Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Designation: D 257 99
2. Referenced Documents
2.1 ASTM Standards:
D 150 Test Methods for AC Loss Characteristics and Permittivity Dielectric Contant of Solid Electrical Insulation2
D 374 Test Methods for Thickness of Solid Electrical Insulation2
D 618 Practice for Conditioning Plastics for Testing3
D 1169 Test Method for Specific Resistance (Resistivity) of
Electrical Insulating Liquids4
D 1711 Terminology Relating to Electrical Insulation2
D 4496 Test Method for DC Resistance or Conductance of
Moderately Conductive Materials5
D 5032 Practice for Maintaining Constant Relative Humidity by Means of Aqueous Glycerin Solutions5
E 104 Practice for Maintaining Constant Relative Humidity
by Means of Aqueous Solutions6
1. Scope
1.1 These test methods cover direct-current procedures for
the determination of dc insulation resistance, volume resistance, volume resistivity, surface resistance, and surface resistivity of electrical insulating materials, or the corresponding
conductances and conductivities.
1.2 These test methods are not suitable for use in measuring
the electrical resistivity/conductivity of moderately conductive
materials. Use Test Method D 4496 to evaluate such materials.
1.3 The test methods and procedures appear in the following sections:
Test Method or Procedure
Calculation
Choice of Apparatus and Test Method
Cleaning Solid Specimens
Conditioning of Specimens
Effective Area of Guarded Electrode
Electrode Systems
Factors Affecting Insulation Resistance or Conductance
Measurements
Humidity Control
Liquid Specimens and Cells
Precision and Bias
Procedure for the Measurement of Resistance or Conductance
Referenced Documents
Report
Sampling
Significance and Use
Specimen Mounting
Summary of Test Methods
Terminology
Test Specimens for Insulation, Volume, and Surface
Resistance or Conductance Determination
Typical Measurement Methods
Section
13
7
10.1
11
X2
6
X1
3. Terminology
3.1 DefinitionsThe following definitions are taken from
Terminology D 1711 and apply to the terms used in these test
methods.
3.1.1 conductance, insulation, nthe ratio of the total
volume and surface current between two electrodes (on or in a
specimen) to the dc voltage applied to the two electrodes.
3.1.1.1 DiscussionInsulation conductance is the reciprocal of insulation resistance.
3.1.2 conductance, surface, nthe ratio of the current
between two electrodes (on the surface of a specimen) to the dc
voltage applied to the electrodes.
3.1.2.1 Discussion(Some volume conductance is unavoidably included in the actual measurement.) Surface conductance is the reciprocal of surface resistance.
3.1.3 conductance, volume, nthe ratio of the current in the
volume of a specimen between two electrodes (on or in the
specimen) to the dc voltage applied to the two electrodes.
11.2
9.4
15
12
2
14
8
5
10
4
3
9
X3
Annual
Annual
Annual
5
Annual
6
Annual
3
4
Book
Book
Book
Book
Book
of
of
of
of
of
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
Copyright ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.
Standards,
Standards,
Standards,
Standards,
Standards,
Vol
Vol
Vol
Vol
Vol
10.01.
08.01.
10.03.
10.02.
11.03.
D 257
3.1.11.1 DiscussionVolume resistivity is usually expressed in ohm-centimetres (preferred) or in ohm-metres.
Volume resistivity is the reciprocal of volume conductivity.
7
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to the list of references appended to
these test methods.
D 257
doubtful validity, considering the limitations of commonly
used measuring equipment.
5.6 Surface resistance or conductance cannot be measured
accurately, only approximated, because some degree of volume
resistance or conductance is always involved in the measurement. The measured value is also affected by the surface
contamination. Surface contamination, and its rate of accumulation, is affected by many factors including electrostatic
charging and interfacial tension. These, in turn, may affect the
surface resistivity. Surface resistivity or conductivity can be
considered to be related to material properties when contamination is involved but is not a material property in the usual
sense.
6. Electrode Systems
6.1 The electrodes for insulating materials should be of a
material that is readily applied, allows intimate contact with the
specimen surface, and introduces no appreciable error because
of electrode resistance or contamination of the specimen (5).
