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DemocracyAccordingtoTraditionalIslamic
Sources
SHAYKHMUHAMMADHISHAMKABBANI

TheQurnsays:

ObeyAllah,obeytheProphetandobeythoseinauthorityamongyou.[1]
TheprimarysourcesofIslamiclawarethereforethewordsandcommandsofAllahaslaidoutintheQurn,
thesayingsandtraditionsoftheProphet(s)(adth),andtherulingsofpoliticalandreligiousleaders.
TheHolyQurnisthehigheststandardbywhichmancanorderhislife.Assuch,itisamodelonlythe
ProphetofAllahcouldupholdtoitsfullest.Yet,itisstillnotpossiblefortheaverageMuslimtofollowthe
Prophetsexampledirectly.Muslimsthereforerelyontheauthorityoftheirleaderstoguidetheminupholding
theprinciplesoflawlaidoutintheQurnandthetraditions.TheProphet(s)himselfstated,Whoeveris
chosenbythepeopleaftermewillbethecaliph,andyoumustlistentoandobeyhim.[2]Thoseinauthority
includetherulersofthenation,itsreligiousscholarsanditsjudges.

1.1Shura:ConsultationandtheAdaptabilityofIslamicLaw
RuleinIslamisbasedontheconceptofshr,atermwhichhastwomeaningsinIslamicgovernance:
1.Shrisareferendumonwhichthemajorityofpeopleagree,andisthebasicmethodforchoosing
therulerinIslam.Similarly,itisthemeanstoapprovehisdecisions.MuhammadAbZahrin
TheHistoryofIslamicThoughtandLeadershipinPoliticsandBelief,writes:
AlltheMuslims,includingtheShiaandallthedifferentschoolsofthought,[whichatonetime
numberover470]agreedthatleadershipasdefinedbytheProphet,inthesayingIfyouarethree
makeoneyourleadercanonlybeimplementedbyelection.Thatisdoneineverydistrict,(hayy),
atthestatelevel(wilyat)andabovethatbythefederalauthority,(alidraalmarkazyya).
2.Theadvisoryboard(almajlisashshr),whichadvisestheruler,isagroupofelectedexperts.The
taskofsuchgroupsistoobserveandoverseetheruler(murqabatassuln).Theyareinthis
positiontoformanopinionoftherulerandhisrule,andtocontrolanyaspirationshemayhaveto
overridetherightsofthepeople.Theymustbeawareofthevariationsintheserightswithin
ethnic,culturalandenvironmentalnorms.ThissystemislikethatbeingimplementedinAmerica
today,wherewehavethefederalsystem,thestateandlocalgovernments,andmunicipalities.
Thejudicialsystemactstochecktheexecutiveandlegislativebranches,ensuringfairand
correctimplementationoflaw.Wealsohavethefreepress,whichactsasawatchdogoverthe
government,issuingwarningsattheslightestsigntheinterestsofthepeoplearebeingbetrayed.
Everythingthatimpactshumanlifeaccountedforinthelawandfallsunderthejurisdictionoftheruler.Yetthe
rulerhimselfhasnopersonalchoiceinruling,asdocontemporarymonarchs.TheProphet(s)prohibitedthe
ruler,whohasbeenchosenorappointed,tousurpauthorityhedoesnotpossess.Heistiedtothelaw,which
astherulerishisdutytoenforce.Themajlisashshrensuresthathedoesso.
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IntheShariahtherearelawsthatareimmutableornearlyso,similartotheconstitutionalbasisofWestern
democracyandtheUSBillofRights.However,theremainderofthelawisadaptable,changingwith:
1.Thepracticalapplicationoftheimmutablelaw,establishedintheearlierrulingsofjudgesie.caselaw.
2.Societysevolvingneeds.
ItisthejoboftheDralIft,theCenterforLegalRulings,toformthebasisfornewlawsthatwilladdress
innovationsintechnologyandcustom.TheProphet(s)didnotdemandthataparticularrulebeimposedon
newinnovations,butallowedthepeopletodevelopalawasneeded,basedontheprecedentestablishedin
hislifetimeandbyIslamicscholarsinsucceedinggenerations.Theevolutionofthelawwasleftinthecareof
thepeopleforlawsmusttakeintoaccountgeography,environment,ethnicandculturalconsiderations,and
variationsinbeliefandunderstanding.
BaruchSpinozasaid,Everyonevariesintheirviewofindividuallife.Eachpersonhasadifferentopinionon
everymatter,thereforetheimplementationofshr,orelectionbymajority,isessentialintheformationofa
newlawthatwillsuccessfullyandeffectivelygovernthepeople.

