Professional Documents
Culture Documents
WATER
The positive and negative (+ and -) indicate that there are small amounts of positive and
When electrons are shared between atoms, they are not shared equally between those atoms
because some nuclei of these atoms attract more electrons than others. In a water molecule,
the nucleus of the oxygen attracts more electrons than the two nuclei of the hydrogen atoms.
So, oxygen is slightly negative while hydrogen atoms are slightly positive.
The condition where in a molecule one side is slightly positive and the other side is slightly
negative is called dipole and the molecule is called dipolar, so, a water molecule is dipolar.
and COOH (carboxyl group): and sugars whose polar group is OH.
Example of an ionic substance is sodium chloride whose ions are Na + and Cl-.
When ionic /polar substance is placed in water, the following takes place:
1. Attraction of the positive ions by the oxygen of water and the attraction of the negative
When in large numbers, hydrogen bonds are very hard to break using heat.
When hydrogen bonds between water molecules are broken, water is converted into vapour
atom has 2 negative charges) and the positive charge of the hydrogen atom. Water, unlike
CO2, is dipolar and therefore hydrogen bonds form between water molecules, holding these
3
molecules together forming liquid. This is why at room temperature water is liquid and CO 2 is
gas.
Due to its dipolar nature, hydrogen bonds are formed between water molecules hence; water
remains liquid at room temperature.
2. Cohesion
-
3. Adhesion
-
Attraction force between non-identical molecules e.g. water and xylem wall.
Hydrogen bonds allow water to hold onto other substances e.g. to hold onto the walls of the
xylem to allow water to be transported in a continuous unbroken column in the xylem.
Specific heat capacity (SHC) is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1kg
of water by 10C.
Water has a high SHC due to hydrogen bonds (it is not easy to raise the temperature of water
importance 33
- include;
a) The temperature of water bodies such as oceans remains relatively
constant for the survival of aquatic animals.
b) Stable temperature in living organisms so that enzymes remain stable.
5. Latent Heat of vaporation
-
Latent heat of vaporization is the amount of energy required to convert liquid to vapour.
Water has high latent heat of vaporization due to hydrogen bonds.
The importance of this property of water is that water is a coolant (cooling agent), through
sweating in humans, transpiration in plants, panting in dogs and gaping in crocodiles.
4
to hydrogen bonds.
The water molecules beneath the ones on the surface pull the ones on the surface inwards by
open up, increasing the volume and decreasing the density i.e. water expands as it freezes.
The importance of this is that ice acts as a heat insulator so that the lower atmospheric
temperature during winter does not affect the water below the ice, hence the water below this
ice remains relatively warm for the survival of aquatic animals.
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Jan 2014
1b
CARBOHYDRATES
-
a) Sugars
-
monosaccharides
disaccharides
MONOSACCHARIDES
A carbonyl group becomes an aldehyde group when a hydrogen atom is attached to it. It
is this aldehyde group that reduces metallic ions. A monosaccharide with an aldehyde
Linear forms are less stable but they reduce metallic ions because of availability of carbonyl
groups.
Ring forms have molecular stability but cannot reduce metallic ions due to loss of carbonyl
groups, so, in Benedicts test, heating the monosaccharide is meant to open up the ring form
into the linear form to expose the carbonyl groups that reduce the metallic ions.
Trioses
-
Pentoses
-
consists of ribose
b) Synthesis of a nucleotide co-enzymes (hydrogen acceptors) such as NAD and FAD
7
respiration.
The common hexoses are glucose, fructose and galactose
Glucose
-
- glucose
- glucose
Note
-
In - glucose, OH on carbon atom One (C1) is below the ring or below carbon atom one (C1).
In - glucose the, OH on carbon atom one (C1) is above the ring or above carbon atom one (C1).
The importance of isomerism in glucose is that it gives different types of polysaccharides as
follows:
a) Starch and glycogen are made up of glucose
b) Cellulose is made up of - glucose
The importance of glucose include;
a) It is a respiratory substrate that provides energy when respired.
b) It synthesizes disaccharides and polysaccharides.
Fructose
Fructose is a sugar which is present naturally in fruits, some vegetables and honey. The
structure of fructose is as follows:
Galactose
-
It occurs in our diet mainly as part of the disaccharide sugar called lactose (milk sugar)
DISACCHARIDES
-
Condensation reaction involves a loss of water molecule when 2 monosaccharides join through a
bond.
In disaccharides, the bond that joins the monosaccharides together is called a glycosidic bond.
Hydrolysis reaction involves the addition or gain of a water molecule to break down the
glycosidic bond in the disaccharide in order to get individual monosaccharides.
10
Maltose
-
It is a disaccharide
It is made up of 2 -glucose molecules
Its chemical formula is C12H22O11
It is mainly found in seeds. It is hydrolyzed into glucose and this glucose is respired to provide
Sucrose
-
It is a disaccharide
Made up of glucose and fructose
Chemical formula is C12H22O11
Mainly found in sugar cane and sugar beet
It is the form of carbohydrate transported in the phloem of plants.
Lactose
-
It is a disaccharide
Made up of glucose and galactose
Its chemical formula is C12H22O11
Mainly found in mammalian milk to provide energy for the infants when it is hydrolyzed.
11
Polysaccharides
-
It is a polysaccharide
It is made up of -glucose molecules
These glucose molecules are joined by glycosidic bonds
Starch consist of 30% amylose and 70% amylopectin
Amylose consists of about 300 glucose molecules which are joined by 1, 4 glycosidic bonds. It is
unbranched hence has only 1, 4 glycosidic bonds. It is helical / coiled. It consists of 30% of
starch. When iodine solution is added, it turns blue black.
.
-
NB
12
Amylopectin
Long (1,500 glucose molecules)
Branched, hence has 1,4 and 1,6
bonds
30% starch
Turns blue black with iodine solution
Less compact hence less amount of
glycosidic bonds
70% starch
Turns reddish brown with iodine solution
More compact hence more energy
energy
Glycogen
-
It is a polysaccharide
Made up of - glucose molecules
Glucose are joined together by glycosidic bonds
13
It is branched, hence has 1, 4 and 1, 6 glycosidic bonds. Branches occur after every 8 to 12
Note
Amylopectin (starch) and glycogen are energy storage molecules, they are both branched and
coiled but glycogen is more branched, hence more compact, therefore stores more energy.
energy.
6. Easily hydrolyzed by enzymes to release many glucose molecules when energy is needed.
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June 2010
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June 2012
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Jan 2014
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q1a, b, c
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Lipids
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3. Waxes
Triglycerides
Each ester bond is formed in a condensation reaction/esterification reaction in which a water molecule is
Fatty acids
-
combinations.
A fatty acid is made up of 2 components;
1. Carboxylic group (COOH)
2. Hydrocarbon Chain (CH2)n CH3.
A fatty acid can be represented as follows
15
Formation of triglyceride
-
Fatty acids join the glycerol molecule one at a time by an ester bond i.e. monoglyceride, diglyceride and
triglyceride
Formation of an ester bond is through condensation reaction where a water molecule is formed. To form
water, glycerol loses hydrogen and fatty acids losses OH.
They have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms and have only single carbon carbon bonds in their
hydrocarbon chain.
Saturation refers to the amount of hydrogen in the molecule.
Triglycerides with saturated fatty acids are called saturated triglycerides.
16
Due to lack of double carbon carbon bonds in the hydrocarbon chain, there is no straining hence no
kinking (bending) and therefore they have high melting point, above 40 0C and therefore they remain solid
Fatty
No of double C-C
acids
Palmitic
Stearic
Lauric
bonds
0
0
0
M.P
Palm oil
Cocoa and animal fat
Coconut oil and palm oil
63
68
44
They have less number of hydrogen atoms and have at least one double carbon-carbon bond (C=C bond) in
the hydrocarbon chain. In addition, there is a double bond between carbon and oxygen in the carboxylic
group.
Due to double C-C bonds, there is straining, causing kinking that lowers the melting point and therefore
they remain liquid at both room and body temperature. The more the double C-C bonds, the more the
They have more than one double covalent bonds (C=C) in their hydrocarbon tail.
Example is linoleic fatty acid whose melting point is -40C and is mainly found in maize and sunflower.
Other poly-unsaturated triglycerides include: fish oil, soya bean oil, cotton seed oil and sesame oil.
The following table summarizes the differences between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids:
17
Saturated
1. Maximum number of hydrogen atoms
2. Have only single C-C covalent bonds
in the hydrocarbon tail
3. Have no kinks due to lack of double
covalent bonds hence has a straight
chain
4. Solid at room temperature due to
high melting points
Functions of triglycerides
Unsaturated
Low number of hydrogen atoms
Have double covalent bonds (C=C) in the
hydrocarbon tail
Have kinks due to presence of double
covalent bonds hence has a bent chain
Liquids at room temperature due to low
melting points
1. Energy store
-
Generates more than twice the energy generated by carbohydrates. Triglycerides are essential energy
stores because of the following properties;
a) Insoluble (no osmotic effect)
b) Generates a lot of energy due to long carbon chains.
c) Compact hence a lot can be stored in the cell.
3. Heat/thermal insulation
-
Triglycerides are poor thermal conductors (poor conductors of heat) e.g. adipose tissue (tissue that
stores a lot of fat beneath the skin) reduces heat loss from the body.
Triglycerides are soft and therefore cushion the delicate organs such as heart, lungs and kidneys so that
they are not damaged.
Metabolic water is important in desert mammals such as camels to supplement the little water they get.
Phospholipids
-
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1. Glycerol
2. Fatty acids
3. Phosphate group
The summarized structure of phospholipids
1- Phosphate heads
2- Fatty acids tail
Phospholipids are used to synthesize biological membranes.
Cholesterol
-
This is a lipid.
Cholesterol is not a saturated fat but is made up in the liver from saturated fats absorbed from food.
The structure of cholesterol is
June 2009
Jan 2011
June 2012
June 2013
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q4bi,ii
q3a
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organisms.
Small organisms such as amoeba have large surface area to volume ratio and therefore they
S.A: Volume
S.A: Volume
(2 x 2) 6: 2 x 2 x 2
(8 x 8) 6: 8 x 8 x 8
24:8
SA/V=24/8=3
384:512
SA/V=384/512=0.75
Cardiovascular system 11
-
The features of the mass transport system such as cardiovascular system include;
(i)
A system of vessels that carries substances.
(ii)
A way of making sure that substances are moved in the right (one) direction.
(iii)
A means of moving materials fast enough to supply the needs of organism e.g. pumping of
the heart and the use of active transport.
A suitable transport medium e.g. blood, lymph
(iv)
It
It
It
It
It
transports the requirements needed by the cells of the body e.g. glucose and oxygen.
transports the waste products of metabolism from the cells e.g. urea and CO 2.
carries hormones from endocrine glands to target cells.
forms part of the defense system of the body.
distributes heat throughout the body, hence maintains homeostasis.
It
It
It
It
It
pulmonary artery.
The left side of the heart (left pump) receives oxygenated blood from the lungs through
Atria have thinner cardiac muscles while ventricles have thicker cardiac muscles. However the
left ventricle has thicker muscles than the right ventricle.
(mitral) values.
As the blood enters the atrium via vena cava and pulmonary vein, due to its
weight, the A.V valves open and allow two-third of the ventricles to be filled
passively with blood so that the contraction of the atria tops up the blood in the
ventricles.
b) Thick muscles of the right ventricle
When it contracts, it pumps blood to the lungs via pulmonary artery and back to
the left atrium via pulmonary vein. This circulation of blood from the heart to the
lungs and back to the heart is called pulmonary circulation.
22
This means that the blood flows through the heart twice in one circulation.
It involves pulmonary circulation (circulation of blood from the heart to the lungs and back to
the heart) and systemic circulation (circulation of blood from the heart to the boy and back to
the heart).
NB
Fish have single circulation where blood flows from the body to the heart, then from the heart to
the gills and from the gills it does not flow to the heart but it flows to the body. So, it flows to
the heart once in a single circulation.
ultra filtration.
High pressure in the body ensures that the blood reaches all parts of the body, it
overcomes the effects of elastic recoil and the effects of the combined
2.
can be moved to the body faster and the wastes can be moved to the lungs faster.
3. No mixture of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. Oxygenated blood is in the left side and
deoxygenated in the right side.