The electrode material should be corrosion-resistant under the
conditions of test. For tests of fabricated specimens such as
feed-through bushings, cables, etc., the electrodes employed
are a part of the specimen or its mounting. Measurements of
insulation resistance or conductance, then, include the contaminating effects of electrode or mounting materials and are
generally related to the performance of the specimen in actual
use.
6.1.1 Binding-Post and Taper-Pin Electrodes, Fig. 1 and
Fig. 2, provide a means of applying voltage to rigid insulating
materials to permit an evaluation of their resistive or conductive properties. These electrodes simulate to some degree the
actual conditions of use, such as binding posts on instrument
panels and terminal strips. In the case of laminated insulating
materials having high-resin-content surfaces, somewhat lower
insulation resistance values may be obtained with taper-pin
than with binding posts, due to more intimate contact with the
body of the insulating material. Resistance or conductance
values obtained are highly influenced by the individual contact
between each pin and the dielectric material, the surface
roughness of the pins, and the smoothness of the hole in the
dielectric material. Reproducibility of results on different
specimens is difficult to obtain.
6.1.2 Metal Bars in the arrangement of Fig. 3 were primarily devised to evaluate the insulation resistance or conduc-
D 257
6.1.3 Silver Paint, Fig. 4, Fig. 5, and Fig. 6, is available
commercially with a high conductivity, either air-drying or
low-temperature-baking varieties, which are sufficiently porous to permit diffusion of moisture through them and thereby
allow the test specimen to be conditioned after the application
of the electrodes. This is a particularly useful feature in
studying resistance-humidity effects, as well as change with
temperature. However, before conductive paint is used as an
electrode material, it should be established that the solvent in
the paint does not attack the material so as to change its
electrical properties. Reasonably smooth edges of guard electrodes may be obtained with a fine-bristle brush. However, for
circular electrodes, sharper edges can be obtained by the use of
a ruling compass and silver paint for drawing the outline circles
of the electrodes and filling in the enclosed areas by brush. A
narrow strip of masking tape may be used, provided the
pressure-sensitive adhesive used does not contaminate the
surface of the specimen. Clamp-on masks also may be used if
the electrode paint is sprayed on.
6.1.4 Sprayed Metal, Fig. 4, Fig. 5, and Fig. 6, may be used
if satisfactory adhesion to the test specimen can be obtained.
Thin sprayed electrodes may have certain advantages in that
they are ready for use as soon as applied. They may be
sufficiently porous to allow the specimen to be conditioned, but
this should be verified. Narrow strips of masking tape or
clamp-on masks must be used to produce a gap between the
guarded and the guard electrodes. The tape shall be such as not
to contaminate the gap surface.
6.1.5 Evaporated Metal may be used under the same conditions given in 6.1.4.
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8
American Conference of Governmental and Industrial Hygienists, 6500 Glenway Ave., Building D-7, Cincinnati, OH, 45211.
D 257
tested is either added to the cell between fixed electrodes or the
electrodes are forced into the material to a predetermined
electrode spacing. Because the configuration of the electrodes
in these cells is such that the effective electrode area and the
distance between them is difficult to measure, each cell
constant, K, (equivalent to the A/t factor from Table 1) can be
derived from the following equation:
K 5 3.6 p C 5 11.3 C
(1)
where:
K has units of centimetres, and
C has units of picofarads and is the capacitance of the electrode system with
air as the dielectric. See Test Methods D 150 for methods of measurement
for C.
6.1.10 Conducting Rubber has been used as electrode material, as in Fig. 4, and has the advantage that it can quickly and
easily be applied and removed from the specimen. As the
electrodes are applied only during the time of measurement,
they do not interfere with the conditioning of the specimen.
The conductive-rubber material must be backed by proper
plates and be soft enough so that effective contact with the
specimen is obtained when a reasonable pressure is applied.
