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DOI 10.1007/s002530000587
MINI-REVIEW
Introduction
Dyes and dyestuffs are widely used within the food,
pharmaceutical, cosmetic, textile and leather industries.
Over 100,000 commercially available dyes exist and
more than 7105 tonnes of dyestuff are produced annually (Meyer 1981; Zollinger 1987). The human health
impact of dyes used in the food industry, especially
azo dyes and their degradation products, has caused concern for a number of years, with legislation controlling
their use being developed in a variety of countries
(Hildenbrand et al. 1999). Increasingly, the environmental and subsequent health effects of dyes released in
textile industry wastewater are becoming subject to
scientific scrutiny. Wastewater from the textile industry
is a complex mixture of many polluting substances rangG. McMullan () C. Meehan A. Conneely N. Kirby
I.M. Banat R. Marchant
School of Environmental Studies, University of Ulster, Coleraine,
County Londonderry, BT52 1SA, UK
e-mail: g.mcmullan@ulst.ac.uk
Tel.: +44-28-70324755, Fax: +44-28-70324911
T. Robinson P. Nigam W.F. Smyth
School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Ulster, Coleraine,
County Londonderry, BT52 1SA, UK
82
83
Fig. 1 Proposed pathway for
peroxidase-catalysed degradation of sulfonated azo dyes.
The compounds in parentheses
have not been found, but their
existence is rationalised as
necessary intermediates for the
observed final products. The
compounds represented by
numbers in brackets have been
found in reaction mixtures.
Substitution pattern a (as in I),
R1=R2=O and B=O; substitution pattern b (as in II), R1=H,
R2=OCH, and B=NH. [2a]
2,6-dimethyl-1,4-benzoquinone,
[4a] 4-nitrosobenzenesulfonic
acid, [6b] 2-methoxyhydroquinone, [7b] 2-methoxy-4-aminophenol, [8a] sulfanilic acid,
[8b] sulfanilamide, [9a] 4-hydroxybenznesulfonic acid, [9b]
4-hydroxybenzenesulfonamide,
[10a] benzenesulfonic acid,
[10b] benzenesulfonamide,
[11a] azobenzene-4,4-disulfonic acid, [12] ammonia.
(Reproduced from Goszczynski
et al. 1994)
Despite this it has been argued that unequivocal evidence for aerobic bacterial mineralisation of these compounds is absent from the literature (Blhmel et al. 1998).
Recently, Blhmel et al. (1998) reported the isolation of
an unidentified bacterial strain, S5 (Genbank accession
number AF019037), capable of utilising the model sulphonated azo compound 4-carboxy-4-sulfoazobenzene
(CSAB) as sole carbon and energy source. Elucidation of
the degradation pathway demonstrated that the azo linkage of CSAB undergoes an initial reductive cleavage to
form 4-aminobenzoate and 4-aminobenzenesulfonate,
which are subsequently metabolised by conventional
aromatic catabolic pathways (Blhmel et al. 1998). Attempts to characterise the enzyme responsible for the
azo-bond cleavage in crude cell extracts have so far
proven unsuccessful.
In addition to azo dyes, the ability of bacteria to aerobically metabolise other dye classes has also attracted interest but yielded little success. Recently, however,
Sarnaik and Kanekar (1999) described the aerobic mineralisation of the triphenylmethane dye, methyl violet,
by a strain of Pseudomonas mendocina MCM B-402.
Methyl violet, which has some commercial applications
in addition to its recognised use as a bacteriological and
histological stain, was used by the isolate as sole carbon
and energy source. Preliminary studies identified that
P. mendocina degraded the dye via a number of unidentified metabolites to phenol, which then entered the
-ketoadipic acid pathway.
84
85
86
Fig. 2 Proposed mechanism for the redox mediator (RM)-dependent reduction of azo dyes by strain BN6. (Reproduced from Keck
et al. 1997)
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