4. Muscles of mammals need a lot of oxygen and double circulation serves this purpose.
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They are atrio-venticular valves found between the atria and the ventricles. These are;
1) Bicuspid valve (or mitral valve)
- it is found between the left atrium and the left ventricle.
- its functions are:
a) allows blood to flow from the left atrium into the left ventricle.
b) Prevents the backflow of blood from the left ventricle to the left atrium
during ventricular systole, so that the blood enters the aorta.
2) Tricuspid valve
- It is found between the right atrium and the right ventricle.
- Its functions are;
a) It allows blood to flow from the right atrium into the right ventricle.
b) It prevents the backflow of blood from the right ventricle in the right atrium
so that the blood enters the pulmonary artery.
24
25
26
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Vena cava
Right atrium
Tricuspid valve
Heartstrings (tendons)
Papillary muscles
Right ventricle
Right/pulmonary semi-lunar valve
Pulmonary artery
Lungs
Pulmonary vein
Left atrium
Bicuspid valve
Left ventricle
Left/aortic semi-lunar valve
Aorta
Body
Septum
27
Control of the opening and closing of the atrio-venticular valves (AV valves)
-
Heartstrings prevent the valves from inverting (turning inside out) during ventricular systole.
The papillary muscles adjust tension in the heartstrings, i.e. they contract to pull on tendons
These sounds are made when the blood hits the AV valves and the semi-lunar valves.
These 2 sounds of the heart are described as lub and dub
The first sound (lub) comes when the AV valves close and the blood hits against these valves
muscles.
Through diffusion, the requirements such as glucose and oxygen enter the cardiac muscle
through capillary walls.
Heart beat
-
The beating of the heart produces sound called the heart beats.
These sounds are lub and dub.
28
The rate of the heart beat shows how fast the heart is contracting.
must beat faster to supply them with these requirements and to remove the waste.
Permissible drugs these include caffeine and nicotine that raise the heart rate .
Illegal drugs they raise the heart rate.
Stress and excitement they raise the heart rate due to the production of adrenaline.
Rest and relaxation they lower the heart rate.
Age in small children it is much higher than adults.
Temperature - the higher the temperature, the higher the heart rate.
Cardiac cycle
-
It is the sequence of events that take place in one heart beat and it last for 0.83 second. It is
initiated at the sino-atrial node (SAN) also called pacemaker. These events are: Atrial systole
(0.1s), ventricular systole (0.3s) and complete cardiac diastole (0.4s).
This is the contraction of the atria when they are filled up with blood.
Its role is to pump blood into the ventricles from the atria via AV valves.
It lasts for about 0.1s.
During atrial systole, AV valves are opened.
During atrial systole, semi-lunar valves are closed.
During atrial systole, atria are contracted and ventricles are relaxed.
2. Ventricular systole
-
This is the contraction of the ventricles when they are filled up with blood.
Its role is to pump blood into the aorta and the pulmonary artery from the ventricles.
It lasts for 0.3s
29
During ventricular systole, the AV valves close to prevent the backflow of blood from the
into the atria via the vena cava and pulmonary vein, hence refilling the heart with blood.
So, the role of the diastole is to refill the heart with blood.
It lasts for 0.4 second.
During diastole, the AV valves open.
During diastole the semi-lunar valves are closed.
Pressure changes in the left part of the heart during cardiac cycle.
-
During the left atrial systole, the atrial pressure is greater than the left ventricular pressure
because of the refilling of the left atrium by the blood from the pulmonary vein.
The blood enters the left ventricle.
When the pressure of the left ventricle exceeds the pressure of the left atrium, the bicuspid
valve closes to prevent the backflow of blood from the left ventricle into the left atrium.
The pressure of the left ventricle rises suddenly and forces open the left semi-lunar valve
The pressure in the aorta begins to rise but still it is less than the pressure in the left
ventricle.
When the pressure in the aorta exceeds the pressure in the left ventricle, the left semi-lunar
valve closes to prevent the backflow of blood to the left ventricle from the aorta.
This causes the pressure in the left ventricle to suddenly drop causing relaxation of the heart
(diastole) and during this time, there is refilling of the atria that causes the opening of the AV
valves.
The pressure in the aorta continues to reduce as the blood flows towards the tissues.
30
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Question
The following graph shows pressure changes in the left part of the heart
therefore does not pump out all the blood leading to relatively more pressure.
32
The pressure of blood in the arteries varies with the heart beat i.e. when the heart contracts, the
blood pressure increases and when the heart relaxes and refills, the blood pressure in the arteries
decreases. In the arteries, there is a high pressure because of the following reasons.
a) Little peripheral resistance due to relatively wider lumen.
Peripheral resistance is the friction between the blood and the inner smooth surface of the
blood
a)
b)
c)
d)
Questions
1.
Describe why the blood pressure in the capillaries does not increase even though they are very narrow?
This is because they form many capillaries which together have greater total cross section area
than that of the main artery and so the pressure is shared by these many capillaries hence reducing
the pressure.
2. What is the importance of low blood pressure in the capillaries?
It gives enough time for the exchange of materials through diffusion with the tissues.
To prevent bursting of capillaries
3. What are the adaptations of capillaries to exchange of substances?
The wall is one cell thick to reduce diffusion distance
They have pores to allow for the exchange of substances
33
large muscular left ventricle, more pressure is generated which overcomes elastic recoil.
Briefly describe blood pressure measurements
Blood pressure is measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg)
Blood pressure is measured using an apparatus called sphygmomanometer
Systolic reading of a 120mmHg and a diastolic reading of 80mmHg i.e. 120/80 is regarded as normal
Systolic blood pressure is when the ventricles contract powerfully while diastolic blood pressure is when
NB
-
The systolic pressure is the maximum pressure when the heart/ventricles contracts;120mmHg
The diastolic pressure is the minimum pressure when the heart relaxes; 80mmHg
The two are measured using sphygmomanometer.
BLOOD VESSELS
Mammals such as humans have closed circulatory system. This means that blood flows in
vessels. These vessels are;
1. Arteries
2. Veins
3. Capillaries
Some organisms such as insects have open circulatory system. The heart of the insect is a
long tube. It pumps blood into the body cavity so that blood surrounds the cells. The blood
then passes back into the heart from the body cavity. The insect does not need blood
vessels to transport blood around the body because;
1. Insects have large surface area to volume ratio and so diffusion of blood is enough to
exchange materials.
2. The cells are in contact with the blood.
34
3. The heart and blood are close together hence movement of blood back to the heart is fast
4. Low metabolism (chemical reactions in a cell) in insects and therefore only need diffusion of
blood to get the requirements.
35
When
the
above
leg
muscle contracts valve J closes to prevent back flow of blood in the vein. Valve k opens due to
increased pressure of blood.
36
Vessel
1. Artery
Structure
Tunica adventitia collagen fibres
Functional significance
Collagen fibres provide strength so
Tunica media
a) Smooth muscles
b) Elastic fibres
blood flow.
2. Vein
For strength
It reduces friction between the
(squamous epithelium).
Narrow lumen
flow
To maintain high pressure of
blood.
Blood is under low pressure hence
collagen fibres
Tunica media
squamous epithelium.
Wide lumen
Valves
37
Pores
Capillary network/bed
No valves
No collagen fibres
Narrow lumen
So that they can easily fit
between cells
No elastic fibres
3 layers
Valves
No pores
Wider lumen
Have collagen
Capillaries
1 layer
No valves
Pores
fibres,
elastic
Narrower lumen
None
Capillaries
1 layer
Pores
None
Veins
Thin walls
Wide lumen
Have series of valves
Shallowly seated
Veins
Carry blood to the heart
Except for pulmonary vein and umbilical
cord vein, they carry deoxygenated
38
oxygenated blood
3. They carry blood under high
blood
They carry blood under low pressure
pressure
4. Blood flows in pulses
Describe how the blood moves in veins from the body back to the heart
1. Series of semi-lunar valves that prevent back flow of blood.
2. Contraction of skeletal muscles so that they push on veins for blood to move forward.
3. Breathing in (inhalation/inspiration)- this reduces pressure in the thoracic cavity forcing
the blood to move towards it.
4. Diastole- this cause reduced pressure in the heart and the blood moves towards it.
Questions on Transport
1) Jan 09 q5
2) Jun 09 q3
3) Jan 2010 q4
4) Jun 2010 q2
5) Jan 2011 q2 & q4
6) Jun 2012 q3
7) Jan 2013 q1, q5a (i), (ii)
8) Jun 2013 q4 (c)
9) Jun 2013R q1b, q5b (ii)
10) Jan 2014 q2 & q4b
39
Platelets
-
marrow.
There are about 150,000 to 400,000 platelets per 1mm3 of blood.
The role of platelets is blood clotting process.
Their life span is 5 to 9 days.
Platelets have no nucleus but they contain a clotting factor (enzyme) called thromboplastin.
BLOOD CLOTTING
There are 2 types of blood clots;
1. Life saving clot - in the skin
2. Life threatening clot in the blood vessel
Platelets rapidly stick to the exposed collagen fibres and these platelets release a clotting
prothombin (inactive plasma protein) to an enzyme called thrombin (an active plasma protein).
Thrombin (enzyme) catalyses the conversion of fibrinogen (soluble plasma protein) into fibrin
NB.
A cascade effect is a sequence of events in which each event produces the circumstances
necessary for the initiation of the next event.
H: Fibrin
I: Blood clot
Q1. List the factors that must be present in order for a blood clot to form;
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Thromboplastin
Vitamin K
Calcium ions
Thrombin
Fibrin
Q2. When platelets stick to the collagen fibres in the damaged wall, the platelets break open to
release several substances of which 2 are very important. Which are these two substances and
what are their roles?
1. Thromboplastin an enzyme which initiates cascade of events in the formation of a clot
2. Serotonin- causes the smooth muscle of the blood vessel to contact. This narrows the
blood vessel to cut off the blood flow to the damaged area.
These are the diseases of the heart (cardio) and blood vessels (vascular) as a result of damage
to arteries. The damage is due to plaque formation in the arteries through atherosclerosis and
clot formation in the arteries through thrombosis, causing blockage or narrowing of arteries.
Atherosclerosis
-
Formation of atheroma on the endothelial lining (tunica intima) is because of the damage of
1. Clot formation
2. Narrowing of the artery
3. Loss of elasticity in the artery
The above three immediate consequences of atherosclerosis cause High blood pressure.
43
Damage to endothelial lining due to HBP and toxins from tobacco smoke
Narrowing of artery
44
FORMS OF CVDS
1. Coronary heart disease (CHD)
-
Disease that affects a pair of coronary arteries which supply the heart muscle with the glucose
infarction.
When one of these arteries is partially blocked, it leads to angina pectoris.
The two main reasons why blockages occur in the coronary arteries are:
a) Atherosclerosis formation of plaque
b) Thrombosis formation of clot that is usually formed on the rough surface of plaque
So, there are two main forms of CHD (coronary heart disease);
a) Heart attack due to blockage of a coronary artery.
b) Angina pectoris due to partial blockage of a coronary artery.
Overtime, CHD can weaken the heart muscle and lead to;
(i)
Heart failure condition in which the heart cannot pump enough blood to meet the
bodys
(ii)
requirements.
Arrhythmias- irregular heartbeat.
CVD
Supply of oxygenated blood to part of the brain is cut off causing its death.
Arrhythmias
45
Largest Heart attack (Cardiac
Medium
arrest)Heart Attack
Smallest Heart Attack
Heart failure
Aneurysm
-
This is the weakening of the wall of an artery which produces a balloon like blood filled
therefore loss of blood to the region of the body served by that artery.
A brain aneurysm is known as cerebrovascular accident (CVA) or stroke.
This is a sudden and severe chest pain due to the death of part of the heart muscle.
The death is due to lack of oxygen in these heart muscles as a result of blockage of coronary
46
1. Largest heart attack (cardiac arrest). It occurs if blockage happens in one of the coronary
arteries (Right or left) before it branches so that a large area of heart muscle dies.
2. Medium heart attack blockage is in one of the branches of the right or left coronary
artery.
3. Smallest heart attack blockage is in the further branched blood vessels causing the death
of a small tissue of the heart.
