CHAPTER 4

IMMISCIBLE
DISPLACEMENT GENERAL

Gordon R. Petrie,
Thru-u.com.

Contents:

Page

4.1

Introduction

4.2

Capillary Pressure

4.3

Relative Permeability

4.4

Fractional Flow Equation

4.5

Buckley-Leverett Displacement

10

4.6

Welge Graphical Construction

14

4.7

Injection-Production Schedule

18

4.8

Importance of Fractional Flow Curve

23

A-4

Appendix 4

25

Section 4
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.

1
Rev. 1.0

4
-

IMMISCIBLE
DISPLACEMENT - GENERAL

Primary Recovery involves extracting hydrocarbons from the reservoir using

the natural drive mechanisms available within the reservoir itself:
-

The reservoir pressure tends to decline quite steeply under the action of a
volumetric Solution Gas Drive mechanism. See Appendix 4 for an
example hand calculation method Tarners Method.

The pressure decline is much smaller if the reservoir has a natural water
drive or a gascap drive mechanism. In some cases, with large gascaps
and/or strong aquifer support, the pressure can even remain constant.

Secondary Recovery involves injection of pore fluids into the reservoir to

replace pore fluids that have been produced. If the injected fluid does not mix
with the oil, then the process is called Immiscible Displacement.

4.1
-

INTRODUCTION
If fluids are immiscible then an interface must exist between the injected fluid
and the oil; hence, creating a Capillary Pressure between the two phases.

The injected fluid is then used to drive or displace the oil into the production
wells using the external energy of the injection pumps/compressors. If volume
of fluid injected equals volume of fluid produced, the pressure will stabilise.

Either water or gas can be used - both are immiscible with oil. Reservoir
pressure is usually kept constant around pbp ; preventing mobile gas phase.

Section 4
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.

2
Rev. 1.0

4.2
-

CAPILLARY PRESSURE
Whenever two immiscible phases are in contact an interface exists. The
interface exhibits a characteristic wetting angle and interfacial tension.

Most reservoir rock is water-wet which means that oil is normally the nonwetting phase. However, the situation is very occasionally reversed with the oil
as the wetting phase and the water as non-wetting phase.

In this course it will be assumed that water is the wetting phase. Due to the
existence of Capillary Pressure between the two immiscible phases, water will
form a Capillary Transition Zone as shown below:

PC

Capillary
Transition
Zone

OWC
0.2

1.0

SW

Water is drawn up above the OWC by capillary pressure. It is "sucked" to some

height (Capillary Transition Zone) above the OWC, depending on the pore size
distribution of the rock; the smallest pores have the highest capillary pressure.

Well 1 will only produces water. Well 3 will only produces oil. Well 2

NOTE -

will produce both water and oil; water is mobile 1 SW > SWC .
-

Water saturation is constant above the capillary transition zone

SW = SWC . This Connate Water is immobile.

Section 4
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.

3
Rev. 1.0

4.3
-

RELATIVE PERMEABILITY
Except for gases at low pressure, the absolute permeability is a rock property:
The same core sample will produce the same absolute permeability when

tested with 100% water saturation, or with 100% oil saturation.

Absolute permeability applies so long as only a single fluid is present.

If the fluid saturation is then changed to 50% water and 50% oil we must talk of
the effective permeability to water and the effective permeability to oil:
-

The effective permeability then applies when the fluid saturation is less
then 100%.

The sum of the effective permeability of each fluid is always less then the
absolute permeability.

The relative permeability is then the ratio of the effective permeability to a

particular fluid divided by the absolute permeability or

k rW =

keW
k

k ro =

keo
k

....................................................(4.1)a

.................................................(4.1)b

where,

k rW & kro are relative permeability to water and oil respectively (-)
keW & keo are effective permeability to water and oil respectively (md)
k is absolute permeability measured with 100% fluid saturation (md)

Section 4
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.

4
Rev. 1.0

The relative permeabilities k rW & kro are dimensionless fractional quantities less
than unity. Relative permeability is a non-linear function of saturation:
(1 Sor )

SWC
1.0

k ro

OIL

Assume that water is the wetting

phase.