1.2DemocraticElectionofLeaders
Fromthebeginning,Islamhasmandateddemocracythroughashr(electedcouncilofleaders),aprocess
throughwhichpeoplesittogether,consultwithoneanother,andselectonepersontorepresentthem.This
processwasrecentlyemployedinAfghanistanwhere,accordingtoafifteencenturyoldtradition,thepeople
chooserepresentativeswhothengatheredtochoosenotonlyaleader,butacabinetandnationalassembly.
TherecentloyajirgathatconfirmedHamidKarzaiaspresidentofAfghanistan,demonstratedonceagainthat
Islamicruleisbasedondemocraticchoice.
AclearexampleofdemocracysroleinIslamismanifestintheProphets(peacebeuponhim)passing
withoutappointingasuccessortoruletheMuslimstate.HeintentionallyleftittotheMuslimstocome
togethertomakethiscrucialdecisionbasedonwhathehadtaughtthem.
TheAzharscholarDr.AbZahrsaid:
TheProphet(s)nevergaveasinglewordorsignindicatingwhohissuccessorwouldbeandinthemeeting
whichtookplacetoelectthecalipha,theCompanionswereinutterdisagreementastowhoshouldsucceed
theProphet,butintheendwereabletochooseAbBakraiddqbytheconsensusofthemajority.[3]
Essentially,therewerethreegroupswhodifferedinwhoshouldsucceedtheProphet:
TheAnr,theProphetssupportersinMadinah,whofelttheleadershipshouldfalltooneamongthemas
theysupportedtheProphet(s)whenheimmigratedfromMecca.
Anothergroup,ledbyAbBakrandUmar,believedthattheimmigrants(Muhjirn)whocamewiththe
Prophet(s)toMadinahshouldlead,becausetheywerethefirsttoenterIslam.
ThethirdgroupcalledonAltolead,duetohisfamilialrelationshipwiththeProphet(s).
Thedisagreementdidnotlastlong,asthroughshrthethreegroupsquicklyreachedtheconsensusthat
AbBakrhadthehighestcredentialstotakethereinsofleadership.Themajorityvotedforhim,andthe
Islamicprecedentforpeacefultransitionbetweenrulerswasintroduced.Oncethemajorityhaddecided,the
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individualcitizensratifiedtheselectionbypledgingtheirallegianceonebyonetothenewheadofstate.
Inelectingacandidatefromamongthethreepartiesvyingforsuccession,thefirst,mostexemplaryMuslims
imprintedtheirstampofreligiousauthenticityontheelectoralsystem.ThefactthattheCompanions(Sahaba)
didnotestablishamonarchyoradictatorshipirrevocablydemonstratesthatleadershipinIslamisthechoice
ofthepeople.
Onceaselectionismadebytheshrcouncil,eachindividualMuslimhastheoptiontoaccepttheirchoiceor
not.Thisisknownastakingapledgeofallegiance(baya).Ifagroupfeelsthechoicewasmadeunjustly,
theymayrefusetoacceptitandformanoppositionparty.Intheendhowever,ajudgeacceptedbyboth
sidesmustmakeafinalarbitrationandchoosebetweenthetwopartiesbasedonthevalidityoftheirclaims.
Theexecutiveaspectofgovernanceisalsoconductedthroughconsultation.Theruler,chosenbytheshr
andconfirmedbythecitizensindividualpledgeofallegiance,isobligedtoconsultonexecutivedecisions.He
thereforeconsultswithacouncil,parliamentoradvisorygroupwhosespecificroleistoadvise.
WhenevertheProphet(s)hadtomakeadecisionthatwouldaffecttheMuslimnationinwholeorpart,he
gatheredhisfollowerstoconductashr.Inoneinstance,beforetheonsetofabattle,oneofthe
companionsaskedtheProphet(s)ifthelocationoftheMuslimcampshouldbechosenthroughDivine
inspirationorconsultation.TheProphet(s)answeredthatitshouldbetheproductofconsultation,and
proceededtofollowthegroupsrecommendationtosettlebesidethenearestwaterwell.
Umar,thesecondcaliph,said,Whoeverischosenbythepeopleaftermewillbethecaliph,andyou
peoplemustlistentohimandobeyhim.[4]UponUmarspassing,theshrchoseUthmn,andafter
Uthmnsassassination,theychoseAl.
WiththeelectionofAltherearoseadispute,andMuawyatookoverthecaliphate.Latertherulewent
tohisson,andthesystemtherebychangedfromdemocracytoamonarchy.Thereafter,theselectionofthe
rulerwasdynasticandremainedsothroughthetimeoftheOttomancaliphs
Muawiyaseparatedthepoliticalandreligioussystems.HoweverheregularlyconsultedwithIbnAbbsand
IbnUmar,whopossessedvastlygreaterknowledge.Thesystemthuschangedintoapoliticalleadership
advisedbyreligiousleaders.

1.3TheConstitutionofMadinah
ThedemocraticelectionofaleaderwasthemodelonwhichthecityofMadinahwasfounded.TheProphet
(s),whileinvitedbyMuslimsfromthatcity,becameitsrulerbythechoiceofallitscitizens,whichincluded
Jewishandpolytheisttribes.Hethendevelopedabindingsocialcontract,apactsignedbyallthetribal
leadersnamingMuhammad(s)astheleader,andestablishinglawsbindingthetribestocooperation,
assistanceindefenseofthecity,andtheprotectionofitsinhabitants.
Itreadsinpart:
TheJewsofBanuAwfareonenationwiththeMuslims.TheJewshavetheirreligionandtheMuslimshavetheirs,
theirfreedmenandtheirpersonsshallbeprotectedexceptthosewhobehaveunjustlyorsinfullyEachmusthelpthe
otheragainstanyonewhoattacksthepeopleofthisdocument.Theirconditionmustbeoneofmutualadvice,
consultationandcharityNomanisliableforacrimecommittedbyhisally.Supportmustbegiventohimwhois
wrongedToeverysmallgroupbelongsthesharewhichistheirdue,asmembersofthelargergroupwhichisparty
tothiscovenant...
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Thisdocument,TheConstitutionofMadinah,establishestheimportanceofconsentandcooperationfor
governanceinIslam.Accordingtothispact,MuslimsandnonMuslimsareequalcitizensoftheIslamicstate,
withidenticalrightsandduties.Communitiesofdifferentreligiousorientationsenjoyreligiousautonomy,
whichisessentiallywiderinscopethanthemodernideaofreligiousfreedom.Theprinciplesofequality,
consensualgovernanceandpluralismarebeautifullyenmeshedinthepactofMadinah.
Sincethen,thislengthydocumenthasprovenanexemplaryhistoricalmodelofabindingsocialpactinwhich
amultireligious,multiculturalsocietywasboundbyonelaw.Notethat,insigningthecontract,thenon
MuslimpartiesdidnotaccepttheProphet(s)astheirreligiousleader,butrathersignedwiththeconviction
thathewouldprovidetheleadershipneededtobuildanidealsociety.Inlatercenturies,thesystemof
governanceinMadinahbecamethebasisoftheidealcity,adetailedmodeldevelopedbyalFrbandlater
scholars.
AtraditioninIslamstates:WhateverthebodyofMuslimscollectivelyseesasgoodisalsoconsideredgood
byAllah,andwhattheyseeasbadisalsoconsideredbadbyAllah.Justasculture,geographyandnatural
circumstancesimpactourneeds,theProphet(s)recognizedtheimportancetodevelopasystemthatwould
beusefulforthattimeorthosecircumstances.Hestated,Majorityopinionisbest.[5]

