BusinessCommunication

Tutor: Emilia Plcintar

Literature review
Academic writing depends on the research and ideas of others, so it is vital that students document
the source of all the materials used in their work. There are two main ways of referring to the
literature: (1) producing a paraphrased summary of the original source, or (2) using the exact words,
i.e. quoting. In both cases, a citation is included to provide the link to the list of references at the end
of a paper.
Where referencing is not properly done, plagiarism is said to have occurred. Plagiarism is a serious
academic offence and students who use the work of another person without explicit reference to the
explicit original author risk being penalised.
Task 1
There are many reasons why students should acknowledge the work of other researchers. In pairs /
groups, brainstorm the principle reasons for providing references.
Task 2 Decide if you need to give a reference in the following cases:
a) Data you found from your own primary research
b) A graph from an Internet article
c) A quotation from a book
d) An item of common knowledge
e) A theory from a journal article
f) An idea of your own
g) Some data that hat you used in your own previously conducted research
h) A proposition put forward by a researcher in a seminar
Question What is the difference between a bibliography and a reference list and which is
compulsory in academic writing?
PARAPHRASING
= using your own words to report someone elses writing, but maintaining an academic style
There are various techniques for rewriting a text for the purpose of including it in your own work.
These are:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

Changing word form (and the original sentence structure)

Alternating active and passive verbs
Using synonyms (without radical change to the original sentence structure
Using different logical connectors
Changing the order of information
Using nominalisations or packing noun groups (Changing verbs and adjectives into noun
structures)
7) Unpacking noun groups (Changing noun and adjectives into verb structures)
Task 3 Match the techniques for paraphrasing mentioned above(1-7) with the appropriate examples
below (a-g).
a) Corporations raise money by selling financial assets such as stocks. This increases both the
amount of cash held by the company and the amount of cash held by the public. Raising of money
by selling stocks enlarges the quantity of company-owned and public-owned cash.
b) Many management theories have been put forward to help us understand the concepts of
motivation and leadership. While they are interesting, some seem incomplete or flawed. Although
the numerous motivation and leadership theories that have been promoted are interesting, some
seem inaccurate.
c) The level of motivation that exists in assembly line workers is significantly low compared with other
jobs. Negative attitudes are more frequently found in factory employees than in other categories of
workers.

d) The expansion and consolidation of large companies into giant multinationals is increasing.
Major firms are increasingly developing and joining together to form large multinational businesses.
e) The entry of the company into several overseas markets has enabled the expansion and better
utilisation of the workforce with a resulting increase in output. The firm has entered a number of
foreign markets, which allows better use of more employees as well as higher productivity.
f) Salaries earned by company employees in Western countries are generally much higher in the rest
of world, but this is not associated with the employees knowledge and skills. The income of the
workforce in the developed world is usually larger than in undeveloped or emerging markets, but this
is not connected to job expertise.
g) The secret of success in financial management is to try to increase value. Attempting to improve
value is what all financial managers should aim for.
Task 4 Paraphrase the following short extracts using a combination of any of the above techniques as
appropriate.
1) It became widely accepted towards the end of the 80s that management had to become more
accountable to shareholders.
2) When corporations raise cash, some of that money is provided directly by individual investors, but
the greater proportion comes from financial institutions. The finance manager is the link between the
firm and these institutions.
3) Even if managers quit or are dismissed or replaced, the corporation will continue to survive. Today
SUMMARISING
= giving a brief account of the main points of some writing
A summary
is a brief restatement in your own words of a texts main ideas, that is, a recreation of the
meaning of the original in a way that makes sense for you;
is about 60% shorter than the original text the original texts examples, asides, analogies,
and rhetorical strategies are omitted;
focuses exclusively on the presentation of the writers main ideas and not on your
interpretations or opinions;
is not a table of contents;
relies on the use of standard signal phrases (According to the author..., The author
believes..., etc.).
When you write a summary,
write a sentence which states the central idea of the original text;
work through the text to identify its main stages of thought or arguments; write a one- or twosentence account of each section you identify;
state the articles conclusion;
follow the original organisation where possible;
use a lower level of technicality than the author of the original article does;
add no new data and none of your own ideas.
Task 5 Take an article that you have been assigned to read for class and analyse it using the template
below. This template can be modified for analyzing the logic of a chapter in a textbook.
1) The main purpose of this article is ________________________________.
(State as accurately as possible the authors purpose for writing the article.)
2) The key question that the author is addressing is ____________________.
(Figure out the key question in the mind of the author when s/he wrote the article.)
3) The most important information in this article is ___________________.
(Figure out the facts, experiences, data the author is using to support her/his
conclusions.)
4) The main inferences/conclusions in this article are __________________.
(Identify the key conclusions the author comes to and presents in the article.)