An increase in the water

saturation is known as an
imbibition process.

At low

08

k rW

0.6

&
k ro

0.4

k rW
k ro

SW

the

k ro

is high

since oil is flowing through

largest pores.

k rW

0.2
WATER

0.2

0.6

0.4

0.8

1.0

At low

SW

the

k rW

is small

since water is imbibed into

smallest pores first.

SW

As water just becomes mobile SW > SWC the relative permeability to oil only
decreases a little:
-

Oil, being non-wetting phase, occupies largest pores.

As SW increases further k ro drops and k rW increases.

When SW = 1 Sor then oil stops flowing. This occurs at the Irreducible

,
Oil Saturation - Sor . The relative permeability k rW is now equal to k rW
the end-point relative permeability to water.
-

Oil stops flowing at SW = 1 Sor because water, flowing through a

network of the smallest pores bypasses the oil, which is flowing through a
network of the largest pores. This has the effect of breaking oil threads.

The oil is then trapped or becomes "jammed" in the larger pore throats by
capillary forces; oil saturation cannot be further reduced.

is small because residual oil is trapped in largest pore throats at

The k rW
SW = 1 Sor . The k ro is large because water is trapped in smallest pore
throats when SW = SWC ; this despite the fact that often SWC Sor .

Section 4
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.

5
Rev. 1.0

4.4
-

THE FRACTIONAL FLOW EQUATION

Consider a linear reservoir symmetry element between injection and production
well as shown below:

PRODUCTION

Z
x
W

INJECTION

The width is W (ft), the length is L (ft), and the height is h (ft); the dip
angle of the block is . A constant injection rate of qt (rb/d) water occurs
uniformly over injection face, area A (ft2); the area A is equal to W h

The principle assumptions are as follows:

-

Flow is linear as above with no radial distortion of flow at inlet and outlet
faces.

Flow is incompressible if the density is constant. The injection rate at inlet

end of block is equal to production rate at outlet end of block. Therefore,
pressure will be constant at any point and, since pressure drop from
injection to production is small, fluid properties can be assumed constant.

Section 4
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.

6
Rev. 1.0

Fluid is in vertical equilibrium, that is if a small increase in saturation

occurs at point x then this same saturation is instantaneously equilibrates
in the dip-normal direction, i.e. needs good vertical permeability.

Flow is diffuse, that is the fluid saturation is uniform in the dip normal
direction. This means that saturations, relative permeabilities and
flowrates of oil/water are everywhere constant in the dip-normal direction.

Darcys Law can be applied to this one-dimensional (1-D) flow problem. If the
flow is segregated by gravity, then techniques are available so that, what would
be a 2-D problem can again be reduced to a simple 1-D case.

Apply Darcys law to flows of oil and water in the x -direction. See section 3,
equation (3.3). The term ( dD / dl ) is replaced by (+ sin ) with understanding

that is measured anti-clockwise and q is stated in units of (rb/d):

qo = 1.127 10 3

keo A po

+ 0.4335 sin .(3.3)a

o x

qW = 1.127 10 3

keW A pW

+ 0.4335 sin .(3.3)b

W x

Subtracting equation (3.3)b (3.3)a gives, knowing that keo = kkro , keW = kkrW
and = W o

p p

qW W qo o

= 1.127 10 3 kA o W 0.4335 sin ..(A)

x
krW
kro
x

Also the capillary pressure is equal to oil pressure less water pressure

PC po pW
=

............................................................(B)
dx
x
x

Section 4
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.

7
Rev. 1.0

If flow is incompressible, then oil flowrate is constant and equal to

qo = qt qW .....................................................................(C)

Substituting (B) and (C) into (A) results in

q
P

qW W + o = t o + 1.127 10 3 kA C 0.4335 sin ..(D)

kro
x

krW kro

The fractional flow of water at any point (rb/rb) is then defined as

fW =

qW
q
= W
qo + qW
qt

Then re-arranging equation (D) to put it into the above form leads to

1 + 1.127 10 3
fW =

Akkro PC

0.4335 sin

qt o x

.........(4.2)

W kro
1 +
.
k
rW o

Equation (4.2) is the expression for fractional flow of water in field units. If
reservoir is horizontal and capillary pressure is ignored then we get

fW =

...........................................(4.3)

k
1 + W . ro
krW o

Section 4
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.