1.4TheModelCity
Despitethechangeofthesystemofsuccessiontoadynasticmodel,theIslamicsystemofgovernance
establishedbyProphetMuhammad(s)evolvedrapidlyinthefieldsoflaw,economics,industry,agriculture
andreligiousunderstanding.Later,astheUmayyaddynastywassucceededbytheAbbasid,Islamic
theology,philosophyandpoliticaltheoryalsoflourished,culminatinginalFrbsTheModelCity,andlater
inthewritingofNaradDnas.
Dr.AbdulWid,ascholarofIslamichistoryatalAzharUniversity,writes:
AlFrbasanIslamicscholarversedintheQurn,hadithandthepracticeoftheSahaba(companions),and
throughhisextensivestudyofpreviouscivilizationscomposedaformulationofIslamicpoliticaltheoryinaway
thathadneverbeendonebeforehim.[6]
AlFrbdefinedfifteencharacteristicsoftheidealleader:
Excellentunderstandingandtheabilitytoquicklyobserveandgraspwhatheistold.
Possessesthepowertorecollectwhathehears,reads,sensesisnotforgetful.
Highlyintellectualcanunderstandthedirectionofagroupfromwhichanideaisgenerated.
Eloquence,andabilitytoexpresswhatisintheheart.
Passionforeducationandseeksitsbenefitsforallcitizens.
Mustnottireeasilyandbeexceedinglypatient.
Notgreedyforfoodanddrink.
Efficientandeffectiveinaddressingthephysicalneeds.
Aloverofthetruthanditssupportersahateroffalsehoodanditssupporters.
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Quicklyrecognizesduplicitouspeople.
Extremelygenerous,abovestinginess.
Worldlywealthmustnotbeafactorwhetheritispossessedornotshouldbeofnoconcern.
Lovesjusticeandfreedom.
Rejectsoppressorsandoppression.
Firmlydecidesthecoursethatwillbenefitsociety,despiteintenseopposition.

1.5IslamsLegacytotheWest
TheIslamicprecedentofdevelopinglawandgovernanceaccordingtothewillofthemajority,aswellas
adaptinglegalprecedentstoaddressnewandevolvingneedsareIslamslegacytotheWesternworld.A
famousIslamicsayingstates,IslamisnotsimplyareligionbetweentheindividualandhisLord,butawayof
lifeinwhichpeoplearetaughttoliveintheworldasiftheyarelivingforever.
ShaykhAbdalalmMamdsaid,TheIslamiccultureandcivilizationasawholewasthesourceof
inspirationandsourceofinformationforprinciplesandrulesonwhichtheWesterncivilizationbuiltitslaws
andrules.[7]
Dr.MuhammadIqbal,inhisbookRenewalofReligiousThinkingsaid,Europewasextremelyslowtograsp
Islam,itsprinciples,rulesanditsscientificperspective.
Briffault,whowrotethebookTheMakingofHumanity,said:
Wehavetobefair.RogerBaconstudiedtheArabiclanguageandsciencesinOxfordandtheyhaveadopted
theArabicapproachaboutwhichtheywrote.RogerBaconwaslikeamessenger,bringingprinciplesandrules
fromthereligionofIslamandpresentingthemtoEuropeandChristendom.
Dr.Iqbal,quotingTheMakingofHumanitysaid:
Whatwecalltodayknowledgeanditsprinciples,appearedtodayfromthespiritofnewresearchandnew
waysthathavebeendevelopedfromtheexamplesofwhathappenedbefore,andthescalesofthepastand
theprecedentsofthepast,andalltheseprinciplesandrulesandscientificcurricula,werebroughttothe
EuropeanworldbytheArabs.

2.IndividualFreedomsinIslam
2.1FreedomofSpeech
TheProphet(s)said,Agoodbelievermustlistenandobeyaslongasheisnotbeingorderedtocommita
sin.
Thishadithdelineatesthelimitsbetweenthegiveroflawandtheruleofman.TheobjectofruleinIslamisto
implementAllahsLawthatlegislatedintheQurnandHadith,knownasShariah(Islamiclaw).Theruler
whodoessoistobefollowed,andtheonewhodoesnotistobecorrected.Ensuringtherulersremainonthe
pathoflawisthejobofthescholarsofIslamandtheirinherentresponsibility.Itisnotthetaskofthe
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commonpeople,butallcitizensarefreetoexpresstheiropinionwithoutfearofretaliationinIslam.Contrary
towhatisseeninmostMuslimnationstoday,whereonewordspokenincriticismoftherulersmaylanda
personinprison,Islamallowsalltospeak,asillustratedsosignificantlyinthecaseoftheladywhocorrected
thesecondcaliph,Umar.[8]
IncontrasttowhatradicalIslamistsclaimtoday,militantoppositiontorulersisnotallowedsolongasthey
permittheobservanceofIslamicworship.Therefore,traditionalMuslimsunderstandthatacitizenhasnoright
tocreateconfusion,disruptthepeace,upsettheleadership,orattempttoeliminatetheirauthoritybyforceas
longasthegoverningauthoritygivesthepeoplethefreedomtocarryouttheirreligiousobligations.Under
suchconditions,acitizenhasnorighttoopposetheirnationssystemofgovernance.

2.2FreedomofReligiousBelief
ProphetMuhammad(s)freelypropagatedthemessageofIslam,yetgaveallpeoplethefreedomtochoose
anyotherreligion.Jews,ChristiansandZoroastrianswerecontractualmembersoftheMuslimcommunity.
TheQurnstates:

Lettherebenocompulsioninreligion.[9]Accordingly,Muslimjuristshaveconcludedthat

whileIslamisthepreferredbeliefandwayoflife,itcannotbeimposedonanyone.Infifteencenturiesof
Islamicrulethroughouttheglobe,therearenoincidentsinwhichIslamwasimposedbyforceaccordingto
Islamiclaw.WhennonMuslimsbecamemembersofaMuslimnation,eitherthroughcaptureofterritoryor
throughmigration,theywerefreetopracticetheirbeliefs.Furthermore,specialconsiderationwasgivento
believersinheavenlyrevealedreligions:theJews,Christians(knownPeopleoftheBook)Zoroastrians,and
later,otherfaiths.Theywereaffordednotonlyfreedomofreligiousbelief,butwereallowedtomaintaintheir
ownreligiouslawandpractices,evenwhentheseconflictedwiththeteachingsofIslam.
Islamiccivilizationisfirmlyfoundedontheconceptofruleoflaw.Forthatreason,thelawispublishedand
known,andcitizensandcourtsareexpectedtoupholdit.Inaddition,MuslimcitizensmustadheretoIslamic
law.IfaMuslimcitizencommitsareligiousviolation,heisjudgedaccordingtoIslamiclaw.AnonMuslim
citizenisjudgedinreligiousissuesbythelawsofhisownfaith.
Further,itwasdeemedunlawfulinIslamtodesecrateordestroynonMuslimhousesofworship.Atfirst
restrictedtocertainfaiths,thiscategorywaslaterextendedtoincludetheHindusofIndiaandotherbeliefs.A
travelerinMuslimlandsshouldnotbesurprisedtoseeinthemchurches,synagoguesandtemplesofother
faiths,oftenerectedinplacesofprominence.
ShaykhAmadalJurjwwrites:
FromthebeginningofthehistoryofIslamuntiltoday,youcannotseethattheMuslimscomeagainsttheJewsorthe
ChristianslivingamongthemEventheCrusadesdidnotoriginatefromMuslims,butcamefromtheEuropeans.We
seethataluddnalAyybwouldevenhavehisphysicianstreatChristiansoldiersandlatersendthemhometo
Englandsafely.[10]

2.3FreedomofCommerce
IslamaffordsthecitizensofaMuslimnationthefreedomtoconductcommerceastheyplease,aslongas
theiractionsarenotunlawful.Travelisnotrestricted.Tradeisopenandpeoplearefreetoworkinany
profession.Islamically,bordersandnationsexistassubdivisionsforadministration,notasbarriersto
migrationormaterialgain.
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2.4FreedomtoPetitiontheGovernmentforRedress

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Umar,thesecondcaliph,ascendedthepulpitoftheMessengerofAllahandsaid,Opeople!Donotgoto
excessinthematterofwomensdowryAndweneverknewofamanwhogavemorethan400dirhamsas
dowry.Thenhesteppeddown.AladyoftheQurayshfromthecongregationchallengedUmarsaying,O
princeofthebelievers!Haveyoutoldthebelieversnottoexceed400dirhamsingivingthedowry?towhich
Umarrepliedyes.Shesaid,DidyounothearthatAllahsaid,Ifyouhavegivenoneofthemaheapof
gold,thentakenotfromitanythingwouldyoutakeitbyslandering(her)and(doingher)manifestwrong?[11]
TothisUmarsaid,Aladyhitthetargetandaman[meaninghimself]waswrong.[12]

2.5Taxation
TheinherenceofdemocraticprinciplesinIslamismadeevenmoreclearinexaminingtheapplicationof
zakt,[13]aformoftaxationappliedtoMuslimcitizensofthestate.Thesystemoftaxationappliedtonon
Muslimcitizens,whoalsoenjoyedbenefitsfromthestate,isknownasjizy.Fundscollectedfromzaktand
jizyarediligentlyappliedtosocialwelfareandstatedefense,producingahigherstandardoflivingand
suppressingtheneedtocommitcrimes.BothsystemsareextremelysimilartotheUSsystemoftaxation,
whichbenefitseveryone.

3.TheHierarchyofLaw
AlukmulillhRulebelongstoAllah.TraditionalMuslimsbelievethatAllahisalkim,RulerofCreation.
IneverymomentAllahistheSupremeJudge.Yet,Hegavemanwill.Why?IfAllahweretogivetherules
anddemandthatwefollowthem,whileknowingweareweakandcannot,itwouldbeoppression.Allahisnot
anoppressor,butmostlovingtowardsHiscreation.Hewillnotimposeonuswhatwecannotachieve.
ThroughtheQurn,AllahtoldhumanitywhatHeprefersforus,Hishigheststandardofbehavior.
TheQurnwasrevealedtoProphetMuhammad(s)astheexemplarofthehighestlevelmorality.Allahsaid,
ThisisyourcapacityasMyperfectServant.Sincetherestofhumanityarebutordinaryhumanbeings,the
Prophet(s)servedasanintermediary,reducingthepoweroftheDivineorderstothecapacityofthepeople
headdressed.TheProphet(s)urgedtheMuslimcommunity,withtheguidanceofqualifiedreligiousscholars,
tousetheirownminds,judgmentandsincerityinseekingouttheintentofthelawandadjustitaccordingto
capacityofthepeople.
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Thelawissubjecttohierarchy.ThehighestlevelisobediencetoAllah.IfyoucannotobeyallofAllahs
commands,thenobeytheProphet(s).ThelevelofDivinelawstatedintheQurnistheabstract.Itisthe
ultimategoaland,likethesuninthesky,shinesoverallbutishumanlyimpossibletoreach.
Withthisunderstandinginmind,itbecomesclearwhysomanyissuesaredescribedinonlygeneraltermsin
theQurn.ItwasthedutyoftheProphet(s)toexplaintheseissues.Allahsaid:

WhoeverobeystheProphetindeedobeysAllah.[14]
AftertheProphetsdeath,itbecamethedutyofthescholarsandrulerstofurthercodifyandimplement
existinglaws.Therefore,thenextlevelofthehierarchyisobediencetothoseinauthority,forthoseunableto
maintainobediencetotheProphet(s)mustatleastobeythoseinauthority.Peopleinthispositionmustobey
therulerschosenbyelection.