The two major factors that can cause death as a result of heart attack are;
1. Cardiac arrest
2. If medical attention is delayed.
Shortness of breath
Angina pectoris
Arrhythmia the heart beats irregularly
Fatigue
Indigestion
The two major steps to be taken when you suspect someone is developing or having a heart
attack are;
1. Give them 2 full strength aspirin tablets to stop blood clotting i.e. the aspirin bursts the
clot
2. Call an ambulance.
Question
The plaque often increases in size and can block the artery. If the artery supplying
blood to the heart becomes blocked, blood no longer flows to the heart muscle cells.
Shortly after the loss of blood flow, heart muscle cells stop contracting and
start to die. In the heart muscle cells, energy (ATP) is made available from
respiration. The graph below shows how the energy (ATP) available to heart muscle
cells changes with time, after the loss of blood flow.
47
(i) Using the information in the graph, describe how the energy (ATP) available to the
heart muscle cells changes with time after the loss of blood flow.(2)
decrease in ATP with time
drop in the fall of ATP gets less with time
manipulation of figures e.g. from 0 to 80 minutes the ATP dropped by 100
(ii) Suggest why there are changes to the available energy (ATP) in the heart muscle cells
following the loss of blood flow.(2)
less oxygen available
less respiratory substrate/ glucose
less aerobic respiration
(iii) About 8 minutes after the loss of blood flow, the heart muscle cells no longer
contract. After about 20 minutes, the heart muscle cells begin to die. Using the
information in the graph and your own knowledge, suggest explanations for the timings
of these two events. (3)
due to anaerobic respiration in the heart muscle, lactic acid builds up which inhibits
respiratory enzymes reducing respiration hence reducing ATP production. So at 8
minutes there is insufficient ATP for contraction ;
after 20 minutes the ATP levels are too low to sustain cell survival ;
(iv) If blood flow is restored within 30 minutes, most heart muscle cells will eventually
recover. Suggest an explanation for this recovery. (2)
restored blood flow provides muscle cells with oxygen and removes lactic acid
aerobic respiration restarts and produces more ATP for muscle contraction.
(Total for Question 5 = 12 marks)
48
Angina pectoris
-
This is a severe chest pain that is usually experienced during vigorous exercise (exertion) as a
coronary artery.
It does not cause death of heart muscle.
It is a strong symptom for a heart attack.
The symptoms of Angina pectoris are;
1. Severe chest pain that extends to the left arm, shoulder and jaw.
2. Shortness of breath.
1. Medical drugs to dilate coronary arteries for sufficient oxygen supply to the heart muscle.
If the condition is serious, a heart bypass surgery (Coronary artery by-pass operation)
Insertion of a coronary stent
Heart transplant
Angioplasty
This is the death of the part of brain tissue caused by bursting (Hemorrhagic) or blockage
plaque).
If the blockage affects one of the main arteries leading to the brain, a very serious stroke
occurs that may lead to death. However, if blockage affects smaller arterioles leading to the
brain, the effect may be less severe.
49
The symptoms of stroke appear very fast and the damage happens very quickly.
The symptoms of stroke include;
(i)
Numbness
(ii)
Dizziness
(iii)
Confusion
(iv)
Slurred speech
(v)
Loss of vision usually in one eye
(vi)
Paralysis of one side of the body with a drooping hand, leg or eyelid or dribbling mouth.
The quick treatment for stroke that may help the patient to survive is giving clot bursting
drugs such as aspirin.
50
Perceived risk
-
A lot is known about the effect of diet, exercise and smoking on the risk of CVD. But many
people do not change their lifestyle due to perception of risk. This perception of risk is
affected by;
a) Own experience
b) Inability to assess risks well
c) Peer pressure
d) Fatalistic ideology (what is destined to happen must happen).
e) Remoteness of the likely consequences.
Actual risk;
-
51
Diet
Smoking
High blood pressure
Inactivity
Obesity
Gender
- Oestrogen gives women some protection from CVDs before menopause. After menopause
the risk in both sexes is about the same.
3. Age
52
Elasticity and width of arteries decrease with age. This raises blood pressure which is a
risk factor of CVDs.
Many correlations (links) between dietary habits and the level of CVD have been
investigated e.g. saturated fat, cholesterol and lipoprotein levels. Some evidence that these
variable.
Causation change in one variable is responsible (it causes) for the change in the other
variable.
Our choices of food can increase or decrease the risk of developing CVDs.
Risk for CVDs increases with high intake of;
a) Saturated fat such as animal fats
b) High salt intake
Cholesterol
-
Health problems arise when there is excess cholesterol that has accumulated in tissues.
- Excess cholesterol in blood build up on artery wall forming atheroma that hardens (due to
build up of calcium salts and fibrous tissue) to form plaque. This is atherosclerosis. The
subsequent consequences of atherosclerosis include; narrowing of arteries, clot formation
and loss of elasticity of arteries. All these lead to CVDs.
Note:
-Good and bad cholesterol are not different to each other chemically, it is the way the cholesterol
-
low levels.
High density lipoproteins are formed from unsaturated fats, proteins and cholesterol . They
transport cholesterol from the body tissue including artery walls to the liver where it is broken
down and excreted. It reduces blood cholesterol level hence discourages atherosclerosis and
therefore should be maintained at high levels.
Note:
Cholesterol is not saturated fat but is made in the liver from saturated fats absorbed from food.
cholesterol
Formed from saturated fats, proteins
cholesterol
Formed from unsaturated fats, proteins
and cholesterol
They bind to the LDL receptors on the
and cholesterol
They transport cholesterol from the
the blood.
54
discourages atherosclerosis.
Questions
1. What is the difference in density of proteins between LDLs and HDLs
LDL has low density of proteins and more cholesterol whereas HLD has high
where they are broken down and excreted. They include olive oil and peanut oil.
4. Describe the role of polyunsaturated triglycerides in the reduction of blood cholesterol?
They increase the activity of the LDL receptors on the surface of cells so that LDLs
are actively removed from the blood and enter these cells. They include vegetable
oils, fish oil and sunflower oil.
5. Total fat has both saturated fats and unsaturated fats. Comment on the effects it has on
health.
Saturated fat can be made into cholesterol that becomes part of LDL, increasing
the risk of CVD, while unsaturated fat becomes part of HDL and reduces risk of
CVD.
6. What is the major disadvantage of high blood cholesterol?
It increases the chance of atherosclerosis that causes CVDs because the
cholesterol forms atheroma that then hardness to form plaque.
-
2. Smoking
Tobacco smoke has several components that are risk factors for CVDs. These include:
a) Carbon monoxide
1. Increases the levels of low density lipoproteins and lower high density lipoproteins (the good type of
cholesterol).
2. Permanently binds to hemoglobin depriving the tissues of oxygen.
b) Nicotine
(i)
Vasoconstriction
It causes constriction of the blood vessels hence reducing blood flow to the heart and increasing blood
pressure.
55
Nicotine is able to do this by binding to proteins called nicotinic receptors. When nicotine binds to these proteins, it
signals for the smooth muscle around the blood vessels to contract, which makes the blood vessels narrower. This can
contribute to heart disease in two ways--by reducing blood flow to the heart and by increasing blood pressure.
Constricted coronary arteries reduce the amount of blood that gets to the heart. Constricted arteries throughout the
body increase the blood pressure, which forces the heart to work harder. The added strain on the heart can lead to
heart disease.
(ii) Endothelial Damage
Causes damage to the lining of blood vessels increasing chances of atherosclerosis.
Elevated levels of nicotine are correlated with inflammation and damage of endothelial cells in blood vessels. Endothelial
cells line blood vessels throughout the body.
(iii) Release of Adrenaline that increases heart rate
When nicotine is in the brain, it causes the release of adrenaline that causes heart's rate to increase, leading to
higher blood pressure which also limits blood flow to the heart.
(iv) Makes platelets sticky increasing the chances of blood clotting.
3. Alcohol
Alcohol and the Cardiovascular System
NB
Heavy drinking raises levels of triglycerides circulating in the bloodstream, which are a type of cholesterol
that lead to diabetes and also block or narrow down arteries that carry blood to the heart. If coronary arteries
are clogged with fats, blood cannot flow freely, resulting in heart disease or stroke.
Alcohol directly contributes to heart failure by damaging the heart muscle and arteries.
Cardiomyopathy, or an enlargement of the heart muscle, results from long-term alcohol use. An enlarged heart
no longer works efficiently and fails to provide enough oxygenated blood to other organs of the body.
Furthermore, alcohol is associated with cardiac arrhythmia (irregular heartbeat), sudden cardiac death and
stroke.
Binge drinking increases the risk of atrial fibrillation, or an ineffective quivering of the heart instead of an
actual beat.
In the liver, alcohol is converted into ethanal (3 carbon carbohydrate). Most of the ethanal is used in
respiration but some may end up in very low density lipoproteins increasing the risk of plaque formation
(atherosclerosis).
4. Exercise
-
Risk of CVDs decreases with more exercise. Exercise helps to control:a) Blood cholesterol by raising HDL cholesterol without affecting LDL cholesterol.
b) Blood pressure exercise dilates blood vessels hence lowers blood pressure.
c) Diabetes mellitus due to increased respiration that reduces blood glucose.
56
a)
b)
c)
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
High blood pressure (hypertension) is one of the main risk factors for the later
development of heart disease.
Narrow blood vessels are often the cause of high blood pressure. When blood vessels are
too narrow, the heart must work extraordinarily hard to pump blood throughout the body.
Blood vessels often become more narrow when they're affected by angiotensin-converting
enzymes (ACE) released by the body. These enzymes trigger the blood vessels to constrict
and tighten. This enzyme can be subdued by ACE inhibitor medication.
There are 5 main types of drugs that are used to treat high blood pressure.
These drugs are called antihypertensive drugs.
These drugs are:-
ACE inhibitors are antihypertensive drugs which reduce the synthesis of Angiotensin II from
angiotensin I.
Angiotensin is a hormone that is produced in inactive form called Angiotensin I.
An enzyme converts Angiotensin I into an active hormone called Angiotensin II.
Angiotensin II causes vasoconstriction of blood vessels raising blood pressure.
57
The ACE inhibitors are antihypertensive that inhibit the enzyme so that Angiotensin I is not
Question
Describe and explain how ACE inhibitors work.
of the arteries, to prevent contraction of the muscle so that the blood vessels do
NB.
People with heart failure taking some calcium channel blockers can worsen symptoms of being fatal.
This is because the heart muscle will not contract as required due to lack of calcium ions.
58
Unlike other drugs used to treat high blood pressure, calcium channel blockers are generally not
given to people who have heart failure or actual physical damage to the heart muscle.
To explain how calcium channel blockers work: Calcium channel blockers attach to the target of
a specific chemical signal and preventing the signal from reaching and activating that target. So,
calcium is prevented from entering muscle cells, which, in turn, decreases the amount of force the
muscle can generate when contracting.
The specific targets blocked by calcium channel blockers exist in high numbers both on blood
vessels and in the heart, allowing the drug to exert most of its influence in these areas
Diuretics
They are anti-hypertensive drugs that increase the volume of urine produced by the kidneys and
therefore lowers the excess fluids and salts in the body, hence lowers the blood pressure.
Diuretics cause your body to produce more urine.
Urine flushes excess water and sodium out of your body. This lowers blood pressure because the
more you urinate, the lower the volume of fluid in your bloodstream. Less fluid in your
bloodstream means there is also lower pressure on your artery walls. In addition, the loss of
excess sodium causes your blood vessels to open wider. This causes further lowering of your
blood pressure.
The side effects include:a) Dizziness due to rapid lowering of blood pressure
b) Nausea
c) Muscle cramps
Beta blockers
These are anti hypertensive drugs that interfere with the normal system of controlling the heart.
They ensure that the heart does not respond to hormones that speed up the heart beat e.g
adrenaline and therefore lowers the blood pressure.
The side effects include:Dizziness due to rapid lowering of blood pressure
A beta blocker is a medication that slows the heart rate and reduces the force with which the heart muscle
contracts, thereby lowering blood pressure. Beta blockers do this by blocking beta-adrenergic receptors,
preventing adrenaline (epinephrine) from stimulating these receptors.
Beta blockers can be described as either selective or nonselective and vasodilating or nonvasodilating.