8
Rev. 1.0

In the event of a dipping reservoir, again ignoring capillary pressure term,

equation (4.2) reduces to

Akkro sin
qt o
k
. ro
o

1 4.886 10 4
fW =

1 + W
krW

..(4.4)

For a given set of conditions the fractional flow of water fW will be a function
of SW , since k ro and k rW are both functions only of SW .

A typical fractional flow curve then is a plot of fW versus SW as shown below

1.0
-

Notice fW is equal
to zero when

SW = SWC , i.e.
water is immobile.

fW 0.5
-

fW is equal to unity
when

SW = 1 Sor ,
0
0

(1

SWC

Sor ) 1.0

i.e. oil is immobile.

SW

As SW increases in the producing well the watercut will increase. Eventually

producing watercut becomes so high that the well is uneconomic.

NOTE

Aim in waterdrive is to move fractional flow curve to the right to

prevent early water breakthrough into producing wells.

Section 4
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.

9
Rev. 1.0

4.5
-

BUCKLEY-LEVERETT DISPLACEMENT
Having shown how to find fW at any SW , next step is to find the position of any
plane of constant water saturation along the displacement path.

Consider displacement of oil by water through a linear symmetry reservoir

block. Ignore gravity and capillary forces for the moment:

dx

fW dfW

fW

Within any element, at time t , the water saturation is SW . At a slightly later

time, ( t + dt ), the water saturation in the element rises to (SW + dSW ) . The
fractional flow entering the LHS of the element is fW , while that leaving the
element through RHS it is slightly less, ( fW dfW ) .

If A is cross-sectional area and the porosity, then the pore volume of the
element is ( Adx ) . The rate of change in cumulative water injectected must be
equal to the rate of increase in water content (rb/d) within the block, or

dWi
Adx SW
=

5.615 t x
dt

where,
Wi = Cumulative water injected (bbl) since t = 0 .

Section 4
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.

10
Rev. 1.0

Also, the increase in water content within the element (rb/d) can be expressed as
follows

dWi
=
dt

( fW

dfW )qt fW qt = dfW qt

Equating the last two equations

5.615 qt fW
dSW

(A)
A
dt x
x t

The fractional flow fW is a function only of SW , while SW is a function of both

x & t . Hence, the total differential for SW is given by

dSW =

SW
SW
dx +
dt
x t
t x

Assuming diffuse flow then at any point along the displacement path dSW = 0 ,
then the above expression becomes

(SW / dt )x
dx
....(B)
=
(SW / x )t
dt SW

Now, substituting equation (A) into equation (B) leads to

5.615 qt (fW / x )t
dx
=
(SW / x )t
A
dt SW

Section 4
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.

11
Rev. 1.0

But, examining the final term on the RHS of above equation and simplifying

5.615 qt fW
dx

=
A
dt SW
SW

The LHS of the above equation is the velocity of any given plane of constant
water saturation (v )SW in units of (ft/day). Notice that the velocity of any
saturation plane is proportional to the slope of the fractional flow curve at that
saturation all other terms being constant. Hence

(v )S

5.615 qt dfW
.
A
dSW

SW

Integrating the above equation from the start of injection and, given that
qi = qt = (qo + qW ) = k , leads to the position of a plane of constant SW

(x )S

5.615 Wi dfW
.
A
dSW

...(4.5)
SW

and,

Wi = qt dt = qt .t

..........(4.6)

NOTE

Equation (4.5) enables the position of any SW plane to be found.

Equation (4.6) enables a timescale to be attached to displacement.

Section 4
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.

12
Rev. 1.0

Equation (4.5) shows that each plane of constant water saturation, SW , is

located at a position from its initial distribution, which is proportional to Wi and
the slope of the fractional flow curve at that particular value of SW .

First step is to plot the slope of the fractional flow curve versus SW as follows:

dfW

dSW

SW

Often the fractional flow

curve is S -shaped.

Hence the slope of the

fractional flow curve goes
through a maximum at some
intermediate value of

SW .

