Module 8-Abbreviations

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Chapter III - Human Anatomy

HUMAN SKELETON
First let us understand more about the human skeleton as it forms the framework of human
body about which all organs and systems function and perform.
The human skeleton is made of bones, some of them joined together, supported and
supplemented by a structure of ligaments, tendons, muscles, and cartilage.
The skeleton changes composition over a lifespan. Early in gestation, a fetus has no hard
skeleton bones form gradually during nine months in the womb. When a baby is born it
has more bones than it will as an adult. On average, an adult human has 206 bones in their
skeleton (the number can vary slightly from individual to individual), but a baby is born with
approximately 270. The difference comes from a number of small bones that fuse together
during growth. These include the bones in the skull and the spine. The sacrum (the bone at
the base of the spine) consists of six bones, which are separated at birth but fuse together
into a solid structure in later years.
There are 6 bones (three on each side) in the middle ear that articulate only with
themselves, and one bone, the hyoid bone, which does not touch any other bones in the
body.
The longest bone in the body is the femur and the smallest is the stapes bone in the middle
ear.

Fig: Human Skeleton

Function
The skeleton functions not only as the support for the body but also in hematopoiesis, the
manufacture of blood cells that takes place in bone marrow (which is why bone marrow
cancer is very often a terminal disease). It is also necessary for protection of vital organs
and is needed by the muscles for movement. Not only does the skeleton serve to help
manufacture blood cells, but it also serves as a mineral storage deposit in which nutrients
can be stored and retrieved.
Organization
One way to group the bones of the human skeleton is to divide them into two groups,
namely the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton consists of
bones in the midline and includes all the bones of the head and neck, the vertebrae, ribs
and sternum. The appendicular skeleton consists of the clavicles, scapulae, bones of the
upper limb, bones of the pelvis and bones of the lower limb.
Gender differences
There are many differences between the male and female human skeletons. Men tend to
have slightly thicker and longer limbs and digit bones while women tend to have larger
pelvic bones in relation to body size. Women also tend to have narrower rib cages, smaller
teeth, less angular mandibles, and less pronounced cranial features such as the brow ridges
and occipital protuberance (the small bump in the cranium's posterior). Most striking is the
difference in hip bones owing to differences related to the process of reproduction, and very
likely also to the biological process of sexual selection. There are also a number of smaller
differences between human male and female skeletons.

Diseases
The skeleton can be affected by many diseases that compromise physical mobility and
strength. Skeletal diseases range from minor to extremely debilitating. Bone cancer and
bone tumors are extremely serious and are sometimes treated by radical surgery such as
amputation of the affected limb. Various forms of arthritis attack the skeleton resulting in
severe pain and debility. Osteoporosis can increase the likelihood of fractures and broken
bones, especially among post-menopausal women and the elderly. Scoliosis is another, when
the spine curves from side to side.
Here is a list of all human bones:
A typical adult human skeleton consists of the following 206 bones. (Numbers in bold refer
to the diagram at right.)
In the skull (22):
Cranial bones:
1. Frontal bone
2. Parietal bone (2)
3. Temporal bone (2)
4. Occipital bone
Sphenoid bone
Ethmoid bone
Facial bones:
5. Zygomatic bone (2)
6. Superior and inferior maxilla
9. Nasal bone (2)
7. Mandible
Palatine bone (2)
Lacrimal bone (2)
Vomer bone
inferior nasal conchae (2)
In the middle ears (6):
Malleus (2)
Incus (2)
Stapes (2)
In the throat (1):
Hyoid bone
In the shoulder girdle (4):
25. Clavicle or collarbone (2)
29. Scapula or shoulder blade (2)
In the thorax (25):
10. Sternum
28. Ribs (2 x 12)

In the vertebral column (24):

8. Cervical vertebrae (7) incl. Atlas & axis
14. Lumbar vertebrae (5)
Thoracic vertebrae (12)
In the arms (6):
11.
26.
12.
13.
27.

Humerus (2)
Condyles of humerus
Ulna (2)
Radius (2)
Head of radius

In the hands (54):

Wrist (carpal) bones:
Scaphoid bone (2)
Lunate bone (2)
Triquetrum bone (2)
Pisiform bone (2)
Trapezium (bone) (2)
Trapezoid bone (2)
Capitate bone (2)
Hamate bone (2)
Palm or metacarpal bones:
Metacarpal bones (5 2)
Finger bones or phalanges:
Proximal phalanges (5 2)
Intermediate phalanges (4 2)
Distal phalanges (5 2)
In the pelvis (4):
15. Ossa coxa (hip bones or innominate bones) (2)
16. Sacrum
Coccyx
In the legs (8):
17.
22.
23.
19.
20.
21.

Femur (2)
Greater trochanter of femur
Condyles of femur
Patella (2)
Tibia (2)
Fibula (2)

In the feet (52):

Ankle (tarsal) bones:
Calcaneus (heel bone) (2)
Talus (2)

Navicular bone (2)

Medial cuneiform bone (2)
Intermediate cuneiform bone (2)
Lateral cuneiform bone (2)
Cuboidal bone (2)
Instep bones:
Metatarsal Bone (5 2)
Toe bones:
Proximal phalanges (5 2)
Intermediate phalanges (4 2)
Distal phalanges (5 2)
The infant skeleton has the following bones in addition to those above:
1. Sacral vertebrae (4 or 5), which fuse in adults to form the sacrum.
2. Coccygeal vertebrae (3 to 5), which fuse in adults to form the coccyx.
3. Ilium, ischium and pubis, which fuse in adults to form the pelvic girdle
The bones of the human skeleton are structurally and in many taxonomies
organized as those of the:
Skull
Middle ear
Throat
Shoulder girdle
Ribcage
Vertebra
Arms
Hands
Pelvis
Legs
Feet