TheProphet(s)said,Ifyouarethreeonajourney,chooseoneasyourleader.[15]

3.1DivergenceofOpinion
ImmGhazlobservedthat,inexaminingthehistoryofalldifferentnations,therearethreedifferent
approachestolife:
Materialistic:Theworldexistswithoutacreator,andmankindlivesonlybyselfdetermination.
Intellectual:Issues,knownorinthefuture,canonlybesolvedthroughreasoningandprecedent.
Inspirational:Allweneedcomesthroughinspirationandrevelation,intherelationshipbetweenhuman
beingsandthesubtlerealm.
TheQurnsubstantiatesthethirdapproach,speakingaboutallissuesandprovidingasubtlemeansfor
understandingeveryissueofhumanlife.
ThefirstandsecondapproachestolifearemanifestintheearliestperiodofIslamichistory,demonstrating
thatfromtheearliestpoint,thepolityoftheMuslimcommunitywasdividedinthreeways.Forthisreason,
scholarswereobligatedtosubstantiatetheirmethodologiesthroughproofandlogic.Islamneverprohibitedor
inhibitedthisdialogueoftheintellecteachgroupwasallowedtodevelopitsownvisionandapproach,not
onlyinpoliticaltheory,butinphilosophyandotherareasthat,accordingtoIslamists,wouldbeconsidered
heretical.
Boththeintellectualandspiritualfieldsgrewtremendouslyasmanydifferentculturesandnationalitiesentered
Islam.ThisdemandedthatMuslimsapplytheirintellectstoeveryissue,andnotsimplyrelyontherulingsof
theirancestors.Theywererequiredtostartwithlegalprecedents,thenrefineandadaptthemintonewlaws
thataccommodatetheeraandenvironmentinwhichtheylived.Thisisdirectlycontrarytotheapproachofthe
rigidandhardheartedpeople,describedintheQurnassaying:

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Surelywefoundourfathersonacourse,andsurelywearefollowersoftheirfootsteps.[16]
ThebestprogramforIslamicrulesbeganslowly,changingslowly,withoutfanaticalimpositionoftheviewsof
differentgroups,andbegantodiverge,fromitemergingdifferentstreamsandmethods.Thedifferentviews
andopinionsbeganearlyinIslam,eveninthetimeoftheProphet(s),asintheexampleoftheordertopray
atBanQuraizah.[17]
Aprocessofexaminationthatleadstomajorityconsensus(itjihd)wasappliedeveninthetimeofProphet
Muhammad(s).ThisisborneoutbythefamoushadithofBaniQuraizah,inwhichtheProphet(s)gavea
groupofCompanionstheordernottopraythatafternoonuntiltheyreachedtheplaceofBanQuraizah.Each
individualCompanionfollowedhisowninterpretationofthisordersomeprayedontheway,believingthat
whatwasmeantwastotrytoreachBanQuraizahbutnottomissprayer.Otherswaitedtoreachthere,but
missedtheprescribedtimefortheprayer.TheProphet(s)acceptedbothinterpretations,asheintendedonly
thattheyproceedquicklyinordertoreachBanQuraizahsooner.
Fromthisexample,juristsderivedtwofundamentalprinciplesofIslamicjurisprudence:
1.Allowanceforindependentreasoningbasedontheintentofthelaw.
2.Allowancefordivergenceofopinionininterpretingthelaw.

3.2TheevolutionofIslamicLaw
ShaykhAmadalJurjw,writes:
WhatisthewisdombehindobligationsinIslam,asrulesthatdonotchange?Allahcreatedlivingcreaturesandwe
canseefromtheiractionsthatthelawofthejungle,survivalofthefittest.Weseethebirdshavetheirbeaksas
weapons.Thescorpionandthesnakeshavepoison.Lionsandotherpredatorshavesharpteeth.Similarly,human
beingshaveabasicprimalnature,buthavenophysicalabilityforsurvival.ThereforeAllahputfundamentallawsand
principles,inordertocreateadecentandstablecommunityinwhichhumanbeingsliveinsafetyandsecurity.By
meansoftheseprinciplesandrules,andthedifferentopinionsthatAllahgrantedeachindividual,weseethatthe
idealcommunityformankindexistsifallmeettogetherandagreeonrulesbywhichallwilllive.
ThustheQurncontainsbroad,generalrulesthatareimmutable,notunlikesocietalrulesoftoday:the
sanctityoflife,securityandfreedomofexpression,andtheinviolabilityoftheserights.Yet,ademocracyisa
societygovernedbythepeople,forthepeople.Theadaptationoflawaccordingtotimeandcircumstance
wasnecessitatedbychangesinsociety,andtheinfluxofvariousculturesandmaterialconditions.Islamfirst
cametoonepeoplewithonelifestyle.AsthereligionspreadandthebordersofMuslimlandsexpanded,allof
thedifferentcivilizations,eachwiththeirowncodesoflaw,traditionsandcultures,hadtobeincorporatedinto
theIslamicpolity.ThiswasnotachievedovernightandtookgreatforesightonthepartofMuslimjurists.This
ismostelegantlydisplayedinthedevelopmentofthelaw.
TheQurnstates:

IfAllahsowilled,Hecouldmakeyouallonepeople[18]
ButAllah,inHiswisdom,didnot.Humansocietyhasbeenallowedtoadapttonewcircumstancesand
competeinseekingvalidsolutionstoitsmanymoralandethicaldilemmas.
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"

TheProphet(s)said,Hewhoinauguratesagoodpractice(sunnatunasana)inIslamearnstherewardofit,
andofallwhoperformitafterhim,withoutdiminishingtheirownrewardsintheleast[19]
TheProphet(s)comprehendedthatnewsituationswouldarise,andthusgaveMuslimstheabilitytoadopt
newapplicationsofIslamiclawiftheywerebeneficialtothecommunity.
AmongnumerousotherexamplesofhowapplicationsoflawhavechangedistheassemblyoftheHoly
Qurn,whichduringtheProphetslifetimeconsistedofloosepagesinchronologicalsequenceofdivine
revelation.Thethirdcaliph,Uthmn,tooktheinitiativetoassembletherevealedversesinthebookformat
wehavetoday.AstheProphet(s)hadneverindicatedthisshouldbedone,ordonesohimself,Uthmns
actwasaninnovation.Heintroducedthenotionofchange,andtherebyestablishedaprecedentforwhat
wouldbeconsideredgoodorusefulinnovationsinreligion.
IntheearlydaysofIslam,slaverywaspermittedasavestigeofthepreexistingsocialstructure.Atthesame
time,IslamintroducedmanysafeguardsfortherightsofslavesandMuslimswereencouragedtofreethemto
expiatetheirsins.Butitwasnotuntillaterthatscholarsvotedtoabolishslaveryaltogether.
InRamadan,theMuslimsaroundtheworldgatherinmosquestoprayanightlycongregationalprayerknown
astarw.[20]ThiswasnotpracticedinthismannerinthelifetimeoftheProphet(s),butlaterimplemented
asameanstopreservebrotherhoodamongMuslims,andrevivetheirspiritstofastthenextday.
Similarly,whenMuaffaralKawkubrnoticedlovefortheProphet(s)wasdiminishing,heintroducedthe
publicobservanceoftheProphetsbirthday(mawlid),spendingthousandsofgolddinarsfortheevent.The
scholarsofhistimedefendedhisactassomethinggood.
Ournationsfoundingfathersalsoacknowledgedthatthepeoplecouldnotfollowthelawatalltimes.Thatis
whytheyestablishedajudicialsystemtoaddresseachbreachoflawonacasebycasebasis.Inother
words,applicationofthelawvariesbasedontheindividualcircumstancesatthetime.