(1 Sor )

SWC
SW
-

Using (4.5), and the above graph for (dfW / dSW ) , a second plot can be prepared
for the distance travelled, from its initial distribution, at a specified Wi , by each
plane of constant water saturation - SW . A typical plot is shown below:

(1 Sor )

Curve A represents the

initial fluid distribution
before water injection

Curve B represents fluid

saturation distribution

B
A

SW

after

SWC

Wi

(rb) water

have been cumulatively

injected at constant rate

qi = qt
x

0
Distance - x

Curve B indicates multiple saturations at the same point in the reservoir.

Actually a shock-front develops - front is located by construction shown.

Section 4
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.

13
Rev. 1.0

4.6 WELGE GRAPHICAL CONSTRUCTON

-

Welge graphical construction enables the saturation of the flood front (shockfront), the fractional flow at the flood front and the average water saturation
behind the flood front to be found from the fractional flow curve alone.

Consider the position of any plane of water saturation, including the shock front
(found by "balancing areas"), after Wi cumulative barrels of water injected:

position x2 between
injection and production
wells - distance L apart.

(1 Sor )
SW
SW

Shock front has reached

Water saturation at the

flood front is

SWf
-

SWC

Average water
saturation behind flood
front is

SWf .

SW .

x2

x1
Distance - x

Plane of water saturation (1 Sor ) has moved a small distance x1 from the
injection well. Notice the distance travelled by each plane of water saturation is
simply proportional to (dfW / dSW ) for any given Wi injected, i.e. equation (4.5).

Applying material balance to the section of reservoir behind the flood front
leads to

Wi =

x2 A
SW SWC
5.615

Section 4
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.

)
14
Rev. 1.0

Re-arranging above equation gives

(S

SWC =

5.615 Wi
x2 A

Applying equation (4.5) to shock-front, i.e. SW = SWf and ( x )SWf = x2 and

combining with above expression leads to

(S

SWC =

5.615 Wi
1
.......................(A)
=
x2 A
dfW

dSW S

Wf

To analytically find an expression for SW the saturation behind the flood front,
then integrate the saturation profile as follows:

x2

SW =

(1 Sor )x1 + SW dx
x1

x2

Substituting equation (4.5) successively into above expression to eliminate all

the terms in x , then cancelling out common factors above and below, then
changing the limits of integration leads to

(1 Sor )(dfW / dSW )(1 S

SW =

S Wf
or

S d (df
W

(1 S or )

(dfW / dSW )S

/ dSW )

..........(B)

Wf

The integral on the numerator is solved by the method of integration by parts

u.dv = uv vdu
Section 4
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.

15
Rev. 1.0

Hence, integral on numerator is given by

SWf

Wf
dfW

fW
SW d (dfW / dSW ) = SW dSW

(1 S or )
(1 S or )
(1 S or )

SWf

dfW
(
)
=
/
S
d
df
dS
SWf
W
W
W

(1 S or )
dSW
SWf

(1 Sor )
SWf

dfW
dSW

fW
(1 S or )

SWf

Substitute the above expression into the RHS of the numerator in equation (B)
gives, after cancellation

SWf
SW =

dfW
dSW

SWf

+1

SWf

(dfW / dSW )S

Wf

Or, after dividing out leads to

SW = SWf +

fW

1 fW

SWf

(dfW / dSW )S

.............................(4.7)
Wf

Re-arranging equation (4.7) and comparing with equation (A) gives

dfW
dSW

=
SWf

Section 4
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.

1 fW

SWf

SW SWf

1 0
SW SWC

.....................(4.8)

16
Rev. 1.0

Welge graphical interpretation can readily be observed by drawing a tangent to

the fractional flow curve at SW = SWC , fW = 0 , as shown below:

SW 1

1.0

fW 2
fW

The slope of this line is

simply

slope =

1 0
SW 1 SWC

0.5
-

0
0

SWC

SW 2

(1

Sor ) 1.0

Compare this with

equation (4.8) which is
tangent to fractional flow
curve and

SW 1 = S

SW

Also from equation (4.8) the point of tangency must be fW 2 = fW

S Wf

and

SW 2 = SWf . Hence, the Welge graphical technique consists of the following:

-

Construct the fractional flow curve either from equation (4.3) for
horizontal reservoir, or from equation (4.4) for dipping reservoir.

