or the non-destructive test and evaluate the
results that that you took. If, for example, you decide to use the results of a
tensile test, and the material investigated was a coded specimen of known
type, you could compare your numerical values with the published ones
and evaluate how accurate your test procedure was. Write around 600
words and include diagrams if appropriate.
Destructive test: Tensile stress, comparing numerical values with Baxial
method and mine Tensometer test:
Following are the numerical readings of Baxial test which are taken from
different style of method:
The plane biaxial test device using cruciform specimens developed at the Free University
of Brussels has four independent servo-hydraulic actuators with an appropriate control
unit to keep the centre of the specimen explicitly still. The device has a capacity of 100
kN in both perpendicular directions, but is restricted to tensile loads. As no cylinders with
hydrostatic bearing were used, failure or slip in one arm of the specimen will result in
sudden radial forces which could seriously damage the servo-hydraulic cylinders and the
load cells. To prevent this, hinges were used to connect the specimen to the load cells
and the servo-hydraulic cylinders to the test frame. Using four hinges for each loading
direction results in an unstable situation in compression and consequently only tension
loads can be performed.

A baxial method of measuring tensile test.

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0020768306002848#gr1 (Accessed
8/12/14)

An extended database of experimental static and fatigue results on beamlike glass fibre
reinforced epoxy specimens with a View the MathML source-lay-up has been set-up
within the framework of a project that deals with the optimisation of the use of composite
materials for wind turbine rotor blades. One of the aims of the project is to investigate the
material behaviour under complex stress states. For the glass fibre reinforced composite
laminate with the mentioned lay-up the average and standard deviation material
parameter results of about 400 traditional beamlike tests are given in table below. No
information about the shear modulus is available for this lay-up. Only for a single lamina,
information exists from off-axis tests and tests on a (+45/45) lay-up. Based on the ply
data, the theoretically expected properties of the laminate can be calculated using
classical laminate theory
.

Following are the numerical readings of tensile test which are taken from
my style of method:

Put together the results so that you have a permanent record that
can be used for future analysis

Area = 7.065 Sq.mm

Length = 30.00 mm
S.N
Load

Displacement

Stress
Kn/mm2

Strain

Youngs
Modulus

0.11

0.06

5.2 x 10-03

1.66 x 10-03

3.13 x 10-06

0.13

0.06

6.57 x 10-03

2 x 10-03

3.28 x 10-06

2.33 x 10-03

3.38 x 10-06

3
0.14
0.07
7.89 x 10-03
Average Youngs modulus = E1 + E2 + E3 / 3
Answer = 3.26 x 10-06

Procedure:
The following procedure should be adopted in ensuring that the data recorded from tensile
test specimens will be taken in an organized and consistent manner.
1. Choose specimen. Care is to be taken to ensure that the specimens did not have any
notching or cracks from manufacturing or any surface defects that would adversely affect
the tensile tests.

2. Before loading the specimens in the Tensometer, the computer system connected to
the machine should be set up by inputting the necessary information of gauge length and
width of the specimen. The computer system will then be prepared to record data and
output necessary load-deflection graphs.
3. The specimens then be loaded into the Tensometer, and a tensile test will be
performed. The data which will be recorded electronically in text files and the loaddeflection curve will be shown on the computer screen as a visual representation.

Evaluation:
Selection of material is performed by matching its mechanical properties to the required
service conditions. Once the required properties are known, the material selection can be
made. Obtaining the physical properties through an experiment reflective of the
application is one of the key steps that must be done before a selection can be made,
since properties from idealized tests do not necessarily reflect the application
environment of the material.
Tensile tests help characterize the strength, stiffness, and plasticity of a polymer. By
obtaining the stress-strain curve of a polymer the yield strength, necking point, nonlinear
elastic deformation, linear elastic deformation, plastic deformation, and tensile strength
can be identified.
The tested specimens were of an amorphous structure, also known as glassy polymers.
Plastic deformation in amorphous polymers occurs inhomogeneously in two main forms:
crazing, and shear banding.
Crazing consists of narrow zones of highly deformed polymer containing voids. The zones
are oriented perpendicular to the stress axis. In the crazed zone, the molecular chains
get aligned along the stress axis, but are interspersed with voids. The typical craze
thickness in glassy polymers is in the order of 5m or less. Since the lateral surface
contraction associated with the craze is negligible by comparison, the density of the craze
decreases. Generally, crazing occurs in brittle glassy polymers such as the specimens
tested.
Shear bands form at 45 to the largest principle stress. The polymer molecular chains get
oriented within the shear bands without any accompanying change in volume. Shear
yielding can take two forms: diffuse shear yielding and localized shear band formation. In
localized shear, the shear is concentrated in thin planar regions, and the process involves
a cooperative movement of molecular chains, resulting in a band formation of about 45
to the stress axis. Shear yielding is usually the dominant mode of deformation in ductile
amorphous thermoplastics. Since Acrylic and Lexan are brittle amorphous
thermoplastics, shear yielding was not the dominant form of deformation.

Reference
http://www.sv.vt.edu/classes/MSE2094_NoteBook/97ClassProj/exper/bailey/www/bailey
.html (Accessed 1/12/14)
http://nptel.ac.in/courses/Webcoursecontents/IIScBANG/Material%20Science/pdf/Lectur
e_Notes/MLN_08.pdf (Accessed: 3/12/14)
http://biofinagroup.com/polymer-degradation-how-it-works/ (Accessed: 8/12/14)
http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Aging+of+Polymers (Accessed: 8/12/14)
https://www.ndeed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/NDTIntro/cc_intro001.h
tm (Accessed: 8/12/14)
http://liquidpenetrant.com/penetrant-inspection-process/ (Accessed: 8/12/14)
http://www.ndt.net/article/0698/hayes/hayes.htm (Accessed: 8/12/14)
http://www.wermac.org/others/ndt_dyepenetrant.html (Accessed: 8/12/14)