3.3TheFormationofDifferentSchools
DuringtheProphetstime,Islamwasspreadwithgreattoleranceandopenness.Thecommandtoprayfive
timesdailycameoveraperiodofyears.TheArabs,whowerefondofalcoholicbeverages,weregently
weanedfromalcoholoveraperiodoftwentyyears.Thosewhoprayedtoidolswerenotostracizedfromtheir
Muslimrelatives.Islamwasintroducedgently,notforcefully.
Initially,lawwastaughtbytheCompanionsoftheProphet(s),whomigratedaroundtheMuslimworld,
formingacademiccenterswherevertheysettled.Withtime,numerouscentersofscholarshipemerged,with
thatinMadinah,thecityoftheProphet(s)beingforemost,thenKufaandDamascus.Latersuchcentersof
knowledgedevelopedandflourishedinBaghdad,Bukhara,Samarqand,Cairo,Cordobaandmanyothercities.
Asweseeinthespreadofallworldreligions,eachschooladaptedtothetemperamentandcultureofthe
nativepeople.ThisprecedentwasestablishedbytheProphet(s)whenhesenthisdeputiestothevarious
tribesoftheArabianPeninsula.HetoldoneemissarytoYemen,MuadhbinJabal,todealwiththenew
MuslimslightlyandnotforceIslamonthematonce,buttograduallyacclimatethemtoIslamiclaws.
TheCaliphsUmarandAl,MuadhibnJabal,andthelaterimmsoftheschoolsallfolloweddifferent
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methodologiesinexaminingissueswithinanIslamicframework.AftertheCompanionscamethe
establishmentofhundredsofIslamicschoolsofthought,eachofwhichwerebasedonthelawofAllah,but
appliedbyman.
Dr.WahbaalZuhayl,ascholarofIslamicjurisprudenceattheUniversityofDamascus,writesthatSayyidina
UmarcancelledthecharitythathadbeenorderedinthetimeoftheProphet(s)forthosewhoconvertedto
Islam(almuallafatilqulb).Thoughpresentinthelaw,heruledthattheynolongerneededthisincentive,as
theirIslamhadbecomefirmlyestablished.Umareliminatedtheruleofcuttingthehandsfortheftinthe
difficultYearofHungerdespiteitbeingafundamentalruleintheQurn.Umarwasthefirsttoinstitutethe
useofprisonstoholdpeoplebeforejudgment.[21]
BeforethecanonizationofthefourindependentschoolsofthoughtinthefourthcenturyofIslam,[22]there
existedmorethan424differentschoolsofthought.Thesehadbeendevelopedbyexpertswhoexaminedthe
revelationandprecedentsasestablishedbytheProphet(s)andtheearlyMuslimgenerations,andformed
themintolaw.
Islamicjuristsadoptedtheapplicationofthelawtodifferentpeoplesandcultures.Forinstance,Imm
ShfisschoolwasfullydevelopedandestablishedinIraq.[23]WhenhemovedtoCairo,hechangedmany
oftherulings.InIraq,heruledthattwounnecessarymovementsduringprayerwouldinvalidateit.However,
inEgypthechangedthelimittothree,owingtothemoreextremeclimateandincreasedirritationofthe
personinprayer.
Evenrulesbasedontheprincipleofconsensusofscholars,ijma,whichinitselfisdifficulttoaccomplish,
canbechanged.Dr.WahbaalZuhayl,wrote:
Consensusofscholarsonacertainissuemadeearliercanbeabrogatedbytheconsensusmadebyalater
generationiftherewerechangesintheconditionswhichareforthecommongoodofthepeopleastime
progresses.Thefollowersoftheanbalschoolandsomeofthefollowersoftheanafschoolsaythatone
canreformulateorabrogatealawdevelopedbyconsensusatonetimebyanewlawthatfitsthelater
circumstances.[24]
Islamically,thisconceptofreformationorrejuvenationofthelawisnecessitatedbychangeinsocietyover
time.
ThegreatphilosopheralKind(800873CE),whomtherenownedItalianphilosopherCardano(15011576CE)
describedasoneofthetwelvebestphilosophersinfundamentals,stated:
Wemustspeakthetruth:whoevergaveusanidea,wemustrespecthisviewandopinion,eveninthemost
minorissue.Whatthendoyouthinkofsomeonewhoisgoingtodeducerulesandlawsthatwillaffectyour
lifeinthefuture?[25]
Itisgoodthatwekeeplookingatwhattookplaceinthepast,foronecannotcomeupwithalawspontaneously.It
isessentialtolookattheprecedentsthatcamebeforeandseeinwhattheywerecorrectandinwhattheywere
wrong.Becauseitisimpossibleforaneventtotakeplaceinamoment,foreveryeventmightstretchoveraperiod
oftime,andinlatertimesthatissuemightbevieweddifferently.Itisbetterforustobringallourprinciplesand
rules,andalltheysaidbeforeusaswellaswhattheydidnotsay,toputittogetherinordertoderiveausefulruling
forourowntime.
IbnSn(Avicenna)said:

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Ihavedecidedtocollectallthatwassaidandwrittenandcompiledbythosebefore,withoutconcernforthe
differencestheyhad,takingalltogether,categorizingitandshowingthepeopleofmytimewhatthepeoplethought
abouttheseissues,inordertoclarifyandrefinetheverdictsofthepast.