5) The key concept(s) we need to understand in this article is (are) ____________.

By these concepts the author means _________________________.
(Figure out the most important ideas you would have to understand in order to
understand the authors line of reasoning.)
6) The main assumption(s) underlying the authors thinking is (are) ___________.
(Figure out what the author is taking for granted [that might be questioned].)
7a) If we take this line of reasoning seriously, the implications are ______________.
(What consequences are likely to follow if people take the authors line of reasoning
seriously?)
7b) If we fail to take this line of reasoning seriously, the implications are __________.
(What consequences are likely to follow if people ignore the authors reasoning?)
8) The main point(s) of view presented in this article is (are) _________________.
(What is the author looking at, and how is s/he seeing it?)
USING QUOTATIONS
Notes
1. Quotations are effective in some situations, but must not be overused. They are valuable when

the original words express an idea in a distinctive way.

the original is more concise than your summary could be.
the original is well known (as in the quote below from Friedman).

As Friedman stated, Inflation is one form of taxation that can be imposed without legislation (1974:
93).
2. Students should avoid excessive use of direct quotations in their work, as frequent and
unnecessary usage reduces the impact of the citations and weakens the tone of the paper. The
relevance of each quote should be immediately apparent to the reader, for example,
to support a personal viewpoint;
to introduce a counter-argument;
to present the outcome of research.
3. All quotations should be introduced by a phrase that shows the source and also explains how this
quotation fits into an argument.
4. Care must be taken to ensure that quotations are the exact words of the original. If it is necessary
to delete some words which are irrelevant, use the ellipsis mark, or three dots () to show where the
missing section was.
5. It may be necessary to insert a word or phrase into the quotation to clarify a point. This can be done
by using square brackets [ ] as in:
This [second] category of products is distinguished by its high brand recognition and resistance to
switching strategies.
6. Longer quotations (of three lines or longer) are either indented or printed in smaller font size.
Examples of short in-text quotations:
Harrison (2005) highlights the need to combat unethical advertising aimed at children (p.23).
The need to combat unethical advertising aimed at children was highlighted in a recent study
(Harrison, 2005: 23).
Many researchers have argued against the practices of targeting children through advertising
strategies. Harrison (2005: 23) argues that there is a strong need to combat unethical advertising
aimed at children.
Paraphrased summary (or indirect quotation)
When writers avoid the use of direct quotations, they may choose to cite an external source by
paraphrasing the key ideas, that is, by rewording the main point. For example, if the direct quote was

Academic writers need to take care when making assertions in their work. In this respect, vague
language can be helpful as it allows claims to be made with due caution, modesty and humility
(Hyland, 1994: 241).
this could be paraphrased as:
Hedging language can be a useful tool to express caution in academic writing, for it enables the writer
to make statements in a careful or moderate manner. As such, students must pay attention to the
claims made in their analysis (Hyland, 1994).
Task 6 Study the following paragraph from an article entitled The Mobile Revolution in the journal
Development Quarterly (Issue 34 pages 85-97, 2009) by K. Hoffman.
According to recent estimates there are at least 4 billion mobile phones in the world, and the majority
of these are owned by people in the developing world. Ownership in the developed world reached
saturation level by 2007, so countries such as China, India and Brazil now account for most of the
growth. In the poorest countries, with weak transport networks and unreliable postal services, access
to telecommunications is a vital tool for starting or developing a business, since it provides access to
wider markets. Studies have shown that when household incomes rise, more money is spent on
mobile phones than any other item.
a) Summary
Hoffman (2009) stresses the critical importance of mobile phones in the developing world in the
growth of small businesses.
b) Quotation
According to Hoffman, mobile phone ownership compensates for the weaknesses of infrastructure in
the developing world: In the poorest countries, with weak transport networks and unreliable postal
services, access to telecommunications is a vital tool for starting or developing a business, since it
provides access to wider markets (2009: 87).
c) Summary and quotation
Hoffman points out that most of the growth in mobile phone ownership now takes place in the
developing world, where it has become crucial for establishing a business: access to
telecommunications is a vital tool for starting or developing a business, since it provides access to
wider markets (2009: 87).
Task 6 Read the next paragraph of the same article, also on p. 87 of the same source.
In such countries the effect of phone ownership on GDP growth is much stronger than in the
developed world, because the ability to make calls is being offered for the first time, rather than as an
alternative to existing landlines. As a result, mobile phone operators have emerged in Africa, India and
other parts of Asia that are larger and more flexible than Western companies, and which have grown
by catering for poorer customers, being therefore well placed to expand downmarket. In addition,
Chinese phone makers have successfully challenged the established Western companies in terms of

quality as well as innovation. A further trend is the provision of services via the mobile network which
offer access to information about healthcare or agricultural advice.
a) Write a summary of the main point, including a citation.
b) Introduce a quotation to show the key point, referring to the source.
c) Combine 1) and 2), acknowledging the source.
Abbreviations in citations
In-text citations use the following abbreviations, derived from Latin and printed in italics:
et al. used when three or more authors are given; the full list of names is given in the reference list;
ibid. taken from the same source (i.e. the same page) as the previous citation;
op. cit. taken from the same source as previously, but a different page.
Combining sources / Synthesising
Most assignments expect students to read a variety of sources, often reflecting conflicting views on
the topic. In the early stages of an essay it is common to discuss the contributions of other writers to
the subject. This example from a comparison of technology readiness in Chinese and American
consumers demonstrates how a writer can present and organise a range of sources. Study it and
answer the questions below (a-e).
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

How many sources are mentioned here?

What was the subject of Meuter, Ostrom, Bitner and Roundtrees research?
Which source contrasted fear of computers with playing with computers?
Which source examined the paradox of positive and negative attitudes to computers?
How many sources are cited that studied attitudes to particular technologies?

Task 7 The two texts below (1 and 2) reflect different approaches to the topic of globalisation. Read
them both and then study the extract from an introduction to an essay that mentions the two sources.
Answer the questions that follow.
(1) GLOBALISATION
It has been argued that globalization is not a new phenomenon, but has its roots in the age of colonial
development in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. However, its modern use can be dated to
1983, when Levitts article The Globalisation of Markets was published. Among the many definitions
of the process that have been suggested, perhaps the simplest is the relatively free movement of
services, goods, people and ideas worldwide. An indication of the positive effect of the process is that
cross-border world trade, as a percentage of global GDP, was 15 per cent in 1990 but it is expected to
reach 30 per cent by 2015. Among the forces driving globalization in the last two decades have been
market liberalization, cheap communication via the internet and telephony, and the growth of the BRIC
(Brazil, Russia, India and China) economies.

Source: Costa, L. 2008

(2) GLOBALISATION
Considerable hostility to the forces of globalization has been demonstrated in both the developed and
developing worlds. In the former, there is anxiety about the outsourcing of manufacturing and service
jobs to countries which offer cheaper labour, while developing countries claim that only a minority
have benefited from the increase in world trade. They point out that per capita income in the 20
poorest countries has hardly changed in the past 40 years, while in the richest 20 it has tripled. The
markets of Western nations are still closed to agricultural products from developing countries, and
while there is free movement of goods and capital, migration from poor countries to rich ones is tightly
controlled.
Source: Lin, Y. 2006
ESSAY EXTRACT
Costa (2008) argues that globalization although not a modern phenomenon, has recently accelerated,
encouraged by forces such as liberalisation of markets and cheap communication. In particular, it has
had a powerful effect in increasing world trade, especially benefiting the BRIC economies such as
Brazil and China. However, Lin (2006) emphasizes the negative reactions that have been produced
by the process. She highlights the fears of unemployment in richer nations created by outsourcing
work, matched by the concerns of poorer states that they are not sharing in the economic growth due
to barriers in their trade and labour.
Questions:
(a) The essay extract summarises ideas from both Costa and lin. Find an example of a summary in
the extract and match it with the original text in (1) or (2).
Summary

Original

(b) Which verbs are used to introduce the summaries?

(c) Which word marks the point where the writer switches from considering Costa to dealing with Lin?
(d) What other words or phrases could be used at this point?
Task 8 Read the third text on globalization below and then complete the paragraph from an essay
entitled Globalisation mainly benefits multinational companies rather than ordinary people Discuss,
using all three sources.
(3) Multinational companies have undoubtedly benefited from the relaxation of the import tariff
regimes which previously protected local firms, allowing them to operate more freely in markets such
as India which have recently liberalised. These corporations have evolved two distinct approaches to
the challenge of globalisation. Some, e.g. Gillette, have continued to produce their products in a few
large plants with strict control to ensure uniform quality, while others, e.g. Coca Cola, vary the product
to suit local tastes and tend to manufacture their goods on the spot. They claim that an understanding
of regional differences is essential for competing with national rivals.
Source: Brokaw, P. 2002
Lin (2006) demonstrates .

Reporting verbs
The following table classifies reporting verbs by their function and strength (the list is not exhaustive).
STRENGTH AND FUNCTION
NEUTRAL: verbs commonly used to present
what the writer considers to be factual
TENTATIVE: verbs used to speculate, with a
degree of caution
STRONG: verbs often used to make strong
claims and arguments

EXAMPLE VERBS
describe, show, reveal, study, demonstrate,
note, point out, indicate, report, observe,
assume, take into consideration, examine,
elaborate, state, mention
suggest, speculate, intimate, hypothesise, imply,
propose, recommend, posit the view that,
question the view that, postulate
argue, claim, emphasise, contend, maintain,
assert, theorise, support the view that, deny,
negate, refute, reject, challenge, strongly
believe that, counter the view/ argument that.

Compiling the list of references

At the end of an academic work, there must be a list of all the sources cited in the writing. Note that
the list is organised alphabetically by the family name of the author. In citations, only the family name
is usually used: Burford (2001); in reference lists, the family name and the first initial are used:
Burford, S.
Example:
Klein, N. (2000) No Logo: No Space, No Choice, No Jobs: Taking Aim at the Brand Bullies. London:
Flamingo Press.
Wise, P.W. (2004) Why Wear Brands? In: Kendal, S. (ed.) The Power of Brands. London: Edward
Arnold, pp. 522.
For
a
full
guide
to
the
use
http://libweb.anglia.ac.uk/referencing/harvard.htm

of

the

Harvard

system

References
Bailey, S. Academic Writing for International Students of Business. New York: Routledge.
Butt, S. (2012) Citation and Referencing Guide. Birmingham: Creative Media.
Gillett, A. (1999) Using English for Academic Purposes. A Guide for Students in Higher Education. [e-book]
http://libweb.anglia.ac.uk/referencing/harvard.htm
http://owl.english.purdue.edu
http://www.uefap.com
Oshima, A. and Hogue, A. (2009) Writing Academic English (Third Edition). London: Longman.

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