NOTE 1There is evidence that values of conductivity obtained using
conductive-rubber electrodes are always smaller (20 to 70 %) than values
obtained with tinfoil electrodes (6). When only order-of-magnitude
accuracies are required, and these contact errors can be neglected, a
properly designed set of conductive-rubber electrodes can provide a rapid
means for making conductivity and resistivity determinations.
A
rv 5
t Rv
gv 5
Circular (Fig. 4)
Rectangular
Square
Tubes (Fig. 5)
Cables
A 5
t
A Gv
p~D1 1 g! 2
4
A = (a + g) (b + g)
A = (a + g) 2
A = pD0(L + g)
rv 5
2pLRv
D2
ln
D1
D2
D1
gv 5
2pLRv
ln
Circular (Fig. 4)
Rectangular
Square
Tubes (Figs. 5 and 6)
P = pD 0
P = 2(a + b + 2g)
P = 4(a + g)
P = 2 p D2
Nomenclature:
A = the effective area of the measuring electrode for the particular arrangement employed,
P = the effective perimeter of the guarded electrode for the particular arrangement employed,
Rv = measured volume resistance in ohms,
Gv = measured volume conductance in siemens,
Rs = measured surface resistance in ohms,
Gs = measured surface conductance in siemens,
t = average thickness of the specimen,
D0, D1, D2, g, L = dimensions indicated in Figs. 4 and 6 (see Appendix X2 for correction to g),
a, b, = lengths of the sides of rectangular electrodes, and
ln = natural logarithm.
A
gs 5
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insulation is negligible. Guard rings may be necessary at each
end. It may be desirable to add a small amount of sodium
chloride to the water to ensure high conductivity. Measurements may be performed at temperatures up to about 100C.
7. Choice of Apparatus and Test Method
7.1 Power SupplyA source of very steady direct voltage is
required (see X1.7.3). Batteries or other stable direct voltage
supplies may be used.
7.2 Guard CircuitWhether measuring resistance of an
insulating material with two electrodes (no guard) or with a
three-terminal system (two electrodes plus guard), consider
how the electrical connections are made between the test
instrument and the test sample. If the test specimen is at some
distance from the test instrument, or the test specimen is tested
under humid conditions, or if a relatively high (1010 to 1015
ohms) specimen resistance is expected, spurious resistance
paths can easily exist between the test instrument and test
specimen. A guard circuit is necessary to minimize interference
from these spurious paths (see also X1.9).
7.2.1 With Guard ElectrodeUse coaxial cable, with the
core lead to the guarded electrode and the shield to the guard
electrode, to make adequate guarded connections between the
test equipment and test specimen. Coaxial cable (again with the
shield tied back to the guard) for the unguarded lead is not
mandatory here (or in 7.2.2), although its use provides some
reduction in background noise (see also Fig. 8).
7.2.2 Without Guard ElectrodeUse coaxial cable, with the
core lead to one electrode and the shield terminated about 1 cm
from the end of the core lead (see also Fig. 9).
D 257
TABLE 2 Apparatus and Conditions for Use
Reference
Maximum Ohms
Detectable
at 500 V
Method
Section
Voltmeter-ammeter (galvanometer)
Comparison (galvanometer)
Voltmeter-ammeter (dc amplification, electrometer)
Figure
X3.1
X3.4
X3.2
X1
X3
X2(a)
(Position 1)
X2(a)
(Position 2)
X2(b)
X2(b)
X3.5
X4
X3.3
X5
commercial instruments
Maximum Ohms
Measurable to
66 % at 500 V
1012
1012
1011
1011
1015
1013
1015
1017
1017
1015
;100 MVF
1015
1013
1015
1015
1014
1014
Type of
Measurement
Ohms Shunted by
Insulation Resistance
from Guard to
Guarded
Electrode
deflection
deflection
deflection
10 to 105
10 to 105
102 to 109
deflection
deflection
null
102 to 103
103 to 1011
0 (effective)
null
deflection
direct-reading
105 to 106
unguarded
104 to 1010
the greater likelihood that lower valued, highly precise wirewound standard resistors can be used. Such amplifiers can be
obtained. Standard resistances of 100 GV known to 62 %, are
available. If 10-mV input to the amplifier or electrometer gives
full-scale deflection with an error not greater than 2 % of full
scale, with 500 V applied, a resistance of 5000 TV can be
measured with a maximum error of 6 % when the voltmeter
reads full scale, and 10 % when it reads 13 scale.