Lay off a tangent to the fractional flow curve the tangent line passing
through the point ( SW = SWC , fW = 0 ).

The point of tangency identifies the shock front saturation and the shock
front fractional flow, i.e. tangent point is ( SW = SWf , fW = fW

S Wf

).

By subtending the tangent line to fW = 1 , the intercept on the saturation

axis is the average water saturation behind the flood front, i.e. SW = SW .

NOTE -

Welge graphical technique avoids the need for trial and error
construction of shock front by balancing the areas.

Section 4
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.

17
Rev. 1.0

4.7 INJECTION-PRODUCTION SCHEDULE

-

If reservoir pressure is maintained above or near the bubble-point pressure then

no free gas will be present and three phases in the displacement can be
identified:
-

Before breakthrough of the water front.

At breakthrough of the shock front into producing well.

After breakthrough of the flood front into producing well.

4.7.1
-

Before Shock Front Breakthrough

The flood front is moving through the reservoir block and is displacing oil into
the production well. Assume pressure and injection rate are constant:
-

Soon after commencement

of injection, flood front is at
position

(1 Sor )

At later times, with more

water injected, flood front
moves to

SWC

x1

x3

x2

x1

x2 & x3 .

As yet no breakthrough of
water will occur at the
production well.

Cumulative water injected Wi can be found by re-arranging equation (4.5)

Wi =

1
Ax
.
5.615 dfW

dS
W S Wf

............(4.5)a

where,
x = The position of the flood front, i.e. SW = SWf .
dfW

= The slope of tangent line to the fractional flow curve.

dS
W SWf

Section 4
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.

18
Rev. 1.0

Alternatively, by substituting equation (4.8) into (4.5)a, Wi can be expressed in

terms of the average water saturation behind the flood front SW

Wi =

Ax
. SW SWC .............................(4.5)b
5.615

where,
SW = Average water saturation behind flood front (-).

Wi may be converted to (STB) by dividing the volume obtained from (4.5)a or

(4.5)b, which are (rb), by water volume factor BW (rb/STB). For injection
water, however, BW 1 , since there is no dissolved gas in this water.

The cumulative amount of oil displaced into the production well since the start
of water injection, N P (STB), is easily found because reservoir barrels of water
injected must equal reservoir barrels of oil produced, or expressed as STB

NP =

Wi
Bo

..........................................(4.9)

The time, t (days), for the flood front to reach any stated position between the
wells, assuming constant injection rate, qi (rb/d), is simply

t=

NOTE -

Wi
qi

...............................................................(4.10)

Wi versus N P versus t can now be found before breakthrough.

Section 4
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.

19
Rev. 1.0

4.7.2
-

At Shock Front Breakthrough

Flood front has just reached the production well - p & qi are again constant:

The flood front just

reaches the production
well.

Just at this point the

production well should
start to produce water

(1 Sor )
SWf
SWC
x=L

Before breakthrough production well will produce with zero watercut. At

breakthrough production well will suddenly start to produce significant watercut
as shock front, SW = SWf , arrives at the well.

All that is required is to substitute ( x = L ) into the previous formulae, i.e.

Wi =

....................(4.11)a

Wi =

AL
. SW SWC .............................(4.11)b
5.615

NP =

Wi
Bo

t=

NOTE -

1
AL
.
5.615 dfW

dSW S

Wf

Wi
qi

...........................................(4.12)

...............................................................(4.13)

Wi versus N P versus t can be found at breakthrough.

Section 4
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.

20
Rev. 1.0

4.7.3
-

After Shock Front Breakthrough

At this stage the flood front has broken through at the production well. Once
again, assume pressure and injection rate are constant:

(1 Sor )

When flood front breaks

through watercut at
production well continually
rises.

SWe
-

SWC

Oil continues to be
produced but at lower rate
as more and more injected
water by-passes oil zone.

x=L

At breakthrough production well will suddenly start to produce a significant

watercut as shock front, SW = SWf , arrives at the well. After breakthrough:

Higher water saturation planes arrive at the production well SW = SWe .