3.4LevelsofGovernance
AlFrb(d.950CE),aleaderinIslamicpoliticalthought,expoundedtheseideaspertainingtothe
governanceofdifferentsizesofcommunity:
Ashumanityexpandedthroughtheearthandinhabitedallitsareas,itresultedintheformationofdifferentnations
andcultures.
Wecancategorizetheapproachofnationsintotwo:theidealoneswhoareabletoobservethehighestlevelof
principlesandrulesandthosewhoobservethemonlypartially.
Thosewhoobservethehighestlevelaredividedintothreecategories:
oHighestarethoseinwhichthewholeglobalsocietyagreesandworkstogetherinunity.
oSecondisthelocalizedobservancearegion,cityorstateofthesocietyworkstogetherinunitywhilethe
restdoesnot.
oAtthelowestlevelwefindadistrictorcommunityinwhichharmonyandcooperationareobserved.[26]
system of government in which all states cooperate together is the goal for success. Yet, as in the federal
systemintheUS,eachlowerlevelissemiautonomousinrelationtothelevelaboveit.Islamdemandedthe
implementation of a universal political model of governance, not one limited to individual states. Thus,
Islam is designed to benefit the entire global community while giving sufficient autonomy to the local
regionstodeveloptheirownlawssubordinatetoapplicationoffederallaw.
AlFrbelaboratedthatinsuchacommunityeachindividualalsohashispersonalfreedom.Heisfreeto
choosebasedonhisowndesires,goodorbad,andhecanchoosetobeagoodcitizenorabadone.Thereis
adirectionforgoodandforevil.Thatiswhy,intheidealcitydividedintothreeranks,thesocietygivesthe
rulertheauthoritytoimposetheruleoflawandgivesthecourtstheauthoritytoenforceit.Theultimate
sourceofthelawisthecommunity.Theidealcityisthatinwhichtheentirecommunitywillunitetodecidean
issue,andproduceprinciplesandrulesthatwillachievehappinessandcontentmentofthepeople.AlFrb
stated,Forindeedthegreatesthappinessisthatwhichcomesaboutasaresultofthemeetingofthiscityto
decide[onitsdirection].
Inexplainingtheimpactofculture,environmentandgeographyversustheimpactofrevelationonthe
developmentoflaw,ShaykhAbdalalmMamd,formershaykhofalAzharandoneofthehighest
scholarsinIslaminrecenttimes,wrote:
Amongthesephilosophicalprincipleswerejustice,theexistenceofgoodandevil,andtherelationshipbetween
humanbeingsandtheenvironmentandhisinteractionswithit,themostimportantofthesebeingthefreedomof
choice.TheleadershipofMuslimscholarshasshownthedifferencesintheirviews:eachwasabletodeduce
differentmethodologiesfromwhichemergedthevariousschoolsofthought.[27]
Thenationislikeagardenwithallvarietiesofflowers,presentinganunendingandattractivearrayofshapes,sizes
andcolors.

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TheprocessofadoptingdifferentmethodologiesbeganwithWasilbinAt,astudentofasanalBar.He
showedtheeffectofGreekrulesandprinciplesonMuslimcivilization,andtheleadersofthetimebeganto
adopttheselawsandprinciples.

4.PoliticalSystemsintheMuslimWorld
HavingariseninthetribalregionsoftheArabianPeninsula,theIslamicpoliticalstructureoriginallyincludedlocalized,
tribalsystemsofgovernment.Concurrentwiththeruleofthecaliph,whoboretheleadershipofIslamasan
inheritancefromtheProphet(s),eachtriberuleditselfwithinalimitedterritory,accordingtotriballoyaltiesandother
factorsspecifictotheircommunity.
WiththeadventofEuropeancolonization,westernpoliticalvaluesespeciallythenotionofmonarchicrule
wereunevenlyadoptedinvariouspartsoftheMuslimpolity.Competingwithoneanother,thecolonialpowers
ofEngland,France,Italy,theNetherlands,andPortugaleachgraduallytookcontrolofareasoftheMuslim
nation,asdidRussiaintheCaucasusandCentralAsia.Withtheinfluenceofthesenationscameafurther
appreciationforkingshipanddynasticrule.
ThecolonialinfluenceontheArabandMuslimworldwastremendous.Evenaftercolonialpowersceded,
Muslimsthemselvesobservedtheimportedsystemsofmonarchy.RatherthanbyarevivalofIslamic
systemsofelectionsanddemocracy,thevacuumofpowerwasfilledbynewmonarchs.Theimpactisclearly
evidentinSaudiArabia,Jordan,Morocco,Tunisia,Egypt,Malaysia,Iraq,Libya,Oman,andthePersianGulf
states.Furthermore,thesenationsimbeddedthepoliticalsystemsoftheirpatronsforthesakeofpolitical
benefit.TheinfluenceofcolonialpowersinMuslimnationsthereforeaccounts,inpart,forthelimitedrespect
fordemocracytheynowexhibit.
Today,MuslimnationsaretendingtowardthedemocraticidealsembodiedinIslamsoriginalpolitical
framework,ifonlyforthesakeoftheirrelationshipswiththeWesternworld.Unfortunately,triballeaders
opposethemovetowardsparliamentarysystems,promptingleaderstoadoptmoderndemocratic
nomenclatureforasystemthatremainsautocratic.Thetitlespresidentorprimeministerarecommonin
Muslimcountries,andclaimsaremadethatelectionswereheldwithwidemajoritiesvotingforthewinning
candidate.However,thosewhoremaininpowersimplyusurptermslikeelectionsandmajoritywhenin
realitytheysimplydonotrelinquishtheirseats.Thebudsofindependentpoliticalpartiesarenowbeginningto
form,butforthemtotrulyflowerwillrequiregreatencouragementfromtheWest.
ShaykhAmadalJurjwsaid:
IfwehavetogivethelabelofIslamtoagroupofpeople,theymustinfactbetrueMuslims.Unfortunately,wemust
notcalltodaysMuslimstrueMuslims.ThatisbecauseIslamconstitutesrules,discipline,principlesandactionsbased
ontherulesandprinciples.Todaythesehavebeenlost.Islamsurvivesonlyinlecturesandclassrooms,forwearenot
livingbyIslamtoday.Ithasbecomeanamewithoutabody.[28]
TheAzharscholar,Dr.AbZahr,says:
WemustgiveraptattentiontodisputesregardingpoliticalissuesandtheirinvolvementwiththeschoolsofIslamic
law.UsingthenameofIslam,theyattemptedtogivecredibilitytowhatwereessentiallybegunaspolitical
differences.Thisisapurelypoliticalmanipulationofthefaithandisnotvalid.
ThedemocraticmodelthatexistsintraditionalIslamisforthepoliticalelitetogovern,whileothersare
entrustedwithadministration,inconsultationwithrespectedmembersofthecommunity.Infact,many
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freedomsenshrinedintheUSBillofRightsareinherentcivillibertiesinIslam,includingfreedomofspeech
andtheequalityofmenandwomen.Theoverridingprinciplesofjusticeandallegiancetotherulerfurther
reinforcedemocraticprinciples.