7.5.2.3 Comparison-GalvanometerThe maximum percentage error in the computed resistance or conductance is
given by the sum of the percentage errors in Rs, the galvanometer deflections or amplifier readings, and the assumption that
the current sensitivities are independent of the deflections. The
latter assumption is correct to well within 62 % over the useful
range (above 110 full-scale deflection) of a good, modern
galvanometer (probably 13 scale deflection for a dc current
amplifier). The error in Rs depends on the type of resistor used,
but resistances of 1 MV with a limit of error as low as 0.1 %
are available. With a galvanometer or d-c current amplifier
having a sensitivity of 10 nA for full-scale deflection, 500 V
applied to a resistance of 5 TV will produce a 1 % deflection.
At this voltage, with the preceding noted standard resistor, and
with Fs = 105, ds would be about half of full-scale deflection,
with a readability error not more than 61 %. If dx is approximately 14 of full-scale deflection, the readability error would
not exceed 64 %, and a resistance of the order of 200 GV
could be measured with a maximum error of 6512 %.
7.5.2.4 Voltage Rate-of-ChangeThe accuracy of the measurement is directly proportional to the accuracy of the
measurement of applied voltage and time rate of change of the
electrometer reading. The length of time that the electrometer
switch is open and the scale used should be such that the time
can be measured accurately and a full-scale reading obtained.
Under these conditions, the accuracy will be comparable with
that of the other methods of measuring current.
7.5.2.5 Comparison BridgeWhen the detector has adequate sensitivity, the maximum percentage error in the computer resistance is the sum of the percentage errors in the arms,
A, B, and N. With a detector sensitivity of 1 mV/scale division,
500 V applied to the bridge, and RN = 1 GV, a resistance of
1000 TV will produce a detector deflection of one scale
division. Assuming negligible errors in RA and RB, with RN = 1
GV known to within 62 % and with the bridge balanced to one
D 257
the measurement (this is particularly important for high-inputimpedance instruments, such as electrometers). If the gap is
made equal to twice the specimen thickness, as suggested in
9.3.3, so that the specimen can be used also for surface
resistance or conductance determinations, the effective area of
electrode No. 1 can be taken, usually with sufficient accuracy,
as extending to the center of the gap. If, under special
conditions, it becomes desirable to determine a more accurate
value for the effective area of electrode No. 1, the correction
for the gap width can be obtained from Appendix X2. Electrode No. 3 may have any shape provided that it extends at all
points beyond the inner edge of electrode No. 2 by at least
twice the specimen thickness.
9.2.4 For tubular specimens, electrode No. 1 should encircle
the outside of the specimen and its axial length should be at
least four times the specimen wall thickness. Considerations
regarding the gap width are the same as those given in 9.2.3.
Electrode No. 2 consists of an encircling electrode at each end
of the tube, the two parts being electrically connected by
external means. The axial length of each of these parts should
be at least twice the wall thickness of the specimen. Electrode
No. 3 must cover the inside surface of the specimen for an axial
length extending beyond the outside gap edges by at least twice
the wall thickness. The tubular specimen (Fig. 5) may take the
form of an insulated wire or cable. If the length of electrode is
more than 100 times the thickness of the insulation, the effects
of the ends of the guarded electrode become negligible, and
careful spacing of the guard electrodes is not required. Thus,
the gap between electrodes No. 1 and No. 2 may be several
centimetres to permit sufficient surface resistance between
these electrodes when water is used as electrode No. 1. In this
case, no correction is made for the gap width.
9.3 Surface Resistance or Conductance Determination:
9.3.1 The test specimen may be of any practical form
consistent with the particular objective, such as flat plates,
tapes, or tubes.