Higher fractional flow of water at the producing well fW = fWe .

Higher watercut at production well.

The cumulative water injected cannot now be found from equation (4.11)b since
some water by-passes the oil zone. However, equation (4.11)a can still be used,
except the slope of the fractional flow curve is now at SWe (> SWf )

Wi =

NOTE -

AL
1
.
5.615 dfW

dS
W
SWe

...............(4.14)

Wi can be now found from equation (4.14) as a function of SWe .

Section 4
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.

21
Rev. 1.0

The cumulative oil produced is obtained from equation (4.7) by writing it for
average water saturation remaining in swept zone after breakthrough, SW , and
saturation/fractional flow of water, SWe and fWe , at the producing well.

SW = SWe +

1 fWe
.....................................................(4.15)
(dfW / dSW )SWe

Then substituting equation (4.14) into equation (4.15) to eliminate the slope of
the fractional flow curve after breakthrough, gives

SW = SWe + (1 fWe )

5.615 Wi
AL

Subtract SWC from both sides of the above expression to get pore volumes of oil
displaced, multiply both sides by ( AL / 5.615) to convert pore volumes to
reservoir barrels and finally divide by Bo to get, on the LHS, N P (STB).

NP =

5.615 Wi
AL

(SWe SWC ) + (1 fWe )

AL
5.615 Bo

....(4.16)

Once again, time can be easily obtained if constant injection rate is assumed.

t=

NOTE

Wi
qi

........................................................................(4.13)

- Wi versus N P versus t can now be calculated after breakthrough.

Section 4
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.

22
Rev. 1.0

4.8 IMPORTANCE OF FRACTIONAL FLOW

-

The efficiency with which water displaces oil depends on the shape of the
fractional flow curve. Therefore, consider once again equation (4.4)

Akkro sin
qt o
..(4.4)
kro

.
o

1 4.886 10 4
fW =

1 + W
krW

Any factor which shifts the fW curve to the right will lead to larger SWf at the
flood front and hence less Wi to recover a given N P of oil.

The largest effect on the shape of the fW curve is o . Consider typical

fractional flow curve for water-wet rock at three different oil viscosities:
-

1.0

At high

smaller Wi

injected, lower SWf less

N P recovered and quicker

High

fW

arrival of flood front at

breakthrough.

0.5
Medium
Low

0
0

(1

SWC

Sor ) 1.0

If oil viscosity is very low

then Piston-like displacement
occurs with breakthrough at
(1 Sor ) after 1 M.O.V. of
water injected and 1 M.O.V.
of oil displaced.

SW
-

An important quantity for waterfloods is the end point mobility ratio (M)

M =

/ W
krW
kro / o

Section 4
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.

.(4.17)

23
Rev. 1.0

If the mobility ratio is less than unity, the fW curve looks like the lowest o
case above. This is the best scenario and gives piston-like displacement. Of
lesser importance than the mobility ratio is the "Gravity Term" - G in the
fractional flow equation

G = 4.886 10 4

Akkro sin
qt o

If water displaces oil updip then G is positive. If water displaces oil downdip
then G is negative. In practice the only way G can be altered is by changing
qt - however, this is more usually set by production targets.

There are two main reservoir cases: edge waterdrive; and bottom waterdrive.
Due to the small density differences between oil and water the gravity term can
be small for edge waterdrive, but is usually significant for bottom waterdrive:

(a) Edge Waterdrive

NOTE -

(b) Bottom Waterdrive

For bottom waterdrive = 900 and sin 90 = 1 . Also, qt / A is small

(large area). Therefore, G is usually significant with this type of drive.

For edge waterdrive G is often much less significant. Once its

numerical value has been checked, it is sometimes ignored.

Section 4
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.

24
Rev. 1.0

APPENDIX 4

Primary Recovery
Calculations Tarners Method

Section 4
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.

