u01d2 Questions about Statistics

Description (click to collapse)

Based on your review of basic statistics, discuss at least two of the following concepts from the
perspective of psychology study:

Descriptive vs. inferential uses of statistics.

Parametric vs. nonparametric statistics.

Normal distribution.

Levels of measurement .

Types of variables.

Mean, standard deviation, variance, degrees of freedom, frequency, and sampling error.

Data collection, transformation, screening, and reporting.

Bivariate analysis.

Response Guidelines
Respond to at least one other learner and try to either supplement or clarify their current
understanding.
1) Normal Distribution
It is commonly held as a fundamental law of the natural sciences that physical, biological, psychological
and social phenomena under certain conditions will graphically demonstrate a normal distribution of
scores. Although the ubiquitous validity of this assumption has periodically been debated among
research practitioners, it is based upon the widely held theory that a normal distribution represents an
empirically verified ontological truth that given an infinite number of samples or participants, the
statistical outcome will typically result in a normal distribution of the data. This principle is called the
Central Limit Theorem, which emphasizes that as the sample size increases the shape of the sampling
distribution approaches normality.

A normal distribution has a unique graphic quality of resembling a bell shaped curve. Because the normal
distribution is symmetrical, the mean, median and mode are identical. Therefore, measurements of area
and probability can be accurately determined (Howell, 2008). Probability inferences can be made
regarding a random sample of a variable that resembles a normal distribution in relationship to the mean
and standard deviation. The total area under the normal distribution curve is set at 1 and various
subdivisions of the area are used to interpret probabilities (Warner, 2007). For example assuming a
normal distribution and a sample mean (M) of 0 and a standard deviation (s) equal to 1, 68.26% of the
data distribution will fall within 1s from M, 95.44% within 2s from M, and 99.72% within 3s from M
(Warner, 2007).
The distribution shape is a key factor in determining what statistical analysis should be implemented by
the researcher. Statistical tests (i.e. t-test, Pearson r, ANOVA, etc.) tend to be very accurate when the
parametric statistical assumption of normality is met. Even when the dependent variable does not exactly
resemble a normal distribution, it is assumed that if the sample size is large enough the shape of the
sample distribution will approach normality.
Normally distributed x scores are often rescaled to have a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1 and are
referred to as standard scores or z scores. The areas that correspond to the z scores in a normal
distribution indicate that 5% (+ or 2.5% from the mean) of the scores will lie within 1.96 standard
deviations (z = + or 1.96) above and below the mean. Using the z formula, any mean and variance of a
distribution can be converted into z scores. Educators and psychological practitioners often encounter IQ
test standard scores derived from raw scores that have been linearly transformed into a z score
distribution with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. Because the standard normal distribution
is extensively tabled, z scores in this case can then be converted into percentile IQ scores as well. These
scores are useful for educators or researchers in determining a relatively accurate assessment of an
individuals cognitive functioning, intellectual ability and aptitude.
2) Parametric vs. Non-parametric statistics
Related to the concept of the normal distribution of scores is the use of either parametric or nonparametric
statistical analysis. Several criteria must be met for parametric statistics to accurately obtain sample
estimates of the population parameters (mean and standard deviation). Warner (2007) states that
parametric statistics assume that: 1) the quantitative data is normally distributed, 2) quantitative data of
the dependent variables are of interval or ratio scale of measurement, 3) sample variances of the
dependent variable scores are equal, and 4) statistical analysis will involve means, variances and sums of
squares (i.e. t test, ANOVA, Pearson r, etc.).
When all of these assumptions are violated, researchers should consider using non-parametric statistics.
However according to Warner (2007), if only one or two assumptions are violated it still may be
advantageous to use a parametric statistic. Non-parametric statistics are sometimes referred to as
assumption-free or distribution-free tests. According to Field (2005), technically this isnt necessarily
true as non-parametric tests do assume a continuous distribution, but they are generally less restrictive in
assumption criteria than parametric statistics. Non-parametric typically work on the principle of ranking
data.
Warner (2007) explains that non-parametric statistics: 1) do not require scores on the dependent variable
to be normally distributed, 2) do not require sample variances to be equal across groups, 3) have scales of
measurement that are usually ordinal or nominal, 4) use the median as a parameter instead of the mean, 5)
commonly use tests such as chi square test of association between categorical variables, Wilcoxon rank

sum test, sign test, and Friedman one way ANOVA by ranks and 6) can be used with smaller or unequal
sample populations..
There are a few disadvantages to using non-parametric statistics such as: 1) a general lack of researcher
familiarity with non-parametric tests, 2) less statistical power than parametric statistics in their ability to
detect an effect that genuinely exists, and 3) non-parametric statistics are limited in the number of
predictor and outcome variables that can used in the statistical analysis.
In conclusion, it is expedient for a researcher to examine three primary elements to determine which type
of statistic could potentially be used: 1) normality distribution of the outcome variable, 2) The sample
sizes (N) and 3) whether the outcome variable data is ordinal or nominal. If N is < 20 or sample sizes are
unequal, the distribution of scores is severely abnormal, and the outcome variable data is ordinal or
nominal, then a non-parametric statistic may be a useful application in data analysis.
Anthony Rhodes
General Psychology PhD

References

Field, A. (2005). Discovering statistics using SPSS (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
ISBN: 0761944524.

Howell, D.C. (2008). Fundamental statistics for the behavioral sciences (6th ed.). Belmont, CA:
Thomson Wadsworth. ISBN: 9780495099000.
Warner, R.M. (2007). Applied statistics: From bivariate through multivariate techniques. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage Publications. ISBN: 9780761927723.