9.3.2 The arrangements of Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 were devised for
those cases where the volume resistance is known to be high
relative to that of the surface (2). However, the combination of
molded and machined surfaces makes the result obtained
generally inconclusive for rigid strip specimens. The arrangement of Fig. 3 is somewhat more satisfactory when applied to
specimens for which the width is much greater than the
thickness, the cut edge effect thus tending to become relatively
small. Hence, this arrangement is more suitable for testing thin
specimens such as tape, than for testing relatively thicker
specimens. The arrangements of Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 should never
be used for surface resistance or conductance determinations
without due considerations of the limitations noted previously.
9.3.3 The three electrode arrangements of Fig. 4, Fig. 6 and
Fig. 7 may be used for purposes of material comparison. The
resistance or conductance of the surface gap between electrodes No. 1 and No. 2 is determined directly by using
electrode No. 1 as the guarded electrode, electrode No. 3 as the
guard electrode, and electrode No. 2 as the unguarded electrode
(7, 8). The resistance or conductance so determined is actually
the resultant of the surface resistance or conductance between
electrodes No. 1 and No. 2 in parallel with some volume
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12.3.1 Measure the electrode dimensions and the distance
between the electrodes, g. Measure the surface resistance or
conductance between electrodes No. 1 and 2 with a suitable
device having the required sensitivity and accuracy. Unless
otherwise specified, the time of electrification shall be 60 s, and
the applied direct voltage shall be 500 6 5 V.
12.3.2 When the electrode arrangement of Fig. 3 is used, P
is taken as the perimeter of the cross section of the specimen.
For thin specimens, such as tapes, this perimeter effectively
reduces to twice the specimen width.
12.3.3 When the electrode arrangements of Fig. 6 are used
(and the volume resistance is known to be high compared to the
surface resistance), P is taken to be the length of the electrodes
or circumference of the cylinder.
13. Calculation
13.1 Calculate the volume resistivity, rv, and the volume
conductivity, gv, using the equations in Table 1.
13.2 Calculate the surface resistivity, rs, and the surface
conductivity, gs, using the equations in Table 1.
14. Report
14.1 Report the following information:
14.1.1 A description and identification of the material
(name, grade, color, manufacturer, etc.),
14.1.2 Shape and dimensions of the test specimen,
14.1.3 Type and dimensions of electrodes,
14.1.4 Conditioning of the specimen (cleaning, predrying,
hours at humidity and temperature, etc.),
14.1.5 Test conditions (specimen temperature, relative humidity, etc., at time of measurement),
14.1.6 Method of measurement (see Appendix X3),
14.1.7 Applied voltage,
14.1.8 Time of electrification of measurement,
14.1.9 Measured values of the appropriate resistances in
ohms or conductances in siemens,
14.1.10 Computed values when required, of volume resistivity in ohm-centimetres, volume conductivity in siemens per
centimetre, surface resistivity in ohms (per square), or surface
conductivity in siemens (per square), and
14.1.11 Statement as to whether the reported values are
apparent or steady-state.
11. Conditioning
11.1 The specimens shall be conditioned in accordance with
Practice D 618.
11.2 Circulating-air environmental chambers or the methods
described in Practices E 104 or D 5032 may be used for
controlling the relative humidity.
12. Procedure
12.1 Insulation Resistance or ConductanceProperly
mount the specimen in the test chamber. If the test chamber and
the conditioning chamber are the same (recommended procedure), the specimens should be mounted before the conditioning is started. Make the measurement with a suitable device
having the required sensitivity and accuracy (see Appendix ).
Unless otherwise specified, the time of electrification shall be
60 s and the applied direct voltage shall be 500 6 5 V.
12.2 Volume Resistivity or ConductivityMeasure the dimensions of the electrodes and width of guard gap, g. Make the
measurement with a suitable device having the required
sensitivity and accuracy. Unless otherwise specified, the time
of electrification shall be 60 s, and the applied direct voltage
shall be 500 6 5 V.
