Seismographs

During an earthquake, vibrations caused by the breakage of rock along a fault zone
radiate outward from the point of rupture. The instrument used to record and measure
these vibrations is called a seismograph.
Traditional seismographs consisted of a sensing element, called a seismometer, an
amplifier, and a hardcopy display unit often using photographic or heat-sensitive paper.
The visual record produced by a seismograph is called a seismogram. In modern
seismographs, the display is replaced or augmented with a digitizer and either local
digitial storage (eg., removable disks) or a telemetry system using radio, telephone or
the Internet to send the digital data stream to a central recording and analysis site.
EarthquakesCanada owns and operates the Canadian National Seismograph Network and
several special deployments, all of which are monitored from its data centers located in
Ottawa, Ontario and Sidney, British Columbia.

How Seismometers Work

To determine the motion of the earth during an earthquake, ground motion must be
measured against something that remains relatively fixed (i.e., not affected by the
shaking). In a seismometer, the fixed object consists of a mass suspended on springs
within a case. During an earthquake, the mass remains still while the case around it
moves with the ground shaking. Most modern seismometers work electromagnetically. A
large permanent magnet is used for the mass and the outside case contains numerous
windings of fine wire. Movements of the case relative to the magnet generate small
electric signals in the wire coil.
Earthquake waves decrease in strength as they travel through the earth. High-frequency
waves attenuate most severely; consequently, seismographs designed for monitoring
local earthquakes must respond to a different frequency of ground motion from those
used for recording distant earthquakes. Instruments sensitive to seismic waves that
vibrate several times per second, called short period seismographs, are used to record
local earthquakes, during which the waves reaching the seismograph are still very rapid
and close together. Long period seismographs respond to lower frequency waves and are
used to record distant events. Modern broadband seismographs perform both functions.
Some short period seismographs magnify ground motion several hundred thousand
times. Such sensitive high-gain instruments can detect ground far movements too small
to be felt by a human being. In the case of large earthquakes nearby, the ground motion
may exceed the recording capacity of seismographs. To record the signals from large
local earthquakes accurately, a third type of low-gain, Strong motion seismograph is
needed. Strong motion seismographs apply minimal magnification (less than 100x), and
are generally sensitive to ground acceleration. Traditional strong motion instruments
would not operate continuously, but only when triggered by strong ground movement,
and would record only until the ground motion returned to an imperceptible level. Modern

digital strong motion recorders are now replacing analog (photographic paper) recorders,
and some have the option for continuous telemetry.
To completely characterize the earth's movement, the motion must be measured in three
perpendicular directions. Consequently, seismographs often employ three sensors,
recording in each of the north-south, east-west and vertical (up and down) directions.

What is shown on a Seismogram?

What do seismic waves look like?

Interpreting seismograms

Suggested Reading

"The Amateur Scientist", Scientific American, July 1957 and July 1979: Basic
principles and how to build a simple seismograph.

Hodgson, John. Earthquakes and Earth Structure. New Jersey, Prentice Hall, 1964,
p. 60-69: How seismographs work and interpretation of seismograms.

What is Shown on a Seismogram

Seismograms are used to determine the location and magnitude of earthquakes.
An earthquake's magnitude may be considered to vary as a function of the amount of
energy released at the rupture point. When an earthquake occurs, two main types of
vibratory waves move through the body of the earth from the point of fracture.
Theprimary, or P, waves travel most quickly and are the first to be registered by the
seismograph. Secondary, or S, waves travel more slowly.
As S waves have a greater amplitude than P waves the two groups are easily
distinguishable on the seismogram. By measuring the time interval between the arrivals
of the P and S wave groups seismologists are able to calculate the distance between the
seismograph and the origin of the earthquake. Magnitude is then derived from the
amplitude of the waves on the seismogram and the distance of the earthquake from the
seismograph.
When P and S waves strike the surface of the earth they initiate a third kind of wave,
called surface waves, which travel over the earth's surface. These are the slowest
waves. On recordings of local earthquakes the surface waves are small and can seldom
be distinguished from the S waves that preceded them. However, since surface waves

attenuate much more slowly than do P or S waves they are generally the largest waves
to appear on long period seismograms of distant earthquakes.
If an earthquake is recorded by three or more seismograph stations its precise location
can be determined from the set of distances. In seismically active areas, a network of
sensitive seismographs may be installed to locate even very minor tremors.

Seismic Waves
Here is an example of several main types of seismic waves. Our seismograph at Lillooet,
B.C. recorded these waves from a magnitude 6.6 earthquake that occurred 600 km to
the west on Nov. 2, 2004. Time unfolds from left to right in the diagram, at a rate of 60
seconds per tick mark at the bottom, and the three traces indicate vibration of the earth
vertically ("V") and in north-south ("N") and east-west ("E") directions.
First of all, at the left, there is the ordinary motion of the earth: almost a straight line,
which would indicate no movement, but one can perhaps see small movements due to
wind etc. Then the energy from the earthquake arrives, beginning with the P waves
("Primary"), which vibrate at a higher frequency and in the same direction as the path
followed by the energy, and are therefore easier to see in the vertical ("V") and east-west
("E") traces.
The S waves ("Secondary") travel more slowly, so at this distance they arrive about a
minute later than the P waves. These waves vibrate in a direction at right angles to the
path along which the energy arrives, (from side to side), so because they're arriving from
the west, they can be seen most clearly on the north-south trace ("N"). Later, the
Rayleigh waves arrive ("R" in the diagram; named after Lord Rayleigh who described
them mathematically) which follow the surface of the earth, as opposed to the P and S
waves, which travel deep in the earth.
A description of seismic waves can be found at this
site: http://www.geo.mtu.edu/UPSeis/waves.html