59
Selective beta blockers work by blocking the effect of adrenaline in the heart, but not in the lungs or
elsewhere in the body. Beta blockers that vasodilate have the effect of relaxing and widening the blood
vessels, allowing blood to flow more easily through your arteries. This means the heart doesn't have to pump
as hard and blood pressure is reduced.3
Question
Describe and explain how beta-blockers function.
hormone.
Beta blockers have similar shape to adrenaline, so, they bind to adrenaline receptors on the
CSM on the heart muscle cells. So, adrenaline does not bind hence no increase in heart rate
and this causes decrease in blood pressure.
Vasodilators are anti-hypertensives that act directly on smooth muscles in blood vessel
blood pressure.
So, your heart doesn't have to pump as hard and your blood pressure is reduced.
Question
Describe and explain how vasodilators (sympathetic nerve inhibitors) reduce blood pressure.
They prevent the muscle fibres in the Tunica media of arteries from responding to the
nerve impulse hence no contraction and therefore no constriction so that the arteries
remain dilated, reducing blood pressure.
The above 2 functions of plant statins reduce the risk of developing atherosclerosis hence
upto 33%
In people who dont have CVD but have elevated blood cholesterol levels, statins lower total
LDL cholesterol by more than 20% and the risk of CVDs by a similar percent
The side effects are very rare when using statins. However, the side effects include:a) Joint problems
b) Liver and kidneys problems
c) Gastro intestinal problems e.g. constipation
d) Respiratory cancer
e) Reduced vitamin intake
Explain how lowering blood cholesterol levels can reduce the risk of CVD
- Less cholesterol in the blood to build up on artery wall (atheroma)
- Hence less likely to develop atherosclerosis
- The subsequent consequence of atherosclerosis are narrowing of arteries,
ischaemia (restriction of blood flow), decrease in flow of blood to the heart, high
BP, clot formation, loss of elasticity
N.B. Cholesterol: below 5 mmol/litre is the best; 5.2-6.2 bordering high risk; above 6.2
high risk.
TREATMENT OF HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE AND HIGH CHOLESTEROL LEVEL USING ANTI
COAGULANTS AND PLATELET INHIBITORY DRUGS.
formation.
The side effects of using aspirin are
a) Irritates the stomach lining
b) Bleeding in the stomach
c) Some people are allergic to it.
d) Not effective in some people
e) Partially effective in some people.
2. Clopidogrel
It is an alternative platelet aggregation inhibitory drug to aspirin. The benefits may be
greater than with aspirin for some patients but the risk of bleeding is higher than with
aspirin.
3. A combined treatment but has a greater risk of stomach bleeding than even when aspirin is
used alone.
62
OBESITY INDICATORS
-
Obesity occurs when one takes more energy than required by the body. The excess energy
BMI =
a)
b)
Status
Under weight
Normal weight
Overweight
Obese
The person, in the example, with BMI of 22.9 has the normal weight hence safe from CVD
Use of BMI as an indicator of obesity has several disadvantages;
Incorrect in medical cases that lead to overweight and underweight conditions.
Incorrect in fitness cases where there are large muscles. The weight of large muscle will be
63
The waist measurement is taken by a non-stretchable tape above the hip bone, below the
rib.
The hip measurement is taken by the tape around the widest part of the buttocks.
For men, it should not be more than 0.90; otherwise it will be overweight hence risk of CVD.
For women, it should not be more than 0.85; otherwise it will be overweight increasing the
risk of CVD.
Waist to hip ratio is the best indicator of obesity compared to BMI.
Minimum amount of energy needed for only essential body processes per day (24 hours).
The essential body processes are;
1. Breathing
2. Heart rate
3. Body temperature
Measurements of BMR show that an average man needs to take about 1500kJ day -1 and an
average woman needs to take about 5850 kJ day-1. This does not reflect the activities.
BMR varies with:a) Age higher in young people
b) Gender higher in males
c) Body mass higher in heavier people
d) Activity higher in active people
An individual EAR for energy is determined by multiplying the BMR by the PAL
EAR = BMR x PAL
In the UK, DRVs are estimates of the requirements of energy and arent recommendations
for individuals. These include:EAR = BMR x PAL
LRNI = low reference nutrient intake
HRNI high reference nutrient intake
These estimates effectively provide a range of values within which a healthy balanced diet
should fall.
obesity or overweight.
For underweight the body is weak and can be subjected to various diseases.
Question
Martin, a mason weighs 70kg. The human basic energy requirement is 4kJkg -1 of body mass hr-1 (per
hour). As a mason, his daily energy requirement is 5000kg. His total energy intake is 10300kJday -1.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
= 1172kJ day-1
(iv)
Calculate his energy balance;
= 10300 11720
= -1420kJ day-1
(v)
Conclusion; He loses weight.
POPULATION STUDIES IN RISK FACTORS
Epidemiology
- Epidemiologists are scientists who carry out research to determine the risk factors for
-
health.
There are two kinds of epidemiological studies;
a) Cohort studies
b) Case-control studies
Cohort studies
-
Case-control studies
The main features of case-control studies are:
A group of people with the condition (case) is compared with a group that does not have
(control)
Past history is then investigated to identify factors leading to one group having the disease
and the other not.
Its very important to match the control with the case group e.g. age and gender.
A GOOD STUDY
It is the one with the following features;
Sample should be representative to avoid bias.
Sample size is large. In many diseases, only a low percentage of the population has the
condition, so a large sample may contain a small number of individuals with the condition.
66
Variables should be controlled when selecting cohort or control groups. This is one of the
most difficult aspects of this kind of study since human beings are so variable in terms of
genes and environment. Measurement techniques involve questionnaire in order to
standardize the measurements.
NB
-
(ii)
-
Random errors
Values are lying randomly above or below a true value
They are mainly experimenters errors
Examples include;
a) The end point of a colour change is misjudged.
b) The vitamin C cant be added by less than a drop at a time and so sometimes the next
drop may be too much and other times too little.
c) Failure to rinse beetroot disks well.
Question:
-In vitamin C experiment,
1. List the precautions to be taken when carrying out the vitamin C experiment.
2. List ways through which vitamin C is lost from food.
3. Describe how you would compare the vitamin C of 3 different vegetables.
Questions on CVDs
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
2. Proteins;
(i)
Extrinsic Proteins/Peripheral proteins
(ii)
Extrinsic Proteins/Integral proteins
3. Carbohydrates;
(i)
Glycoprotein
(ii)
Glycolipid
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
Phospholipid
Phospholipid bilayer
Glycoprotein Integral/Intrinsic
Glycolipid
Integral protein (channel protein/ion channel)
- transmembrane protein
Peripheral protein
Integral protein (embedded in one layer-outer or inner) - transmembrane protein
Cholesterol
Carrier protein (Integral protein) - transmembrane protein
Phospholipids
-They are the most abundant component of the cell surface membrane.
-The structure of the phospholipid molecule consists of:
(i)
1 glycerol
(ii)
2 fatty acids
(iii)
1 phosphate group
(iv)
Ester bonds that join fatty acids to glycerol.
(v)
Phosphate-ester bond that joins phosphate group and glycerol
69
- The polar phosphate head is hydrophilic (polar) and dissolves readily in water.
- The fatty acid tails are hydrophobic (non-polar) and are insoluble in water.
Question
Why do phospholipids form a bilayer and not a monolayer?
-
The property of phospholipids (hydrophilic phosphate head and hydrophobic fatty acid tails)
70
NB
- If the phospholipids molecules are tightly packed in water, they either form:
1. Monolayer:- with hydrophilic heads in the water and hydrophobic fatty acid tails in the air.
2. Micelles: A micelle is a structure formed by a cluster of molecules with both hydrophobic
and hydrophilic ends when placed in water. In a micelle, all the hydrophilic heads point
outwards hence face the water, and all the hydrophobic fatty acid tails point inwards (are
hidden inside) i.e. non polar environment.
NB
-
Cholesterol
-
The structure of cholesterol is:In the cell surface membrane, cholesterol has 2 functions;
1. Control fluidity so that the cell membrane is not too fluid or too rigid
2. Provides mechanical strength to the cell membrane. Those that do not break
easily
Glycolipids
-
a) Peripheral protein
b) Integral protein
All these proteins are found on and in the the cell surface membrane
a) Peripheral proteins
-
b) Integral proteins
- These are embedded in the phospholipid bilayer. They include:
1. Those embedded in the inner and outer phospholipid layers.
2. Trans-membrane proteins. They span through the phospholipid bilayer so that they are
exposed at both ends. These are:a)
Channel proteins which are either gated or fixed proteins.
b)
Carrier proteins which are globular proteins.
c)
Some glycoproteins- A carbohydrate attached to a protein (same
functions as glycolipid)
Question
Explain why a membrane may be more fluid when it contains more unsaturated fats.
Unsaturated fatty acids contain at least one double bond in the carbon chain
The more the unsaturated lipids there are in the membrane, the more fluid the membrane
is.
73
1. Large uncharged molecules and ionic molecules can only cross the membrane if protein
carriers and protein channels exist; so, there are protein molecules in the phospholipid
bilayer that act as carries and channels, respectively.
d) Large part of the membrane is made up of lipids.
1. Lipid soluble substances pass through the membrane more easily than other substances;
so, a large part of the membrane must be made up of lipids.
Question
1. Describe the role of fluidity of membranes?
1. It allows the membrane to change shape during active transport and facilitate diffusion.
2. Allows vesicles to be pinched off from the membrane during endocytosis.
3. Allows vesicles to fuse with the membranes during exocytosis.
It is fluid because the phospholipids move around the membrane making the
3. Membranes with more unsaturated fatty acids are more fluid. Discuss?
-
They have double C-C bonds in the chain that would cause kinking hence more
fluid.
This is due to the nature of the phospholipids whose phosphate heads are
hydrophilic hence face polar environments (tissue fluid and cytoplasm) and
the fatty acid tails are hydrophobic hence face inwards (non polar
environment)
74
Diffusion
Facilitated diffusion
Active transport
Osmosis
Endocytosis
Exocytosis
NB
Diffusion facilitated diffusion and osmosis dont use energy hence they are called passive
processes. Active transport, endocytosis and exocytosis uses energy hence they are called active
processes.
Diffusion
-
This is passive movement of small uncharged particles (small non polar particles), down their
for this random motion comes from the kinetic energy of molecules involved
These substances pass between the phospholipids
These substances that move through by diffusion include:
a) Oxygen
b) Carbon dioxide
c) Water
phospholipids with unsaturated fatty acids hydrocarbon tails because they are more spaced
CO2 is polar but its small size thus allows diffusion
Facilitated diffusion
Large polar molecules and ions that is larger than CO 2 molecules that cannot move across a
membrane by diffusion. They are insoluble in lipids and therefore the hydrophobic tails of
phospholipid provides a penetrable barrier to them. They cross the membrane with the help of
proteins through a process called facilitated diffusion. These proteins are channel proteins (ion
channels) or carrier proteins.
a) Channel proteins
They transport small charged molecules or ions through the channel that is polar channel proteins
are specific i.e transport only one molecule or ion e.g. Na channel is a protein that only transport
Na+ ions down the concentration gradient. Chanel proteins are divided into two
a) Gated open and close depending on the presence of the substance
b) Fixed always remain open
To show that channel proteins are specific, the following experiment can be conducted
76
The concentration of the 3 mineral ions in a seedling are determined e.g nitrates (NO 3-5 units
NO37.5
7.5
PO438.0
7.0
Mg2+
9.0
6.0
NB
In facilitated diffusion, no metabolic energy is used and the movement of ions is down the
concentration gradient.
b) Carrier proteins
They transport large polar molecules such as amino acids and glucose. These carrier proteins are
specific for particular molecules. Once a carrier protein has picked up a molecule, it changes shape
and act as a pore for the molecule to travel through the membrane. There is no use of metabolic energy
77
Describing concentrations
78
1. Isotonic solution
This is the solution that has the same osmotic concentration of the solution as the cell i.e there is
equilibrium hence no net movement (no osmotic gradient)
2. Hypertonic solution
This is the solution with the higher concentration of solutes than the cell, and therefore water will
move from the cell to the solution, and the animal cell shrinks (crenated) and the pant cell shrinks
(becomes flaccid) and is finally plasmolyzed (cell membrane moves away from cell wall).
3. Hypnotic solution
This is the solution with less solute than the cell and thus it has more water then the cell. So,
water will move from the solution into the cell causing the cell to become turgid (full of water) and
finally the animal cell bursts, but the plant cell remains turgid as it cant burst due to cellulose cell
that provides mechanical strength to the cell.
Water potential
This is the ability of water to move. Its measured in units of kPa (pressure), kilo Pascals. Pure
water has the highest water potential i.e OkPa so, all the solution have negative water potentials.
Questions
1. List differences between osmosis and diffusion
-
Osmosis transports water molecules only, while diffusion transports many small uncharged
molecules
Osmosis uses a partially permeable membrane but not diffusion.
Osmosis transports water only whilst facilitated diffusion transports many polar molecules that
Differences
Osmosis
Diffusion
Osmosis
Facilitated
Transports water
Transports small
Transports water
diffusion
Transports are
molecules
uncharged
molecules only
polar molecules
Partially permeable
molecules
None
Partially permeable
(>CO2)
None
membrane
None
Uses proteins to
membrane
transport
molecules across
the membranes.
Active transport
This is the movement of particles against their concentration gradient using metabolic energy in
the form of ATP. It involves carrier proteins that span (cut by the whole bilayer) the membrane.
Carrier proteins, also called protein pumps, are specific as they transport only one substance e.g.
Na pump, K pump.
ATP is hydrolyzed by ATPase enzyme to release energy that enables the carrier protein to change
shape and act as a pore for the molecule to travel through the membrane.
80
Example of active transport are:a) Selective reabsorption of glucose, sodium and amino acids in the kidneys
b) Absorption of glucose in the small intestine
c) Absorption of mineral salts by the plant roots from the soil
Questions
1. Describe the process of active transport
-
81
Facilitated diffusion
Particles move along down their
gradient
uses ATP energy
Has no equilibrium
concentration gradient
No energy used (passive)
Has an equilibrium
4. Write the major similarity between facilitated diffusion and active transport
Both use proteins
Bulk transport
-
Diffusion, osmosis and active transport allow for the movement of small particles across the
membranes
However, there are times when larger particles need to be transported across the cell surface
membrane
This is achieved by bulk transport i.e endocytosis and exocytosis which rely on the fluid nature
of the membrane. This transport requires metabolic energy.
Endocytosis
This is the movement of materials into a cell by a process in which the plasma membrane engulfs
extra cellular materials forming membrane bound sacs (vesicles) that enter the cytoplasm.
Exocytosis
This is the movement of materials out of the cell by a process in which intracellular materials are
enclosed within a vesicle that moves to the plasma membrane and fuses with it, releasing the
materials out of the cell, example hormones in the cell are enclosed by vesicles which move to the
plasma membrane, fuse with it and release their contents
Questions
1. Explain
mosaic model of
membranes.
Endocytosis and exocytosis involves the breaking and fusing of parts of the cell surface membrane.
If the membrane was not fluid this would not be possible.
2. What are the similarities and differences between exocytosis and endocytosis
Endocytosis
Both use metabolic energy (ATP)
Both transport substances in vesicles
Both transport large molecules
Substances taken into cell
Exocytosis
83
Question
1. List three areas in humans where gaseous exchange occurs
a) Between alveoli in the lungs nod the surroundings capillaries
b) Between the blood and the tissue fluid
c) Between the cell (in the tissue) and the tissue fluid
2. Write down the name of the process by which gases are exchanged
Diffusion
84
5. List the components of the respiratory system and the processes that take place in those
components
(i)
(ii)
Alveolus in humans
Gills in fish
Leaf in plants
The alveoli in the lungs provide a large SA for the exchange of gases. The capillaries
surrounding the alveoli maintain a steep concentration gradient they continuously carry away
oxygen from the lungs and ring in CO2 continuously from the body.
The walls of the alveoli and the walls of the capillaries surrounding the alveoli are only 1 cell
thick, so the diffusion distance of gases is very small.
The alveoli provides a large SA for the exchange of gases in the human body
An adult has around 480 to 500 million alveoli in the lungs which gives a large SA for gaseous
exchange of around 100m3 packed into a chest
86
A pair of nostrils
A single nasal cavity
Pharynx (back of mouth or throat)
Larynx (voice box)
Trachea
Bronchi
Bronchioles
b) Interface
-
In the conducting system, ventilation/breathing takes place while in the interface gaseous
exchange takes place.
87
Ventilation or breathing
This is a process of taking air rich in oxygen into the lungs and removal of air rich in carbon dioxide
from the lungs back into the air or atmosphere. Ventilation or breathing takes place in the
conducting system of the human respiratory system, ventilation consists of
a) Inhalation/inspiration/breathing in
b) Exhalation/expiration/breathing out
a) Inhalation /inspiration/breathing in
This is the taking in of air rich in oxygen into the lungs. Its an active process because it involves
contraction of muscles.
External intercostals muscles contract forcing the ribs to move up and out. Diaphragm muscles
contract, lowering the flattening the diaphragm.
The above two events increase the volume of the chest cavity and decrease the pressure forcing
the air to enter the lungs through the conducing system.
Exhalation/expiration/breathing out
This is the removal of air rich in carbon dioxide from the lungs.
Normal exhalation is a passive process because it involves the relaxation of the muscles that had
contracted during inhalation.
The external intercoastal muscles relax so the ribs move downwards and inwards. Diaphragm
muscles relax and the diaphragm becomes dome shaped. The above two events reduce the volume
of the chest cavity and increase the pressure, and air is forced out.
Forced exhalation is an active process that requires
a) Internal intercostal muscles contract pulling the ribs downwards and inwards
b) Abdominal muscles contract forcing the diaphragm upwards
The above two events increase pressure in the chest cavity and decreases the volume causing
exhalation.
a) The air must be clean by the removal of micro organisms and other particles.
This cleaning is done by
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Nose hair
Mucus produced by the gablet cells that trap these particles
Cilia of epithelial cells. The wafting like beating of cilia moves the dirty mucus to the
mouth cavity where it is either coughed to/swallowed, thus reducing the risk of
infection of the lungs.
b) The air is moistened. (The level of water vapour in the air is increased.
The air is moistened by moist surface. The moist surface is due to the moist lining (produced by
the goblet cells.
c) The air is warmed by a good supply of blood in the nasal passages
This raises the temperature of the air
NB
The nose provides a large SA for the preparation of air to be inhaled.
Capillaries maintain step concentration gradient of these gases between the capillaries an the
alveoli in the following ways;
(i)
They continuously carry oxygen from the lungs to the body so that there is less oxygen
in the capillaries than the alveoli therefore creating concentration gradient hence
diffusion.
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(ii)
They continuously bringing carbon dioxide to the lungs fro the body so that there is
always more CO2 in the capillaries than the alveoli creating a concentration gradient
hence diffusion.
However, to reduce the collapse, some cells in the alveolar lining produce a special phospholipid
known as lungs surfactant. The surfactant coats/lens the alveoli to reduce adhesion so that
gaseous exchange is easier.
Composition of gases
90
Gas
Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Nitrogen
Water vapour
% percent of gas
Inspired air
20.70
0.04
78.00
1.26
Alveolar air
13.20
5.00
75.60
6.20
Expired air
14.50
3.10
75.40
6.20
Inspired air has more oxygen than expired air by 6.2%. This percent is used for respiration in
the respiring tissues. Alveolar air has less oxygen as oxygen diffuses in to the capillaries
Alveolar air has more carbon dioxide than both inspired and expired air. This is because carbon
dioxide diffuses from the capillaries into the alveoli.
Mucus should not have excess or too little water in the lungs
The membrane of the epithelial cells is the one that detects the amount of water in the mucus
Cystic fibrosis
-
It is a genetic disorder caused by a gene mutation (deletion) in the gene which codes for a
protein known as the chloride channel or CTR protein (cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator
protein)
The protein is involved in the transport of chloride ions through the cell surface membrane.
The CFTR protein has a binding site for ATP. ATP binds the site and it is hydrolysed to get
energy that changes the shape of the CFTR protein so that it opens to allow for the passage of
chloride ions.
The gene mutation of the CFTR protein cause the loss of ATP binding site in the CFTR protein
so that it remains closed. This cause the chloride ions to remain in the cell
So, chloride ions remain in cells and cannot diffuse into the mucus and therefore water cannot
move into mucus by osmosis and instead the water leaves the mucus into the cells (epithelial
cells) by osmosis leaving behind thick and sticky mucus in the airways that block them.
NB
91
The ATP in the CFTR protein provides energy by the change of the shape of this protein so that it
opens up.
1. Cl- pumped into epithelial cell from tissue fluid across the basal membrane but cannot
diffuse into mucus due to non-functional CFTR protein.
2. Na+ diffuses from mucus into epithelial cell
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3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Proteins
They are very large (macro molecules) organic molecules made up of:
1. Carbon
2. Hydrogen
3. Oxygen
4. Nitrogen
In addition to these elements, other proteins have sulfur, iron and phosphorus
Proteins have a wide range of functions in living things. About 18% of body is made up of protein. Some
of these functions of protein include:1. Formation of enzymes they speed up chemical reactions of the cells
2. Formation of hormones control working of organs
3. Formation of antibodies protect us from diseases
4. Formation of hemoglobin transports oxygen and carbon dioxide
5. Formation of prothrombin used for blood clotting
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6. Proteins in cell membranes - these are involved in transportation, structure of the membrane and
cell to cell recognition.
7. Making proteins in hair, skin, nail etc
Amino acids
-
These are small monomer units that join by peptide bonds in condensation reactions to form proteins
There are about 20 different naturally occurring amino acids that can combine in different ways to form
They are small molecules that can easily pass through the cell membrane
They are soluble in water because the NH2 and COOH groups are polar
They can crystallize
Some amino acids have polar R groups while others have non polar R groups.
Amino acids are amphoteric (compounds with acidic and basic groups). The NH 2 group is basic as it
readily accepts protons (H+ ions) while COOH group is acidic as it readily donates protons. The amino
acid therefore acts as a buffer substance. A buffer substance is a substance that maintains a constant
pH.
The charge of the amino acid depends on the pH of the medium of which it is placed.
This is because the pH of the medium determines the manner in which the NH 2 and COOH groups ionize.
94
For each amino acid, there is a specific pH value at which the amino acid has a zero charge (ionized amino
acid). The pH value at which the amino acid is neutral is known as the iso electric point of the amino acid.
Formation of peptide bond and dipeptide molecule
-
Amino acids are joined by a peptide bond to form a dipeptide molecule or a polypeptide molecule in a
condensation reaction.
A dipeptide molecule has 2 amino acids joined by a peptide bond while a polypeptide molecule is a long
chain of amino acids joined by a peptide bond.
95
STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS
There are 4 levels of protein structures
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.
Primary structure
Secondary structure
Tertiary structure
Quaternary structure
Primary structure
This is the sequence of amino acids joined by peptide bonds to form a polypeptide chain.
Primary structure is not affected by high temperature because the peptide bonds are not affected
2.
by this temperature and therefore even after heating, the length remains the same.
Secondary structure
This is 3D structure formed by either coiling of the structure to form alpha helix such as keratin
held together by hydrogen bonds; or joining of several primary structures to form beta pleated
sheets such as collagen held in place by hydrogen bonds.
96
Proteins with secondary structure are long (fibrous) and they have a role in support to give
mechanical strength. In addition they are insoluble in water and they are affected by high
temperature as it breaks down hydrogen bonds causing them to lengthen (they stretch out after
heating).
Summary of secondary structures
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
3.
Tertiary structure
This is a globular (spherical) structure formed by folding of the polypeptide chain already in
secondary structure, and it is held in place by hydrogen, ionic and disulphide chemical bonds and
hydrophobic interactions.
The amino acids have R- groups between which chemical bonds are formed. So, R-groups determine
the types of chemical bonds, the chemical bonds determine the structure/ shape of protein and this
structure determines the function of the protein.
High temperature, extreme pH and heavy metal ions such as copper change the shape of the globular
protein.
Examples of protein with tertiary structure are enzymes such as amylase, antibodies and some
hormones such as glucagon.
Being globular, proteins with tertiary structure have a role in metabolism e.g. enzymes speed up
chemical reactions in the cells and glucagon raises blood glucose levels in the cells.
All proteins with tertiary structures are soluble in water.
97
The solubility of proteins with tertiary structure is because the polar R-groups face outwards and
4.
Examples of proteins with quaternary structures are haemoglobin with 4 polypeptide chains and
insulin with 2 polypeptide chains.
Being globular, they have a role in metabolism. In addition they are soluble in water.
2. Insulin has 2 polypeptide chains: A and B. A has 21 amino acids and B has 30 amino acids.
2. Globular proteins
-
3. Conjugated proteins
98
Consist of amino acids and other non-protein chemical groups (prosthetic groups)
Examples of conjugated proteins are
1. Haemoglobin prosthetic group is haem group that contains iron. Oxygen binds to iron
2. Glycoprotein prosthetic group is carbohydrate
3. Lipoprotein prosthetic group is lipid
These are weak electrostatic forces of attraction between the negative charges on the oxygen atom of
the carboxyl group of the amino acids and the positive charge on the hydrogen atom of the amino groups
of the amino acids. When these charged groups are close to each other, the opposite charges attract
2. Sulphur bridges
-
They are formed when two sulfur containing amino acids called cysteine or 2 methionine molecules are
3. Ionic bond
-
They are formed between strong positive and negative R-groups of amino acids, found buried deep in the
protein molecule.
These links are also known as slat bridges
They are strong bonds but not as common as the other structural bonds.
Insulin
Globular
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2.
3.
4.
5.
acids
acids
Insulin
Lowers blood glucose levels
Soluble in water
Enzymes
-
These are globular proteins that act as biological catalysts to speed up chemical reactions by reducing
the activation energy and themselves dont change shape or get used up in the reaction.
Activation energy is the energy required to start reaction.
A catalyst is a substance that speeds up a reaction by lowering the activation energy without changing
the substance produced, and is left unchanged at the end of the reaction.
Enzymes, being biological catalysts, are specific in action i.e they catalyze a specific reaction or a group
of reactions. So enzymes show a great specify.
Most of the reactions that occur in living organisms are endogenic i.e require an input of energy to
activate the molecules in order to make them reactive. The free energy that is needed to raise the
substrate to the activates state is known as activation energy. This means that there is an activation
energy barrier in a biological reaction.
Enzymes therefore lower the activation energy barrier so that the reaction is speeded up. By lowering
the EA barrier, enzymes make it easier for the substrate molecules to reach the activation state
EA Activation energy
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(i) Anabolism
The synthesis of complex molecules from simple molecules e.g synthesis of proteins (complex molecules)
from amino acids (simple ones) in an anabolic reaction.
(ii) Catabolism
-
Its the break down of complex molecules into simpler ones e.g. break down of glucose (complex molecules
) into ATP (simpler ones) in a catabolic reaction (or glycogen into glucose e.g. respiration)
Metabolic pathway is the sequence of chemical reactions in a cell and each of these reactions
is
controlled or catalyzed by a specific enzyme e.g. aerobic respiration is a metabolic pathway (chain).
Structure of enzymes
-
lock is the enzyme, the key hole is the active site and the key is the substrate.
However, in few enzymes, the active site can change shape or is modified so that a substrate
molecule can bind to it. This mechanism of enzyme activity is called included fit mechanism. So
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this mechanism shows no specificity. Once the products leave, the active site reverts to its
-
former shape.
Apart from the active site, the other part of the enzyme is called the allosteric site.
maltose glucose
molecules
The active site and substrate have a complementary shape NOT the same shape!!
The modes of action of enzymes are:1. Lock and key mechanism
2. Induced fit hypothesis
Groups of enzymes
There are two major groups of enzymes:-
Formed in the cells and secreted through exocytosis to work elsewhere e.g the digestive enzyme
such as amylase and lisozyme in the tears.
Naming enzymes
1. Using the molecule hat the enzymes work on (the substrate) with (-ase) on the end, e.g
sucrose (roks on sucrose) or the substrate with an indication of what it does e.g creatine
kinase
2. Using the type of reaction being catalyzed e.g ATP; creatine, phosphotransferase
3. A classification number e.g EC 2.7.3.2
Characteristics of enzymes
1. All enzymes are globular proteins. Enzymes have an active site and alosteric site. Active site
is where a substrate binds and therefore high temperature changes the shape of enzyme
and also changes the shape of the active site. So the substrate cant bind. This is known as
the denaturation.
2. Enzymes only change the rate of a reaction by speeding it up. They dont alter the end
products that are formed.
3. They do not change or get used up in a chemical reaction that they catalyze
4. They are specific to the reaction that they catalyze. They show high specifity in their
action.
5. They are affected by high temperature, extreme pH and heavy metals.
Temperature
pH
substrate concentration
enzyme concentration
inhibitors
103
Between 00c and 400c (except for thermophilic bacteria which can withstand about 85 0c), Q10 for
any reaction is 2. In other words, in that temperature range every 10 0c rise in temperature
produces a doubling of the rate of reaction. Beyond 40 0c, the enzyme catalyzed reaction decrease
and at about 600c het reaction has completely stopped.
At temperatures over 400c, most proteins including enzymes start to lose their tertiary and
quaternary structures. The shape of het enzyme changes and thus the shape of the active site
changes so no substrate can bind to this active site. This is known as denaturization.
a) At low temperature there is less kinetic energy of het enzyme and substrate molecules
giving rise to reduced random collisions that forms less enzyme substrate complexes,
generating less products.
b) As the temperature increases, the kinetic energy of molecules increases leading to more
random collisions that forms more enzyme substrate complexes, generating more number of
complexes hence formation of more products.
c) At the optimum temperature, there is maximum kinetic energy of molecules giving rise to
maximum random collisions , hence maximum number of enzyme substrate complexes that
gives rise to maximum formation of products.
d) At high temperature, there is intense/excessive kinetic energy leading to violent random
collisions or vibrations that break the bonds that maintain the globular structure of the
protein (enzyme). This changes the shape of the enzyme and hence the shape of the active
site so that the substrate cannot bind. This is denaturation.
NB
Most enzymes have their optimum temperature between 30 and 40 0c. at very low temperatures the
enzyme is inactive. At very high temperature the enzyme is denatured. Each enzyme has its own
optimum temperature.
104
Different enzymes have different optimum pH levels. E.g the optimum pH for enzymes in the
human stomach is 2, while the pH for enzymes in the human mouth cavity and duodenum is 7.5.
Deviation from the optimum pH alters the ionization of amino acids that make up these
enzymes. The change in ionization of amino acids breaks down hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds and
sulfur bridges leading to loss of globular shape of enzymes hence denaturation.
At this point the enzymes are working as fast as possible (maximum reation0 hence there is
maximum formation of products. This maximum rate of reaction is known as Vmax.
Substrate concentration
NB
In addition of enzymes will provide more active sites and the rate of reaction will not level off
No
Vmas
Rate of
reaction
(v)
Substrate concentration
Effects of enzyme concentration on enzyme activity
If the substrate concentration remains the same but the enzyme concentration increases, the rate
of reaction will increase but only until all the substrate molecules are used up; so, its the
substrate concentration that is limiting not the enzyme concentration.
Rate of
reaction
106
Enzyme concentration
NB
If more substrate molecules are added, the rate of reaction will continue to increase
Rate of
reaction
Enzyme concentration
107
NUCLEIC ACIDS
Nucleic acids are the genetic molecules of the cell.
They are concerned with inheritance.
There are two types of nucleic acids in the cells. These are;
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Nucleus
Nucleolus
Chloroplasts
Mitochondria
a) RER
b) Ribosomes
a)
b)
c)
d)
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Chloroplasts
Mitochondria
Mononucleotide /Nucleotide
109
Organic
nitrogen bases
NB
The nitrogenous base combines with pentose sugar using a covalent bond to form a
nucleoside that then joins to the phosphate group using phosphoester bond/covalent bond
to form a nucleotide or a mononucleotide.
Ribose sugar
Deoxyribose sugar
110
Purines
They have a double ring structure. They are;
a) Adenine (A)
b) Guanine (G)
Both DNA and RNA have the same types of purines i.e. Adenine and Guanine
Pyrimidines
They have a single ring structure. They are;
a) Cytosine (C)
b) Thymine (T) in DNA
c) Uracil (U) in RNA
The structure of pyrimidine is as follows;
a)
b)
c)
d)
The sugar (deoxyribose in DNA) and phosphate form the backbone of the molecule and this does
not change.
Pointing inwards from this backbone are the nitrogenous bases which keep on changing so,
mononucleotides are given the names of their bases.
structure of DNA.
In this double helix structure, one complete turn consists of 10 base pairs.
These base pairs are joined by hydrogen bonds (i.e. the 2 polynucleotide chains are joined by
113
GC
CG
AT
TA
Question
In a DNA sample, the percentage mass of Adenine is 18%. What is the percentage mass of
Guanine?
Adenine = 18%
Thymine = 18%
Total = 36%
Unlike DNA molecules that is of one type there are 3 types of RNA in the cells:
(i)
messenger RNA (mRNA)
(ii)
transfer RNA (tRNA)
(iii)
Ribosomal RNA (tRNA)
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA)
It is synthesized by the antisense DNA strand in the nucleus through complementary base
pairs.
Its role is to carry genetic information from the antisense DNA strand in the form of codons
(triplet of bases) to the surface of ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
115
The mRNA molecules are linear (straight chains) to ensure that the codons are exposed for
reading and translation of the codons into a sequence of amino acids.
During transcription (synthesis of the mRNA by the antisense DNA (5-3) strand through
complementary base pairing in the nucleus), enzymes known as DNA helicase and RNA
polymerase are used.
2. Transfer RNA (tRNA)
It is synthesized by the DNA through transcription in the nucleus and then passes out to
the cytoplasm.
The tRNA molecule is clover leaf shaped. When stretched out, it has 80 bases and it runs
from 5 to 3 end.
At the 3 end there is a free OH group which acts as a binding site for the amino acids.
The tRNA molecule also has anti codon loop which consist of an anti-codon.
An anti-codon is a triplet of bases on tRNA which is complementary to the codon on mRNA.
Its function is to carry a specific amino acid from the cytoplasm to the ribosome and to
attach to the mRNA so that the amino acids are aligned correctly to form polypeptide.
Questions
1. List differences between DNA and RNA
DNA
1. Has two polynucleotide chains
RNA
Has one polynucleotide chain
molecular mass
Three types: mRNA, tRNA and rRNA
The tRNA
Clover leaf shaped (folded)
Fixed length (80 bases)
Usually a short chain
Has hydrogen bonds
NB
DNA polymerase cannot catalyze the formation of phosphodiester bonds in the 3 to 5
direction and therefore the 3 to 5 end is replicated in short sections, known as akazaki
fragments. This is a lagging strand because its synthesis is slow.
These fragments or sections are joined by the enzyme DNA ligase to form a continuous
polynucleotide chain.
117
They took a known mass of a sample of these bacteria, isolated DNA through centrifuging
and put it in a separating solution, caesium chloride. The DNA band occupied the lower
position indicating that all the strands of these DNA had heavy nitrogen.
They grew the remaining bacteria in a medium containing light nitrogen ( 14N) for several
generations.
(i)
In the 1st generation (1st replication)
They grew the remaining bacteria in a medium containing light nitrogen ( 14N) for one
generation.
After this first generation, they took the same known mass of a sample of these bacteria,
isolated DNA through centrifuging and put it in a separating solution, caesium chloride.
The DNA band occupied the middle position indicating that all the strands of DNA had
heavy and light strands, hence proving semi conservative replication of DNA.
(ii)
In the 2nd generation
They grew the remaining bacteria in a medium containing light nitrogen ( 14N) to get 2nd
generation
After this 2nd generation, they took the same known mass of a sample of these bacteria,
isolated DNA through centrifuging and put it in a separating solution, caesium chloride.
The DNA had two bands in the separating solution with equal thickness i.e. a hybrid band of
DNA in the middle position and a light band of DNA near the top.
(iii)
In the 3rd generation
They grew the remaining bacteria in a medium containing light nitrogen ( 14N) to get 3nd
generation
After this 3nd generation, they took the same known mass of a sample of these bacteria,
isolated DNA through centrifuging and put it in a separating solution, caesium chloride.
The DNA had two bands in the separating solution i.e. a hybrid band of DNA in the middle
position whose thickness was a third and a light band of DNA near the top whose thickness
was two thirds. The ratio of the light to hybrid band was 6:2 i.e. 3:1
Q.
Explain how Meselson and Stahls classic experiment supported the theory of semi-
had one strand containing heavy nitrogen and the other strand
containing light nitrogen, and this explains semi conservative replication of DNA.
If there had been conservative replication, they would have found half the DNA molecules
NB
containing heavy nitrogen and the other half containing light nitrogen.
118
However, in all replications, a parental strand ( 15N) will always be there, further giving evidence of
semi conservative replication of DNA
Questions
The bacteria in the medium absorbed
15
(iii)
The stop triplets of bases (stop signals) on the DNA strand are ATT, ACT and ATC
Gene
-A gene is a sequence of bases on one strand of DNA which codes for a polypeptide (sequence of
amino acids), or it is also a small section of DNA that codes for a polypeptide chain (chain of
amino acids)
-Gene locus is the region on the chromosome where a gene is located.
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
-This is the making of new proteins
-It takes place on the surface of ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
-However, proteins synthesis (joining of amino acids by peptide bonds on the surface of ribosomes)
is controlled by the DNA in the nucleus.
-So, there is a messenger that carries the genetic information from the DNA to the surface of
ribosomes.
-The messenger is called mRNA. This mRNA is synthesized by the antisense DNA strand in the
nucleus in a process called transcription.
-The DNA cannot leave the nucleus because;
a) It is too large to pass through the nuclear pores
b) It is a master copy that should remain in the nucleus
c) Ribosomes are not in the nucleus.
-The protein synthesis has the following stages;
1. Transcription
2. Post transcription modification
3. Amino acid activation
4. Translation
Transcription in the eukaryotic cells.
a. Definition- This is the synthesis of mRNA by the antisense DNA strand in the nucleus
through
mRNA
b. Process DNA helicase breaks down hydrogen bonds between the two strands of the DNA and
separate them to expose their bases.
The antisense DNA strand acts as a template to synthesis mRNA
120
The mRNA (in eukaryotic cells) has sections called introns that do not code for amino acids, and
others called exons which code for amino acids. Introns are removed and exons joined by
Translation
Definition
This is the conversion of the sequence of codons (triplet of bases) on the mRNA into a
sequence of amino acids (polypeptide chain), on the surface of ribosomes. The mRNA acts
as a template during translation. The amino acids are joined by peptide bonds. These
amino acids are carried to the surface of ribosomes by specific tRNA molecules.
Role of molecules during protein synthesis
1. Antisense DNA strand
Acts as a template to synthesize mRNA molecule in the nucleus of a
eukaryotic cell.
2. mRNA
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nucleus.
- Carries genetic message in form of codons.
- It moves out of the nucleus to the ribosomes.
- On the surface of ribosomes, it acts as a template for translation.
3. tRNA
- It binds to a specific amino acid.
-It carries this amino acid to the mRNA on the surface of ribosome for
translation.
- It therefore ensures correct sequence of amino acids.
4. Ribosomes- it holds together the enzymes, mRNA and tRNA during translation.
Description of terms during protein synthesis;
1. Cistron- The sequence of triplets on a section of DNA used to form a strand of pre-mRNA
2. Codon- this is a triplet of bases on the mRNA
3. Anti-codon- this is a triplet of bases on the tRNA, that is complementary to the codon on
the mRNA.
Transcription
RNA polymerase catalyzes
templates
3. A pair with T
4. Whole DNA molecule replicated
Note
Template strand or anti-sense strand is the DNA strand that synthesizes mRNA during
transcription.
Sense strand /DNA strand that does not synthesize mRNA and is complementary to the
template strand or anti sense strand. However it is an exact copy of the m RNA, the
difference being only Adenine and uracil hence it is called sense strand.
GENE MUTATIONS
122
-A gene mutation is the change in a base sequence (nucleotide sequence) on the DNA and this gives
rise to a change in amino acid sequence in the protein.
-If mutations occur in reproductive cells, in ovaries and testes, then the gametes (sperm and egg
cells) formed from these reproductive cells will have mutations and can be inherited.
-If mutations occur in other cells they are not inheritable
Substances that can cause mutations are called mutagens and include;
1. Harmful chemicals e.g. nitrous acid
2. Ionizing radiations e.g. gamma rays
Organisms with mutations are called mutants
point
mutation
of
as
result
of
insertion
or
deletion
of
nucleotides.
-Only one or few of the nucleotides in the gene are altered as a result of substitution of
nucleotides.
-This substitution mutation (non-frame shift mutation) may not have any effect on the phenotype
because;
(i)
It could be a recessive allele that does not express itself phenotypically
(ii)
It could be an intron that is removed during post transcription modification.
(iii)
It could be degenerate i.e. several codes code for the same amino acid.
NB:
Frame shift mutations have severe effects on polypeptide chains while non-frame shift
How a gene mutation results in a protein that does not function normally
-Gene mutation is the change in a base sequence on the DNA due to insertion, deletion or
substitution.
-This gene with different bases is transcribed into mRNA with different codons
-This mRNA is translated into different amino acids in the polypeptide chain/primary structure.
-These amino acids haves different R groups which determine different chemical bonds that in turn
give rise to different shape/structure of protein that cannot function properly or has different
functions.
CYSTIC FIBROSIS (CF) AND GENE MUTATION CALLED DELETION
What is CF?
CF is a genetic disorder where gene mutations affect CFTR gene on chromosome no. 7.
These mutations give rise to a faulty CFTR gene that codes for a faulty CFTR protein
(chloride channel protein) on the apical membrane of the epithelial cells, which causes
accumulation of thick and sticky mucus in the pancreatic duct in the pancreas, airways,
oviducts, cervix and sperm ducts.
Describe the normal function of CFTR protein
acts as chloride channel
Cl moves out of cell
Binding site for ATP
Briefly describe the common gene mutation that causes CF.
The common one is called DF- 508, whereby the 508 th triplet of bases (the CFTR gene
consists of 1480 triplet of bases) on the CFTR gene is deleted so that phenylalanine amino
124
acid is not be coded for in the CFTR protein; and this faulty protein will not fold correctly,
hence will not allow chloride ions to diffuse from the epithelial cells into the mucus.
Another type of gene mutation affecting CFTR gene is loss of ATP binding site on the CFTR
protein. Explain the role of ATP and how lack of this site causes the closure of CFTR protein.
ATP binds to its active site in the CFTR protein; it is hydrolysed to get energy; this energy
causes the chloride channel to open.
Lack of ATP means that there will be no energy to open the chloride channel protein (CFTR
protein), causing the accumulation of chloride ions in the epithelial cells.
How does CF cause thick and sticky mucus in the airways?
The faulty CFTR protein causes the chloride ions to accumulate in the epithelial cells.
Sodium ion channels remain open and allow Na ions to diffuse from the mucus into the
epithelial cells.
Na and Cl ions in the epithelial cells create osmotic gradient causing water from the mucus
to move into the epithelial cells by osmosis leaving behind thick and sticky mucus.
Give reasons why most designed DNA tests for mutations in CF give false negative results.
CF is caused by many different types of mutations and so any designed DNA tests will
detect few mutations and leave out others and therefore the person maybe declared
negative for CF, but it is a false negative.
A couple is declared negative for CF. However, they gave birth to a child who is a genetic carrier
for CF. Suggest reasons for this.
False negative. This is because the designed DNA tests did not detect other gene
mutations, hence a false negative result.
Mutation may have occurred in the egg or sperm cell, after the test was done.
Mutation occurs in the zygote.
CF analysis is done in the body cells (diploid cells) and not in the gametes (haploid cells). Suggest
reasons for this.
It is easier to obtain body cells.
Body cells are genetically similar.
Diploid cells have full no. of chromosomes and this allows mutations to be detected from all
the chromosomes; gametes, haploid cells, have half the no. of chromosomes.
List 3 human systems affected by CF.
Reproductive
Respiratory
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Digestive
List 3 effects of respiratory CF.
(ii) Describe one possible advantage and one possible disadvantage of using gene therapy to treat
CF.
advantage
treats cause not symptoms ;
no, physiotherapy/antibiotics/etc, needed ;
less time consuming than others treatments ;
disadvantage
effects only last for a few days (at present)/low uptake by target cells ;
only target lung cells (at present) ;
side effects ;
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THE EFFECT OF CF
1. Gas exchange (How CF affects the lungs)
thick/sticky/dehydrated,
mucus not moved effectively by cilia/mucus accumulates
reduced gaseous exchange/longer diffusion pathway
difficulty in breathing
infections/(mucus) traps bacteria
lungs are scarred
2. Digestion
-Mucus blocks the pancreatic duct ion the pancreas, so digestive enzymes cant reach the duodenum
(small intestine) and food is not properly digested. This leads to tiredness and difficulty in
gaining weight this is due to malnutrition
-Enzymes trapped within the pancreas cause fibrosed cysts (swellings) and damage to insulin
producing cells (-cells), leading to diabetes.
3. Reproduction
-In women, mucus can block the cervix preventing entry of sperm hence infertility
-In men, the vas deferens (sperm ducts) is blocked with mucus so sperm cannot leave the epididymis
128
Questions
1. Make a take to show which tubes are blocked and what problems this leads to
Tube blocked
1. Bronchioles
2. Pancreatic duct
Problem
Less fresh air gets to alveoli leading to shortness of
breath
Digestive enzymes (amylose, trypsin, and lipase) dont
get into duodenum. This leads to inefficient food
digestion hence malnutrition. It also leads to
3. Cervix
diabetes.
Sperm cannot pass into uterus hence no conception
4. Vas deferens
leading to infertility
Sperm cannot move to urethra, leading to infertility
What does CFTR not do properly when it is a product of a mutated allele and why does this
make mucus sticky? It does not allow Cl- ions out of the epithelial cells and it does not inhibit the
Na+ channels. Both of these mean that the osmotic gradient is into the cell rather than out so,
water is withdrawn from the mucus outside the cell making it too sticky.
Make a table to show the effects of CF and how they are brought about
Effect of CF sufferer
1. Breathing problems
2. Lung infection
Origin of effect
- Bronchioles blocked with sticky mucus
-
diffusion
Sticky mucus traps bacteria which multiply
and cause infection
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4. Diabetes
5. Infertility in woman
6. Infertility is men
destroy
- cells that produce insulin
Mucus blocks cervix hence no passage
sperm
Sperm duct blocked by mucus
of
GENETICS
-This is the study of heredity and variation
-It deals with the transmission of genes from parents to offspring.
-The terms used are:
1. Gene
-Small section of DNA that codes for a polypeptide or sequence of bases on the DNA strand that
codes for a polypeptide (sequence of amino acids)
-It occupies a region on the chromosome called gene locus
-Usually a gene has two forms /alleles
2. Allele
-One of the alternative forms of a gene/different forms of a gene
-In a diploid cell, there are usually 2 alleles of any 1gene (1 from each parent which occupy a gene
locus)
3. Phenotype
-This is the outward expression of the organism
-It is determined by the inherited alleles, environment, or interactions of the two.
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4. Genotype
-This is the alleles of an organism i.e. it is the genetic composition of an organism
-It is expressed in both words and letters
Word
Homozygous dominant for height
Heterozygous for height
Homozygous recessive for height
Letters
TT
Tt
tt
5. Recessive
-This is an allele of a gene that does not express itself in presence of a dominant allele and only
expresses itself in homozygous state e.g tt, bb, dd
6. Dominant
-This is an allele of a gene that always expresses itself in both heterozygous and homozygous
condition
TT
Tt
Tall
7. Homozygous
- Condition where the 2 alleles of a gene are identical e.g. TT, tt
-An organism whose 2 alleles of a gene for a particular characteristic are identical is called
homozygote.
-Homozygotes breed true when crossed with genetically identical organisms
8. Heterozygous
-Condition where the 2 alleles of a gene are not identical e.g. Tt, Bb
-An organism whose 2 alleles of a gene for a particular characterstic are not identical is called
heterozygote
9. Monohybrid inheritance
This is the transmission of 1 gene that codes for 1 polypeptide that determines one characteristic.
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Monohybrid crosses
1. Pea height dwarfnes is recessive to tallness
Parental phenotypes
Tall x dwarf
Parental Genotypes
TT x tt
Parental Gametes
(T) (T)
F1 genotypes
Tt Tt Tt Tt
F1 phenotypes
(t) (t)
F1 x F 1
Parental phenotypes
Tall x Tall
Parental Genotype
Tt x Tt
Parental Gametes
(T) (t)
F2 genotypes
TT
Tt Tt
F2 phenotypes
F2 Phenotypic ratio
(T) (t)
tt
round x wrinkled
Parental Genotype
RR x rr
Parental Gametes
(R) (R)
(r) (r)
F1 genotypes
Rr
Rr
Rr
F1 phenotypes
Rr
F1 x F 1
Parental phenotypes
Round
x Round
Parental Genotype
Rr x
Rr
Parental Gametes
(R) (r)
(R) (r)
F2 genotypes
RR
F2 phenotypes
Rr
Rr
rr
F2 phenotypes
ratio
3:
3. In human genetics, it is not ethically accepted to set up crosses like in plants. The inheritance
of characteristics in humans is studied by looking at natural crosses and the production of
offspring using genetic pedigree diagrams.
Genetic pedigree (family tree) is a diagram of family relationships that uses symbols to represent
people and lines to represent genetic relationships. Pedigrees are usually used to determine the
mode of inheritance (dominant, recessive etc) of genetic diseases
In a pedigree
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
a) Cystic fibrosis
The disorder is caused by a recessive allele
Parental phenotypes
normal x normal
Parental Genotype
Ff x Ff
Parental Gametes
(F) (f)
F1 genotypes
FF Ff
F1 phenotypes
(F) (f)
Ff
ff
NB
The parents are genetic carriers. A carrier is an individual with a recessive allele for the condition
and so does not show the condition but can pass on the allele to the next generation.
From the above, the heterozygous parents for CF, have 25% chance of having a child with CF
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b) Albinism
-This condition is caused by a recessive allele
-Natural melanin pigment of the skin, eyes and hair does not form
-A mutant recessive allele prevents the formation of a normal tyrosinase in melanocytes (pigment
forming cells) hence no formation of melanin
-2 normal parents give birth to an albino. Show this is a genetic diagram.
Parental phenotypes
Normal x Normal
Parental Genotypes
Aa x Aa
Parental Gametes
(A) (a)
(A) (a)
F1 genotypes
AA Aa
Aa
F1 phenotypes
F1 Phenotypic ratio
aa
3 normal : 1 albino
3:1
Question
1. Is albinism caused by recessive/dominant allele?
-It is caused by recessive allele
-Because parent 1 and 2 do not show the disorder yet they have a child (4) with the condition
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2. Using A and a for 2 alleles, write genotypes for all these people
1. Aa
2. Aa
3. AA or Aa
4. aa
5. Aa
6. aa
7. Aa
8. Aa
9. aa
a) Give the name of a female who is homozygous for the C.F gene
b) Is CF caused by a dominant allele /recessive allele? Explain
it is a recessive allele this is because the parents do not show a disorder (Jane and Peter) hence
not dominant. In addition they have a child with CF (priya)
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d) If Fiona and samir had a 3rd child, state the probability that the 3rd child could have Cf
Parental genotype
Ff x Ff
Parental Gametes
F1 genotype
FF Ff Ff ff
e) From the diagram give evidence that shows that CF is caused by an allele that is autosomal. This
autosomal because it affects both males and female hence, it is not a sex linked allele.
f) Suggest how an individual with the heterozygous genotype for this disorder could be identified.
1. Gene probe
2. Identification of base sequences of a gene /allele
c) Thelassaemia
-Caused by recessive allele
-Is an inherited autosomal recessive blood disease that prevents the formation of either
or
hemoglobin chains.
-This cause the formation of abnormal haemoglobin molecule causing symptoms of anaemia fatigue
and lack of energy due to insufficient oxygen in the blood (sickle cell anameia *qualitative) is not
the same as the thalassaemia (quantitative)
-So there are two types of thalassaemia:(i)
(ii)
- Thalassaemia
-Its inheritance involved 4 genes on chromosomes 16, hence shows polygenic inheritance
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Thalassaemia
-Caused by mutations in the hemoglobin gene on chromosome II
-Are 2 types
(i) Thalassaemia minor
-The person with this is heterozygous for the condition, hence has mild anemia.
(ii) Thalassaemia major (Cooleys anemia)
-The child is homozygous for thalasaemia
- Chains of hemoglobin are not made at all hence very serious disease
Carries for this condition have protection against malaria, hence the condition contains a
effectively as possible
There is a range of treatments that combat different symptoms:
1. Physiotherapy
It loosens and removes the thick, sticky mucus from the lungs so that:
a) There is improved flow of air into and out of the lungs.
b) There is more surface area available for gaseous exchange (alveoli).
c) There is less risk of infection because sticky mucus has bacteria.
Devices for physiotherapy include:
a) Flutter
b) Positive Expiratory Pressure (PEP) Valve
c) ThAIRapy bronchial drainage system
2. Diet
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o
o
o
o
o
foods. This is to keep them warm as cold can cause more mucus production.
An adult with CF needs twice as much protein as someone unaffected by the condition.
Some may need salt supplements. This is because a lot of salt is lost in sweat because in
sweat ducts the CFTR protein works in opposite direction to the way it works in mucus
producing cells i.e. salt is normally reabsorbed from sweat using the CFTR channel; with
CF this does not function; so the salt is not absorbed making saltier sweat.
3. Digestive enzymes
To help overcome the effect of the blocked pancreatic duct, people with CF may take
enzymes when they have a meal. These enzymes include the trypsin, amylase and lipase, and
help to replace the missing pancreatic enzymes so that more of the food can be digested.
Combination of drugs needed for CF varies from person to person and overtime for an individual.
These drugs include:
A. Antibiotics: aerosols (inhalers) are used to breathe them deep into the lungs to destroy
bacteria.
B. Vaccines: two vaccines are very important to prevent the patients against:
Flu Virus
Pneumonia
Flu and pneumonia add mucus hence worsening the condition.
C. Mucolytics: these are drugs to make the mucus more runny and so easier to move. i.e. dilate
the airways and make the mucus more liquid.
D. Asthma drugs: e.g. Salbutamol and steroids: these are used to dilate the airways and also
reduce inflammation in the lungs.
E. DNAase enzymes: infection of the lungs leads to the accumulation of white blood cells in
the mucus. The breakdown of these white blood cells release DNA which adds to the
stickiness of the mucus. DNAase enzymes can be inhaled using a nebulizer to breakdown the
DNA so the mucus is thinner and easier to clear from the lungs through coughing.
F. Insulin: If CF leads to diabetes, insulin is taken to control the blood sugar concentration.
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Due to severe damage of these organs, lungs and heart transplant remains the option.
However, after transplant immunosuppressant drugs should be taken throughout the rest
of the life to prevent rejection of the new tissue by the body. This suppresses the immune
6. Infertility treatment
Women can get children through fertility treatment as In vitro Fertilisation (IVF).
For men, sperm are taken from their testes and fertilize eggs in vitro (outside the body).
The resulting embryos are then returned to the mothers uterus to develop normally.
7. Gene therapy- This is the transfer of a normal gene/allele to a target cell so that it is
expressed to produce a functional protein.
GENE THERAPY
Why is gene therapy possible in treating CF
Cystic fibrosis is caused by a recessive allele of a single gene, hence a good candidate
for gene therapy.
RESTRICTION ENZYMES
They have 2 functions where they cut DNA at restricted sites of specific bases.
1. They cut out the normal gene from the DNA in a staggered manner to get sticky ends
which have complementary bases to the bases of sticky ends of the vector.
2. They cut open a vector in a staggered manner to expose sticky ends that have bases
complementary to those of the sticky ends of the gene.
DNA LIGASE
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It catalyses the formation of Hydrogen bonds between the complementary bases of the
sticky ends of both the gene and the vector, forming a recombinant DNA (rDNA).
VECTORS
These are molecules that carry normal genes to the target cells.
There are 3 types of vectors:1. Viral DNA It is the best to transfer the normal gene to the animal target cells. The
genes that cause disease in this DNA are removed before it is used as a vector.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
2.
3. Liposomes These are vesicles that consist of phospholipid bilayer. This layer is
compatible with the animal phopholipid bilayer of the plasma membrane, hence they can
easily fuse.
THE PROCESS OF GENE THERAPY
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As genetic disorders have no cure, potential parents have the following options:(a) Avoid having a child with such a condition
(b) Start treatment immediately after birth which improves health in later years.
These options involve Genetic Screening/ Testing
GENETIC SCREENING
This is the identification of genetic carriers by the identification of a faulty allele in the
express the condition but can pass on this allele to the offspring.
Examples of Genetic Screening are:1. Genetic Screening of new born babies
2. Genetic screening of adults
3. Pre-natal Genetic Screening
4. Pre-implantation Genetic Diagnosis (PIGD)
These new born babies are tested for defective alleles for genetic disorders such as CF.
The blood sample is taken and the defective genes identified.
This will help in the introduction of early treatment, in case they are sick, in terms medicine
and nutrition which improves health in later years.
a) If one member of a family is born with CF, the other members of the family need
genetic screening.
b) If one partner in a couple has been detected to be a carrier then the other partner
needs genetic screening because in case of CF which is caused by a recessive allele,
there is a quarter chance that the child will have the disease. So genetic screening helps
the couple to make informed decisions.
c) A person can go for genetic screening irrespective of the above two reasons.
ADVANTAGES OF GENETIC SCREENING OF ADULTS
(a) To make informed decision such as whether or not to have a child.
(b) Peace of mind.
(a) Suggest why cells from mouth swabs or blood samples are used rather than
gametes.
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(b) Explain why it is necessary to test for several different recessive alleles in the
screening for cystic fibrosis.
Cystic fibrosis results from one of a number of different gene mutations.
So, testing for only one will miss other recessive alleles.
(c) In the risk analysis shown, if neither partner is a carrier then it is considered
that the chance of having a child with cystic fibrosis is low. Explain why the
probability of having a child with cystic fibrosis is low and not zero.
False negatives
Screening programme does not test for all possible mutations that can cause CF
Mutation may occur in the formation of gametes
Mutation may occur after fertilisation.
(d) In the risk analysis shown, if one of the partners is found to be a carrier then screening for
cystic fibrosis may be offered to other family members. Explain why this screening is offered to
other family members.
This involves genetic testing of embryos or foetuses. Its divided into two:
a) Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)
b) Amniocentesis
Placental tissue is removed from the uterus of the mother within 8 10 weeks of pregnancy
using a syringe.
Fetal cells are present in the placental tissue.
DNA is analyzed in those fetal cells through Karyotyping DNA analysis to detect defective
genes.
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ADVANTAGES OF CVS
1. If termination of pregnancy is needed its less traumatic for the mother as this method is
carried out early in the pregnancy.
2. Results are available immediately compared to amniocentesis.
DISADVANTAGES OF CVS
1. Risk of miscarriage due to procedure.
2. Risk of harm to foetus due to procedure.
3. Defective X chromosomes cant be detected at this early stage as X chromosomes are
inactive in fetal placental cells.
4. False positives
5. False negatives.
About 20cm3 of amniotic fluid is removed from the amniotic sac of the mother using a
ADVANTAGES OF AMNIOCENTESIS
1. Less risk of miscarriage compared to CVS.
2. Defects in X chromosomes can be detected.
DISADVANTAGES OF AMNIOCENTESIS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1. If someone does not realise that they are pregnant till later.
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2. Risk of genetic disease is not recognised till later into the pregnancy.
3. Low levels of miscarriage.
4. Can detect defective genes in X chromosome.
Peace of mind.
Preparation for treatment.
Gives information about abnormalities in foetus.
To make informed decisions, i.e. whether to terminate the baby or not.
This is genetic screening of embryos created through IVF to see if they carry faulty alleles
so that the embryo that does not have faulty alleles is implanted into the woman.
After cell division through IVF, when the embryo is 8 16 cells, a single cell is removed
without harming the embryo for DNA analysis to find out if there is a faulty/defective
allele. The embryo that does not have faulty allele is implanted into the woman.
ADVANTAGES OF PIGD
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1. Can take place before woman is pregnant hence no miscarriage or termination of pregnancy.
2. Involves IVF hence one is sure that the baby is free of disease not even a carrier.
DISADVANTAGES OF PIGD
1. Very expensive.
2. Quite unreliable.
3. False positives Hence embryo destroyed. Some people consider it as a potential human
4.
5.
6.
7.
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