12.3 Surface Resistance or Conductance:
10
D 257
APPENDIXES
(Nonmandatory Information)
X1. FACTORS AFFECTING INSULATION RESISTANCE OR CONDUCTANCE MEASUREMENTS
(X1.3)
X1.3 Temperature and HumidityThe insulation resistance of solid dielectric materials decreases both with increasing temperature as described in X1.2 and with increasing
humidity (1, 2, 3, 4). Volume resistance is particularly sensitive
to temperature changes, while surface resistance changes
widely and very rapidly with humidity changes (2, 3). In both
cases the change is exponential. For some materials a change
from 25 to 100C may change insulation resistance or conductance by a factor of 100 000, often due to the combined effects
of temperature and moisture content change; the effect of
temperature change alone is usually much smaller. A change
from 25 to 90 % relative humidity may change insulation
resistance or conductance by as much as a factor of 1 000 000
or more. Insulation resistance or conductance is a function of
both the volume and surface resistance or conductance of the
specimen, and surface resistance changes almost instantaneously with change of relative humidity. It is, therefore,
absolutely essential to maintain both temperature and relative
humidity within close limits during the conditioning period and
to make the insulation resistance or conductance measurements
in the specified conditioning environment. Another point not to
be overlooked is that at relative humidities above 90 %, surface
condensation may result from inadvertant fluctuations in humidity or temperature produced by the conditioning system.
This problem can be avoided by the use of equivalent absolute
humidity at a slightly higher temperature, as equilibrium
moisture content remains nearly the same for a small temperature change. In determining the effect of humidity on volume
resistance or conductance, extended periods of conditioning
are required, since the absorption of water into the body of the
dielectric is a relatively slow process (10). Some specimens
require months to come to equilibrium. When such long
periods of conditioning are prohibitive, use of thinner specimens or comparative measurements near equilibrium may be
reasonable alternatives, but the details must be included in the
test report.
(X1.1)
where:
R = resistance (or resistivity) of an insulating material or
system,
B = proportionality constant,
m = activation constant, and
T = absolute temperature in kelvin (K).
This equation is a simplified form of the Arrhenius equation
relating the activation energy of a chemical reaction to the
absolute temperature; and the Boltzmann principle, a general
law dealing with the statistical distribution of energy among
large numbers of minute particles subject to thermal agitation.
The activation constant, m, has a value that is characteristic of
a particular energy absorption process. Several such processes
may exist within the material, each with a different effective
temperature range, so that several values of m would be needed
to fully characterize the material. These values of m can be
determined experimentally by plotting the natural logarithm of
resistance against the reciprocal of the absolute temperature.
The desired values of m are obtained from such a plot by
measuring the slopes of the straight-line sections of the plot.
This derives from (Eq X1.1), for it follows that by taking the
natural logarithm of both sides:
1
1n R 5 ln B 1 m T
(X1.2)
D S D
1
DT
1
ln ~R2/R1! 5 m T 2 T 5 m T T
2
1
1 2
11
D 257
difference is applied to a specimen, the current through it
generally decreases asymptotically toward a limiting value
which may be less than 0.01 of the current observed at the end
of 1 min (9, 11). This decrease of current with time is due to
dielectric absorption (interfacial polarization, volume charge,
etc.) and the sweep of mobile ions to the electrodes. In general,
the relation of current and time is of the form I(t) = At m, after
the initial charge is completed and until the true leakage current
becomes a significant factor (12, 13). In this relation A is a
constant, numerically the current at unit time, and m usually,
but not always, has a value between 0 and 1. Depending upon
the characteristics of the specimen material, the time required
for the current to decrease to within 1 % of this minimum value
may be from a few seconds to many hours. Thus, in order to
ensure that measurements on a given material will be comparable, it is necessary to specify the time of electrification. The
conventional arbitrary time of electrification has been 1 min.
For some materials, misleading conclusions may be drawn
from the test results obtained at this arbitrary time. A
resistance-time or conductance-time curve should be obtained
under the conditions of test for a given material as a basis for
selection of a suitable time of electrification, which must be
specified in the test method for that material, or such curves
should be used for comparative purposes. Occasionally, a
material will be found for which the current increases with
time. In this case either the time curves must be used or a
special study undertaken, and arbitrary decisions made as to
the time of electrification.