25
Rev. 1.0

APPENDIX 4
(I)
-

Solution Gas Drive Tarners Method

For solution gas drive reservoirs there is no waterdrive or no natural influx; the
hydrocarbon reservoir unit is effectively sealed from the surrounding rock
strata, i.e. a so-called volumetric depletion type drive mechanism:
-

Oil is displaced into the wellbore as the reservoir pressure drops by

expansion of in-situ pore fluids and compression of the pore space.

Free gas is produced along with the oil when the reservoir pressure drops
below the bubble-point and when S g rises to the point where gas becomes
mobile.

Instantaneous GOR increases because the gas is more mobile than the oil
and moves preferentially to the wellbore.

The more gas produced, the faster the pressure will decline and the lower
will be the ultimate recovery.

Gas is produced along with the oil in this type of reservoir. However, it is
not an immiscible gasdrive displacement as will be discussed in the next
section.

Solution gas drive is an example of Primary Recovery. Most reservoirs are not
depleted to the point of exhaustion using this drive mechanism any longer. In
the majority of cases some Secondary Recovery technique is applied after a
relatively short period of primary depletion.

Waterdrive is usually implemented when p pbp or if p < pbp , but the free gas
is still immobile.
-

However, hand calculations can still be used below pbp to determine

N P / N if reservoir were depleted using only this primary mechanism.

Section 4
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.

26
Rev. 1.0

There have been two main hand calculation methods used extensively for
solution gas drive reservoirs:

Muscats method.

Tarners method.

Tarners method will be discussed below. Reservoir pressure is not constant and
so physical properties and volume factors will change as the pressure depletes.
If the reservoir is initially undersaturated:
-

Calculate the recovery factor between the initial reservoir pressure and the
bubble-point using the material balance equation ignore We and WP
terms but include water expansion and rock compressibility effects.

Below the bubble-point, as well as ignoring We & WP terms, also ignore

water expansion and rock compressibility effects.

First step is to consider the general material balance equation, equation (2.4) but
ignore water expansion/rock compressibility and We & WP terms (solution gas
drive below bubble-point)

N P Bo + ( RP RS ) Bg = N ( Bo Boi ) + N ( RSi RS ) Bg
(2.4)
B

+ mNBoi g 1
B

gi

Tracy suggested a re-arrangement of the above equation as follows. First

expand out the terms

NBoi NBo + N P Bo + mNBoi mNBoi

Bg
Bgi

NRSi Bg + N P RP Bg

+ NBg RS N P Bg RS = 0

Section 4
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.

27
Rev. 1.0

Then group together all the terms in N & N P respectively, as follows:

Bg

1 = N P (Bo RS Bg ) + N P RP Bg
N Bo Boi + (RSi RS )Bg + mBoi
B

gi

Recognizing that ( N P RP = GP ), i.e. cumulative gas produced (SCF), then the

above equation can be written as

N=

N P (Bo RS Bg ) + GP Bg
Bg

Bo Boi + (RSi RS )Bg + mBoi

1
B

gi

....(A4.1)

Tracy then defined the following terms

n =

(B

RS Bg )

Bg

Bo Boi + (RSi RS )Bg + mBoi

1
B

gi

...(A4.2)a

and
g =

Bg
Bg

1
Bo Boi + (RSi RS )Bg + mBoi
B

gi

...(A4.2)b

Substituting (A4.2)a and (A4.2)b into (A4.1) results in Tracys form of the
material balance equation

N = N P n + GP g ..........(A4.3)

NOTE -

Equation (A4.3) is simply a re-arrangement of the material balance

equation as applied to solution gas drive reservoir.

Section 4
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.

28
Rev. 1.0

Tabulations or graphs of n & g can be prepared as a function of pressure.

In order to yield fractional recovery directly from N P , it is customary to set N

equal to 1 STB. So (A4.3), as used in Tarners method, becomes simply

1 = N P n + GP g

....(A4.4)

Assuming the pressure at the j th instant is p j . As oil is being produced by a

depletion mechanism, the pressure at the next instant, k th instant, will be lower
- say pk ; this pressure drop is due to production N P during the interval.

The GOR will change from R j to Rk during the interval, since free gas will be
produced with the oil. Tarners method is trial and error and requires an initial
guess for the GOR at the next instant ( Rk ):
-

The prime denotes that this GOR is simply a first guess and not the true
value. The guessed GOR can be estimated by plotting GOR versus
pressure and extrapolating the curve to the lower pressure - pk .