5.Conclusion
AmericanMuslimsareinanidealpositiontoinspireMuslimandArabcountriestowardtherevivalofIslamic
democraticsystems.AlargepartoftheAmericanpoliticalstructureconstituteswhattraditionalMuslimshave
heldastheideal.InAmerica,wearefreetopracticeourfaithandwayoflifeand,atthesametime,
encouragedtoparticipateinthepoliticalsystem.
Here,thesystemdoesnotpreventanyonefromascendinginpoliticalrank,butbasespoliticalrepresentation
onthewillofthepeople,whichisitselfmoldedbyperceptionsofsuccessandthecandidatesabilityto
upholdtheirpoliticalresponsibilities.Therefore,asAmericanMuslimsbegintoparticipateavidlyinthepolitical
system,theywillinevitablybecomerolemodelsforMuslimsintheArabworldandelsewhere.Thisisevident
todayinAfghanistanandothernations,wheresecondandthirdgenerationAmericanMuslimsarereturningin
largenumbersandmakingtheiropinionsheard.
Aseagerandsuitedtheymaybetosupportsuchachange,itwouldtakesometimeforAmericanMuslimsto
inspirethisshiftinMuslimpolitics.Consideringthatittook200yearstoestablishtruedemocracyinAmerica,
wecannotexpectthatitwouldbequicklyimplementedintheArabworld.AlthoughIslamrecommendsand
standsfirmonthispoliticalsystem,thefactremainsthatthepeoplehavebeenraisedonadifferentsystem
thatdemonstrateslittleregardforprinciplesoftheIslamicfaith.LessthanfiftyyearsaftertheProphets
death,whenmonarchybecamethemethodofrulershipselection,democraticprinciplesbegantoweardown
intheMuslimworld.Toseekachangeinasystemsodeeplyingrainedistobepatient,encouraging
democracytosproutanewfromitsIslamicroots.
Sadly,todateoppositionpartiesinmanycountrieshavebeensilencedbytheirlackoffunding.Manyare
strugglingagainstpetrofinancedWahhabiregimes,andcansucceedonlybycreatinganeffectivecounter
balance.Theircampaignwouldrequirenotonlyfunding,buttobecomplementedwithacomprehensive
programofreeducationtoensurelongtermimpact.TheUScouldeasilysupportasuccessfuldemocratic
movementintheMuslimworldbyutilizingmoderateMuslimscholars,protectingthemfromretaliation,and
takingadvantageoftheirfullparticipationinthedevelopmentofsuchaplan.
PresentedatTheConferenceonTheFutureofIslamandDemocracy,July11,2002,TheEthicsandPublic
PolicyCenter,Washington,DC.
[1]SratunNis[Women],4:59.
[2]SaBukhr.
[3]AlAzharinCairo,EgyptistheoldestIslmcuniversityintheworld,datingbackmanycenturies,andisconsideredoneofthe
highestIslmcauthoritiesbyintellectualsandscholars.
[4]SaBukhr.
[5]IbnMjah.
[6]Dr.AlAbdulWahid,CommentaryonalFarabi,Cairo.

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[7]ShaykhAbdulalmMamd,ShaykhalAzhar,Attafkralfalsafafalislm(PhilosophyofThinkinginIslam),Chapter,
Islmcrules:Betweenoriginalityandimitationp.247.
[8]Seebelow.
[9]SratulBaqarah[TheHeifer],2:256.
[10]ShaykhAmadalJurjw,headoftheScienceCollegeoftheUniversityofalAzhar,ikmatattashriwafalsafatah,Cairo.
[11]SratunNis[Women],4:20.
[12]AbYala.
[13]Oneofthefivepillarsoffaith,whichimplementssocialwelfareinaffordingprovisionfortheneedy.
[14]SratunNis[Women],4:80.
[15]SunanAbDwd,2708,2709.
[16]SratuzZukhruf[TheGoldAdornments],43:23.
[17]ShaykhAbdulalmMamd,ShaykhalAzhar,Attafkralfalsafafalislm(PhilosophyofThinkinginIslam),Chapter,
Islmcrules:Betweenoriginalityandimitation
[18]SratunNahl[TheBee],16:93.
[19]Muslim.
[20]AspecialcongregationalprayerrecitedonlyinthemonthofRamadan,traditionallyinamosque,inwhich1/30portionoftheHoly
Qurnisrecitedeachnight,tocompletebytheendofRamadan.
[21]Dr.WahbaalZuhayl,UlalfiqhalIslm(FoundationsofJurisprudence),vol.2,p.764.
[22]Knownashijridate,onwhichtheIslmccalenDrisbasedfromthetimetheProphetmigratedfromMeccatoMadinah.
[23]SeeKitbalUmm.
[24]Dr.WahbaalZuhayl,ProfessorofJurisprudence,UlalfiqhalIslm(FoundationsofJurisprudence),Damascus,Syria,p.
975.
[25]AbYsufYaqbIbnIsqalKind,Rasilalkind.
[26]alFrb,Alralmmraalfila(TheVirtuousCity).
[27]ShaykhAbdulalmMamd,ShaykhalAzhar,AttafkralfalsafaflIslm,PhilosophyofThinkinginIslam,Chapter,
Islmcrules:Betweenoriginalityandimitationp.247.
[28]ShaykhAmadJurjw,paperaddressingConferenceonIslamandMuslims,Geneva,page71.

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