D 257
should be connected together until the measurement is to be
made to prevent any build-up of charge from the surroundings.
X1.7.3 Where appreciable specimen capacitance is involved, both the regulation and transient stability of the applied
voltage should be such that resistance or conductance measurements can be made to prescribed accuracy. Short-time transients, as well as relatively long-time drifts in the applied
voltage may cause spurious capacitive charge and discharge
currents which can significantly affect the accuracy of measurement. In the case of current-measuring methods particularly, this can be a serious problem. The current in the
measuring instrument due to a voltage transient is I0 = CxdV/dt.
The amplitude and rate of pointer excursions depend upon the
following factors:
X1.7.3.1 The capacitance of the specimen,
X1.7.3.2 The magnitude of the current being measured,
X1.7.3.3 The magnitude and duration of the incoming
voltage transient, and its rate of change,
X1.7.3.4 The ability of the stabilizing circuit used to provide a constant voltage with incoming transients of various
characteristics, and
X1.7.3.5 The time-constant of the complete test circuit as
compared to the period and damping of the current-measuring
instrument.
X1.7.4 Changes of range of a current-measuring instrument
may introduce a current transient. When Rm [Lt ] Rx and Cm[Lt
]Cx, the equation of this transient is
I 5 ~V0 / Rx!@I 2 e2t/RmCx#
X1.9 Guarding:
X1.9.1 Guarding depends on interposing, in all critical
insulated paths, guard conductors which intercept all stray
currents that might otherwise cause errors. The guard conductors are connected together, constituting the guard system and
forming, with the measuring terminals, a three-terminal network. When suitable connections are made, stray currents from
spurious external voltages are shunted away from the measuring circuit by the guard system.
X1.9.2 Proper use of the guard system for the methods
involving current measurement is illustrated in Figs. X1.1X1.3, inclusive, where the guard system is shown connected to
the junction of the voltage source and current-measuring
instrument or standard resistor. In Fig. X1.4 for the
Wheatstone-bridge method, the guard system is shown connected to the junction of the two lower-valued-resistance arms.
In all cases, to be effective, guarding must be complete, and
must include any controls operated by the observer in making
the measurement. The guard system is generally maintained at
a potential close to that of the guarded terminal, but insulated
from it. This is because, among other things, the resistance of
many insulating materials is voltage-dependent. Otherwise, the
direct resistances or conductances of a three-terminal network
are independent of the electrode potentials. It is usual to ground
the guard system and hence one side of the voltage source and
current-measuring device. This places both terminals of the
specimen above ground. Sometimes, one terminal of the
specimen is permanently grounded. The current-measuring
device usually is then connected to this terminal, requiring that
the voltage source be well insulated from ground.
X1.9.3 Errors in current measurements may result from the
fact that the current-measuring device is shunted by the
resistance or conductance between the guarded terminal and
the guard system. This resistance should be at least 10 to 100
times the input resistance of the current measuring device. In
some bridge techniques, the guard and measuring terminals are
brought to nearly the same potentials, but a standard resistor in
the bridge is shunted between the unguarded terminal and the
guard system. This resistance should be at least 1000 times that
of the reference resistor.
(X1.4)
where:
V0 = applied voltage,
Rx = apparent resistance of the specimen,
Rm = effective input resistance of the measuring instrument,
Cx = capacitance of the specimen at 1000 Hz,
Cm = input capacitance of the measuring instrument, and
t
= time after Rm is switched into the circuit.
For not more than 5 % error due to this transient,
RmCx # t/3
(X1.5)
13
D 257
X2.2 Fringing:
X2.2.1 If the specimen material is homogeneous and isotropic, fringing effectively extends the guarded electrode edge by
an amount (14, 19):
~g/2! 2 d
(X2.1)
(X2.2)
where:
and g and t are the dimensions indicated in Fig. 4 and Fig. 6.