Interpreting seismograms
Seismic data plots (seismograms) provide a visual record of earthquake activity, as well
as other vibrations in the earth caused by natural and man-made phenomena. For
example, seismographs located near shipping routes are able to detect the passage of
freighters and cruise ships. Those near railway lines detect trains as they pass close by.
Seismographs in exposed areas, especially along the West Coast, will detect vibrations in
the ground caused by high winds. These instruments are sensitive to even the most

minute vibrations, and are able to detect signals from earthquakes occuring thousands of
kilometres away.

Time Scale
As shown below, each data plot has a time scale associated with it. The starting time for
each plot is found in the lower left corner and time increases to the right. The time scale
is in Universal Time (also known as Greenwich Mean Time, or GMT). You must subtract 8
hours to get Pacific Standard Time(PST), or 7 hours for Pacific Daylight Time(PDT). You
must also consider the date of the plot because 0600 on the 12th of June GMT is 2300 on
the 11th of June PDT.

Station Signals

Each horizontal signal line (a "trace") represents the strength, or "amplitude", of the
signal received at a single station over the period of an hour. The traces all begin and end
at the same time, making it easy for the seismologist to see the difference in time
between seismic events at several stations. Each station is part of the Canadian National
Seismograph Network and has a unique identifier code of from 3 to 5 letters. For
example, PNT is the station code for Penticton, BC. BIB is Bowen Island, BC. For the
seismic plots there is a 3 letter code added to the station suffix code that tells the
seismologist information about the characteristics of the seismograph signal. For
example, ".BHZ" indicates a broadband, high gain seismograph that is oriented on the Z

axis (which measures the "up and down" motion of the earth). The ".EHZ" code indicates
an extremely shortperiod, high gain, Z axis seismograph. All of the signals on the
displayed seismic plots have a Z axis orientation so that comparisons are easily made
between seismograms. By looking at the time differences between the arrival of the
same signal at several stations, and knowing how fast the signal is traveling through the
earth's crust, trigonometry can be applied to determine the exact location of the
earthquake.

Earthquake Signals

The sample set of signals on the right are those of a small local earthquake. You will
notice that the left, or "leading" edge of each "burst" is very square. This indicates that
the received signal became very strong in a very short time, which is typical for an
earthquake signal. For these plots, the signal amplitude is so high that it reaches the
maximum level and is "clipped" so that it looks like it has a flat top. After a while, the
signal level begins to fall off as the earthquake energy dissipates gradually over time.
Other bursts may appear shortly after the first arrival. These may be aftershocks or they
may be other signals from the same earthquake that have travelled more slowly through
the earth. There are 2 primary signal types, called S and P waves, and they travel in
different ways and at different speeds. How do we know this is a small earthquake? Well,
you will notice that the signal was not received on several stations that are farther away.
The energy released by the earthquake was not strong enough to travel longer distances,

so only those stations close by were able to detect it. You can also see that the signal
reached some stations earlier than others. This information will be used to determine the
earthquake location.

Other Signal Sources

Seismographs are so sensitive that they can detect very small vibrations in the earth. For
example, the CNSN station at Watts Point (WPB), north of Squamish, BC, detects trains
as they pass by.
The signal from a train is noticeably different from that of an earthquake because it
gradually builds up strength as the trains gets closer, reaches its maximum as the train
reaches its "closest point of approach", or CPA, and then gradually diminishes as the train
moves farther away. You may also see train signals on station BLBC, near Blue River, BC,
that is near the rail lines that connect Vancouver with Edmonton.

Similarly, a large cruise ship generates a lot of vibration in the earth. Our station at Bella
Bella (BBB), along the Pacific Coast, receives signals from ships on their way to and from
Alaska. The signal has a character that is similar to a train in that it builds gradually to
the CPA, then diminishes as it leaves the area. The signal is less steady though so it may
have several peaks and valleys throughout. Here is a sample of a ship passing by BBB:

Explosions are also detected by seismographs. Their signals look very similar to
earthquakes. Mining and construction activities regularly appear on stations nearby. Here
is an example from Texada Island, BC.

Most are very small signals that will be detected by only a few stations in the near
vicinity. However, large explosions, such as those from Nuclear Testing, can be detected
on a large number of stations. Canada provides seismic data to international
organizations engaged in the monitoring of nuclear testing throughout the world.

Another source of noise in the seismic network is wind. Strong winds, like those off the
West Coast of BC, can create vibrations that can last for many hours. Our site on the
Brooks Peninsula, on the North West side of Vancouver Island, is on a mountaintop that
is frequently hit by high winds. Here is a sample of the signal created by wind noise:

System Noise
Signals from the seismic stations make their way to EarthquakesCanada data centres via
various electronic means. Essentially, each station has its own computer system that
digitizes the data from its seismometer and transmits the digital data via one or more of
satellite, terrestrial microwave, UHF radio, telephone modem, or the Internet. If any of
the components in the system should fail, or become degraded by atmospheric or other
disturbances, there will be a loss of signal or some form of noise introduced. The
computer system at the station also calibrates itself whenever it is restarted, which can
can generate a strange but easily recognized transient burst: