Introduction to Photonics

Lecture 4: Optical Instruments

September 15, 2014

Lunar Laser Communications Demonstration

on LADEE spacecraft

Eyes
Magnifying glasses
Microscopes
Telescopes

Magnifying Glass
What type of lens is this?

Eyes
Compound eye

Single centered lens system

Insects (horsefly, dragonfly, ant),

crayfish

Mosaic sensory image; many small fieldof-view points like looking through a
bundle of tubes
Divides and digitizes scene so no real
image on retinal screen
Synthesis occurs in nervous system

Vertebrates, some mollusks,

some spiders

Positive double-lens system

Casts real image on light-sensitive
surface (retina)

Why do we not see sell well under water?

Human Eye

Retina contains many light sensitive rods

and cones on its surface
Rods are extremely sensitive but cannot
distinguish color
Cones not as sensitive but distinguish color
Macula has more cones than rods

Fovea centralis, at center of macula, densely

packed so sharpest image
Eye constantly moving to focus light here

Human vision wavelength range sensitivity:

390-780 nm

Crystalline lens absorbs UV

Some studies claim: 310-1050 nm

Blind Spot

Fine Focusing (Accommodation)

1 1 1
+ =
s0 si f
1
1
1

= (n 1)
f
R1 R2

Mammals vary lens curvature

Crystalline lens changes curvature for fine
focusing (accommodation)
Muscle contracts and relaxes to vary the
focal length while keeping si constant
Near point is closest point on which eye
can focus
Fish move lens with respect to retina
Mollusks expand/contract entire eye
Birds change curvature of cornea

Near Point/Far Point

Near point (d0): closest point on which the eye can focus (~25 cm but
varies with age)

Far point: most distant point that can be brought to a focus on the retina
For the normal eye the far point is located at infinity, which is everywhere
beyond about 5 m.

Vision Problems

Eyeglasses
1 1 1
+ =
s0 si f
1
1
1
= (nl 1)
f
R1 R2
Dioptric power D of lens = 1/f
Units 1 m-1 = 1 D (diopter)

Focal length for two thin lenses in contact

Power of any thin lens is sum of powers of
its surfaces

1
1

D = (nl 1)
R1 R2
1 1 1
= +
f
f1 f 2
D = D1 + D2
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Correcting for Nearsightedness

Short far point
Use lens to cast nearby (between near and far points)
images of objects

Virtual image of the object at infinity

Suppose an eye has a far point of 2 m (as opposed to 5 m)

The myopia will be corrected if the spectacle lens images distant
objects in closer than 2 m
negative lens to diverge rays

1 / f = 1 / s0 + 1 / si = 1 / + 1 / 2
f = 2m
D = 0.5D
Nearsightedness is corrected by negative (diverging)
lens with a focal length equal to the far-point distance
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Correcting for Farsightedness

Long near point
Example: suppose an eye has a near point of 125 cm
(as opposed to 25 cm)

Want that an object at 25 cm (good near point)

has its image at 125cm, so can see it normally

A converging lens with positive power will effectively

move a close object out beyond the near point where
the eye works properly

1 / f = 1 /(0.25) + 1 /( 1.25) = 1 / 0.31

f = 0.31m D = +3.2 D
Farsightedness is corrected by positive (converging)
lens with a focal length equal to the far-point distance
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The Magnifying Lens

Transverse magnification
yi
si
MT =
=
y0
s0

Desirable if image is magnified and erect

Magnifying lens: the object is less than one
focal length from the lens

The image is virtual and magnified

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The Magnifying Power

Magnifying power (angular magnification):
ratio of size of retinal image seen through instrument
to size seen by unaided eye at normal distance (near point)

a
MP =
u

d 0 : Near point: the closest

point on which the
eye can focus (25 cm)

a : Aided vision viewing angle

u : Un-aided vision viewing angle

u h / 25cm
a = ' h / f

Largest possible angle

25 cm
MP = m
f
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Magnifying Glass
What type of lens is this?

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The Art of Microscopy

Bees by Francesco Stelluti, 1630
Oldest published image known to
have been made with a microscope.

Experiment and learn more at:

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/index.html

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Compound Microscope: Two-Stage

Magnification Trick

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Basic Concepts
Modern compound microscopes* feature a two-stage
magnifying design built around separate lens systems:
the objective and the eyepiece (commonly termed an
ocular), mounted at opposite ends of a tube, known as the
body tube.
The objective is composed of several lens elements that
together form a magnified real image (the intermediate
image) of the specimen being examined.
The intermediate image is further magnified by the
eyepiece. The user is able to observe a greatly enlarged
virtual image of the specimen by peering through the
eyepieces.
*This

invention is
attributed to the Janssen
brothers in the
Netherlands and Galileo
in Italy, 1600 circa

The total magnification of a microscope is determined by

multiplying the individual magnifications of the objective
and eyepiece.
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Microscope II

Transverse magnification of the objective

si
s
MT = =
s0
f ob
Overall instrument magnification

s 25cm
M = M T MP =
f ob f ey
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Microscope III
Magnifying power (angular magnification)

d 0 : Near point: the closest

point on which the
eye can focus (25 cm)

L:

Tube length

a
do L
MP =
=
u
f ob f oc
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Contemporary Microscope
1: Ocular lens (eyepiece)

2, 3: Objectives
9: Sample holder stage
6: Sample
4, 5: Focus wheels to move
the stage (fine and coarse
adjustments)

8: Diaphragm and
condenser* lens
7: Light source

*A

condenser is a lens that serves to concentrate light from the illumination source that is in turn
focused through the object and magnified by the objective lens.

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A Look Inside

Optical path in a typical (real) microscope

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Evolution of Microscopes

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Specialized Microscopy Techniques

Darkfield Microscopy
Differential Interference Contrast (DIC) microscopy
Polarized Light Microscopy
Confocal Microscopy
Near-Field Scanning Optical Microscopy
Fluorescence Microscopy
Learn more at: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/techniques/index.html

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The Telescope

Image of a refracting
telescope from the
Cincinnati Observatory
in 1848

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Types of Telescopes
Three primary types of optical telescope:
1.
2.
3.

Refractors (Dioptrics) which use lenses

Reflectors (Catoptrics) which use mirrors
Combined Lens-Mirror Systems (Catadioptrics) which use lenses and mirrors in
combination; (Maksutov telescope and the Schmidt camera)

The basic scheme is that the primary light-gathering element the objective (1)
(the convex lens or concave mirror used to gather the incoming light), focuses
that light from the distant object (4) to a focal plane where it forms a real image
(5). This image may be recorded or viewed through an eyepiece (2) which acts
like a magnifying glass. The eye (3) then sees an inverted magnified virtual
image (6) of the object.

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The Refractive Telescope - Galilean

Dob

f ob

f oc

Angular magnification

Doc

MP =

f ob Dob
=
f oc Doc

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Types of Reflecting Telescopes

All use concave paraboloidal
primary mirror to collect light

Planar secondary mirror

Convex ellipsoidal
secondary mirror

Convex hyperboloidal
secondary mirror
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Newtonian Telescope
First invented by the British scientist Sir Isaac Newton (16431727), using a concave primary
mirror and a flat diagonal secondary mirror
Newtonian telescope's simple design makes them very popular with amateur telescope makers.

A replica of Newton's second

reflecting telescope that he
presented to the Royal Society in
1672.

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Reflecting Telescope - Newtonian

The large curved mirror by itself would form an image I, but the small mirror
creates an image of the image, I. The relationship between I and I is exactly
the same as it would be if I was an actual object rather than an image.
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Gregorian Telescope
The Gregorian telescope is a type of reflecting telescope designed by Scottish mathematician
and astronomer James Gregory in the 17th century, and first built in 1673 by Robert Hooke.

The Gregorian telescope consists of two concave mirrors; the primary mirror (a
concave paraboloid) collects the light and brings it to a focus before the secondary
mirror (a concave ellipsoid) where it is reflected back through a hole in the centre of
the primary.
Can be viewed
with the aid of the eyepiece
(or camera, detector).

This design of telescope renders an upright image,

making it useful for terrestrial observations.

Primary mirror
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Cassegrain Reflector
The Cassegrain reflector is a combination of a primary concave mirror and a secondary
convex mirror, often used in optical telescopes and radio antennas.

The classic Cassegrain configuration uses a parabolic reflector as the primary

while the secondary mirror is convex hyperbolic (increases effective focal length).

There are lots of specific variations to this geometry,

including: SchmidtCassegrain, MaksutovCassegrain,
ArgunovCassegrain, KlevtsovCassegrain, etc

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Cassegrain in Action
Cassegrain designs are also utilized in satellite communications earth station
antennas and radio telescopes, ranging in size from 6.3 metres to 70 metres.

A Cassegrain radio antenna the 70

meter dish at JPL's Goldstone antenna
complex. In this case the final focus is in
front of the primary mirror.

The Raisting Satellite Earth Station is the

largest satellite communications facility in
Germany (radioastronomy).

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The Hubble Space Telescope (HST)

Hubble space telescope

http://hubblesite.org/

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The Hubble Space Telescope (HST)

Spacecraft: 13 m
Weight: 11,600 kg
Orbit: 599 km by 591 km
Period: 96 minutes
2.4m diameter hyperboloidal primary mirror

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The Hubble Space Telescope (HST)

Spacecraft: 13 m
Weight: 11,600 kg
Orbit: 599 km by 591 km
Period: 96 minutes

One of Hubble's most famous images, Pillars

of Creation shows stars forming in the Eagle
Nebula

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