The average GOR for the interval ( RAVG ) can then be found. Once again
the prime simply denotes the fact that this average GOR is a guessed one.

RAVG =

Section 4
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.

R j + Rk

(A4.5)

29
Rev. 1.0

The incremental oil production during the p k interval, N p , is found from

equation (A4.4)

1 = (N Pj + N p ) nk + GPj + (RAVG N P ) gk .....(A4.6)

The guessed average GOR can be used from (A4.5) to give estimated value for
N p from (A4.6). The cumulative oil produced to the end of the p k

interval is then found from

N Pk = N Pj + N p ....(A4.7)

The oil saturation So in the reservoir can then be found from (A4.8) below.
Knowing So , the total liquid saturation ( So + SWc ) can be found.

N B
So = 1 P o (1 SWC ) ..(A4.8)
N Boi

The instantaneous flow of gas and oil into the well can be estimated using the
Pseudosteady-State radial inflow equation (3.17). First for gas

q g = 7.08 10 3

Section 4
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.

keg h( pe pWf )
r
g Bg ln e
rW

1
+ S

...(SCF)

30
Rev. 1.0

Then for oil

qo = 7.08 10 3

keo h( pe pWf )
r
o Bo ln e
rW

1
+ S

..(STB)

Dividing upper expression by lower on gives (qg / qo ) free gas/oil ratio with
units of (SCF/STB). Cancelling terms and replacing the ke by ( k.kr ) gives

qg
qo

Bo krg o
.
Bg kro g

This is the free gas-oil ratio, expressed in surface units. However, the GOR at
the surface also includes dissolved gas, which is released in well/separator.

Hence, the instantaneous GOR, both free gas and dissolved gas is therefore
given by, expressed as GOR at the k th instant

Rk =

Bo krg o
.
+ RS
Bg kro g

(A4.9)

All the terms in equation (A4.9) evaluated at the k th pressure. If the value of Rk
obtained from (A4.9) is not close to the guessed value of GOR, Rk then the
calculation is repeated in full with a new trial value of GOR.

NOTE -

Using last values for N P & RAVG , equation (A4.4) must balance
1/1000 before the calculation can proceed to the next interval.

Section 4
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.

31
Rev. 1.0

Once the calculations have been completed a plot of pressure and GOR versus
recovery can be completed. A typical production profile for solution gas drive
reservoir is shown below:

7000
6000

3,000

5000
GOR

2,000

4000

Pressure (psia)

3000

1,000

Instantaneous
GOR
(SCF/STB)

2000
1000
Pressure

0
0

5%

15%

10%

20%

25%

Recovery (%)

Attaching a timescale to these recovery calculations requires knowledge of well

production rates. The Pseudoteady-State Productivity Index ( J ) is obtained
from equation (3.17)

J =

q
= 7.08 10 3
( pe pWf )

kh
r
Bo ln e
rW

1
+ S
2

...(3.17)

This index can be measured initially when the well was first completed and
brought into production ( J i ). At any later time the new PI ( J P ) at some lower
pressure ( p ) can be predicted from the calculated value of ( J P / J i )

J P (kro / o Bo )P
=
(kro / o Bo )i
Ji

Section 4
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.

.....(A4.10)

32
Rev. 1.0

Once the PI at the lower pressure can be found from equation (A4.10) then the
actual production rate of oil (STB/d) at this pressure can be estimated by
constructing IPR/VLP curves and seeking intersection between them.

pepe
m= 1
pW
ppWfWf

JP

Reservoir
pressure will
be known
( pe )

Separator
pressure pS

Drawdown

pWf
pW
Lift

pS

will be fixed.

qPRODUCTION

Where two
curves intersect
defines pWf .

Knowing PWf from the graph and J P then the production rate qP at lower
pressure pk can be found from the definition of PI.

Knowing N P for an interval of production and knowing average total

production rate of all wells over this interval, then the time needed to produce
this quantity of oil can be predicted.

Section 4
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.

33
Rev. 1.0