The correction may also be written
g@1 2 ~2d/g!# 5 Bg
14
(X2.3)
D 257
where B is the fraction of the gap width to be added to the
diameter of circular electrodes or to the dimensions of rectangular or cylindrical electrodes.
X2.2.2 Laminated materials, however, are somewhat anisotropic after volume absorption of moisture. Volume resistivity
parallel to the laminations is then lower than that in the
perpendicular direction, and the fringing effect is increased.
With such moist laminates, d approaches zero, and the guarded
electrode effectively extends to the center of the gap between
guarded and unguarded electrodes (14).
X2.2.3 The fraction of the gap width g to be added to the
diameter of circular electrodes or to the electrode dimensions
of rectangular or cylindrical electrodes, B, as determined by the
preceding equation for d, is as follows:
g/t
0.1
0.2
0.3
B
0.96
0.92
0.88
g/t
1.0
1.2
1.5
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.8
0.85
0.81
0.77
0.71
2.0
2.5
3.0
0.41
0.34
0.29
B
0.64
0.59
0.51
(X3.1)
where:
K
= galvanometer sensitivity, in amperes per scale division,
d
= deflection in scale divisions,
F
= ratio of the total current, Ix, to the galvanometer
current, and
Vx = applied voltage.
X3.2 Voltmeter-Ammeter Method Using DC Amplification
or Electrometer:
X3.2.1 The voltmeter-ammeter method can be extended to
measure higher resistances by using dc amplification or an
electrometer to increase the sensitivity of the current measuring
device (6, 15, 16). Generally, but not necessarily, this is
achieved only with some sacrifice in precision, depending on
the apparatus used. The dc voltmeter and the dc amplifier or
15
D 257
s usually specified). Alternatively, the voltage, DV, appearing
on the electrometer in a time, Dt, can be used. Since this gives
an average of the rate-of-change of voltage during Dt, the time
Dt should be centered at the specified electrification time (time
since closing S2).
X3.3.2 If the input resistance of the electrometer is greater
than the apparent specimen resistance and the input capacitance is 0.01 or less of that of the specimen, the apparent
resistance at the time at which dV/dt or DV/Dt is determined is
where:
Vx =
=
Ix
Rs =
Vs =
(X3.3)
where:
C0 =
Rm =
Cm =
=
V0
Vm =
(X3.4)
(X3.2)
applied voltage,
specimen current,
standard resistance, and
voltage drop across Rs, indicated by the amplifier
output meter, the electrometer or the calibrated
potentiometer.
where:
16
(X3.5)
D 257
indicating meter of Fig. X1.2(a) can be replaced by a recording
milliammeter or millivoltmeter as appropriate for the amplifier
used. The recorder may be either the deflection type or the
null-balance type, the latter usually having a smaller error.
Null-balance-type recorders also can be employed to perform
the function of automatically adjusting the potentiometer
shown in Fig. X1.2(b) and thereby indicating and recording the
quantity under measurement. The characteristics of amplifier,
recorder balancing mechanism, and potentiometer can be made
such as to constitute a well integrated, stable, electromechanical, feedback system of high sensitivity and low error. Such
systems also can be arranged with the potentiometer fed from
the same source of stable voltage as the specimen, thereby
eliminating the voltmeter error, and allowing a sensitivity and
precision comparable with those of the Wheatstone-Bridge
Method (X3.5).
Fxand Fs
(X3.6)
(X3.7)
where RA, RB, and RN are as shown in Fig. X1.4. When arm
A is a rheostat, its dial can be calibrated to read directly in
megohms after multiplying by the factor RBRN which for
convenience can be varied in decade steps.
X3.6 RecordingsIt is possible to record continuously
against time the values of the unknown resistance or the
corresponding value of current at a known voltage. Generally,
this is accomplished by an adaptation of the voltmeter-ammeter
method, using dc amplification (X3.2). The zero drift of direct
coupled dc amplifiers, while slow enough for the measurements of X3.2, may be too fast for continuous recording. This
problem can be resolved by periodic checks of the zero, or by
using an ac amplifier with input and output converter. The
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17
D 257
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